DATA ANALYSIS

EDU 702

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 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

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QUANTITATIVE

Data for quantitative is mostly in numbers – numerical
data

Two types of statistics

Descriptive statistics

Inferential statistics

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DESCRIPTIVE STATISTIC

This is a set of methods to describe data that we have
collected.

Ex. Of 350 randomly selected people in the town of Luserna,
Italy, 280 people had the last name Nicolussi.

An example of descriptive statistics is the following statement :

"80% of these people have the last name Nicolussi."

Ex. On the last 3 Sundays, Henry D. Carsalesman sold 2, 1, and
0 new cars respectively.

An example of descriptive statistics is the following statement :

"Henry averaged 1 new car sold for the last 3 Sundays."
These are both descriptive statements because they can actually be
verified from the information provided.

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

This is a set of methods used to make a generalization, estimate, prediction or
decision.

Ex. Of 350 randomly selected people in the town of Luserna, Italy, 280 people had the last
name Nicolussi. An example of inferential statistics is the following statement :

"80% of all people living in Italy have the last name Nicolussi."
We have no information about all people living in Italy, just about the 350 living in Luserna.

We have taken that information and generalized it to talk about all people living in
Italy.

The easiest way to tell that this statement is not descriptive is by trying to verify it
based upon the information provided.

Ex. On the last 3 Sundays, Henry D. Carsalesman sold 2, 1, and 0 new cars respectively.

An example of inferential statistics are the following statements :

"Henry never sells more than 2 cars on a Sunday."

Although this statement is true for the last 3 Sundays, we do not know that this is true for
all Sundays.

"Henry is selling fewer cars lately because people have caught on to his dirty
tricks."

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DESCRIPTIVE
Statistics vs Parameters

Statistics

When describing information using indices (e.g. Mean. Median)
for sample

Parameters

When describing information using indices for population

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MORE ON NUMERICAL DATA

We use instruments such as questionnaire, test in
quantitative research

We report the information we collected through

Words

Numbers (e.g. scores, percentages, CGPA, ratings, frequencies)

Graphs or charts

Will show patterns or describe relationships

Numbers can simplify information

Numerical information referred to as data

2 classifications

Categorical

Quantitative

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QUANTITATIVE DATA

Variable being studied is measured along a scale

Data reported in terms of scores

Examples:

Test scores – 90/100, CGPA 3.27

Weight – 65kg, 140 lb

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CATEGORICAL DATA

Total number of objects, individuals or events in a particular
category

Examples:

Gender—Male, Female

Marital Status—Never Married, Married, Separated, Divorced,Widowed

Fielding Position (in baseball)—Pitcher, Catcher, 1st base, 2nd base,. . . ,
Left field

Side Effects (in a pharmacological study)—None, Skin Rash, Sleep
Disorder,

Anxiety,. . .

Political Preference—Left, Center, Right

Treatment Outcome—No Improvement, Some Improvement, Marked
Improvement

Age—0-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39,. . .

Number of Children—0, 1, 2, . . .

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Techniques for Summarizing Quantitative
Data

Frequency Distributions

Histograms/Stem and Leaf Plots

Distribution curves

Averages/Spread

Variability/Correlations

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SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Frequency distribution

Places data in some sort of order

A frequency distribution lists scores from high to low

Examples:

Frequency table for the number of

cars registered in each household

Number of cars (x) Frequency (f)

0 4
1 6
2 5
3 3
4 2

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SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Frequency grouped distribution

Height range Number of students Cumulative number

4.5 – 5.0 feet 25 25

5.0 – 5.5 feet 35 60

5.5 – 6 feet 20 80

6.0 – 6.5 feet 20 100

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SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Construct a frequency distribution table

The following data gives the heights (in inches) of a
random sample of 30 basketball players.

81 84 79 76 73 74 77 82 75 81
76 76 80 82 78 72 80 83 80 77
78 78 79 84 73 86 83 79 83 79

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SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Frequency Polygon (to make frequency more visual)
Weight of 50 students

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SUMMARIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

Scores of 120 students in an examination

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Two Frequency Polygons Compare

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HISTOGRAMS

A bar graph with vertical and horizontal axes

Frequencies are on the vertical axis

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STEM-LEAF PLOTS

Shows shape and distribution

Leaf – last digit of the number

Stem – the other digits to the left of the leaf

Stem Leaf
9 2268
8 35
7 246889
6 14478
5 00288

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STEM-LEAF PLOTS
TEST SCORES OUT OF 100
Stem Leaf
9 2268
8 35
7 246889
6 14478
5 00288

The Stem shows the 'tens' and the leaf.

At a glance, one can see that 4 students got a mark in the 90's on their test out of
100.

Two students received the same mark of 92. No marks were received below 50. No
mark of 100 was received.

When you count the total amount of leaves, you know how many students took the
test.

The information is nicely organized when a Stem and Leaf Plot is used.

Stem and Leaf Plots provide an 'at a glance' tool for specific information in large sets
19of data, otherwise one would have a long list of marks to sift through and analyze.
AVERAGES

Also called measure of central tendency

Enables a researcher to summarize frequency in a single
number

3 most commonly used averages:

The Mode

The Median

The Mean

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MODE

The most frequently appearing value in the population or
sample.

Suppose we draw a sample of five women and measure
their weights.

They weigh 100 pounds, 100 pounds, 130 pounds, 140
pounds, and 150 pounds.

Since more women weigh 100 pounds than any other
weight, the mode would equal 100 pounds.

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THE MEDIAN

The midpoint – 50% above and below

To find the median, we arrange the observations in order
from smallest to largest value.

If there is an odd number of observations, the median is the
middle value.

If there is an even number of observations, the median is the
average of the two middle values.

100 pounds, 100 pounds, 130 pounds, 140 pounds, and 150
pounds.

Thus, in the sample of five women, the median value would be
130 pounds; since 130 pounds is the middle weight.

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THE MEAN

The mean of a sample or a population is computed by
adding all of the observations and dividing by the number
of observations.

Returning to the example of the five women, the mean
weight would equal (100 + 100 + 130 + 140 + 150)/5 =
620/5 = 124 pounds.

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Variability

Refers to the extent to which the scores on a
quantitative variable in a distribution are spread out.

The range represents the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

A five number summary reports the lowest, the first
quartile, the median, the third quartile, and highest
score.

Five number summaries are often portrayed
graphically by the use of box plots.

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Standard Deviation

Considered the most useful index of variability.

It is a single number that represents the spread of a
distribution.

The more spread out the scores are the greater the SD

The closer the scores are to the the mean the smaller
the SD

E.g

Describing 2 set of scores of a same test

Set 1 – SD 2.6

Set 2 – SD 6.5

Which set is has less variability?

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Calculation of the Standard Deviation of a
Distribution
Raw 2
Score Mean X–X (X – X)
85 54 31 961 2
2 Σ(X – X)
80 54 26 676 Variance (SD ) =
n
70 54 16 256
60 54 6 36 3640
= = 364a
55 54 1 1 10
50 54 -4 16
45 54 -9 81
40 54 -14 196
30 54 -24 576
25 54 -29 841
2
Standard deviation (SD) = Σ(X – X)
√ n

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Standard Deviations for Boys’ and Men’s
Basketball Teams

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 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

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DEFINITION

Inferential statistics are used to draw inferences about a
population from a sample

Consider an experiment in which 10 subjects who
performed a task after 24 hours of sleep deprivation
scored 12 points lower than 10 subjects who performed
after a normal night's sleep.

Is the difference real or could it be due to chance?

How much larger could the real difference be than the 12
points found in the sample?

These are the types of questions answered by inferential
statistics.

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Requires that we go beyond the data available to us.

Consequently, the claims we make about populations are
always subject to error; hence the term "inferential statistics"
and not deductive statistics.

Encompasses a variety of procedures to ensure that the
inferences are sound and rational, even though they may not
always be correct.

In short, inferential statistics enables us to make confident
decisions in the face of uncertainty.

Certain of procedures that allow researchers to make
inferences about a population based on a sample

Techniques will differ depending on the type of data –
categorical or quantitative

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

You can use inferential statistics to:

Test hypotheses (e.g., determine if there is a statistically
significant relationship between variables in your evaluation)

Predict future outcomes

Describe associations between variables (e.g., correlations)

Model relationships (e.g., regression)

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Consider an experiment in which 10 subjects who
performed a task after 24 hours of sleep deprivation
scored 12 points lower than 10 subjects who performed
after a normal night's sleep.

Is the difference real or could it be due to chance?

How much larger could the real difference be than the 12
points found in the sample?

These are the types of questions answered by inferential
statistics.

These are the types of questions answered by inferential
statistics

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Perhaps one of the simplest inferential test is used when
you want to compare the average performance of two
groups on a single measure to see if there is a difference.

You might want to know whether eighth-grade boys and
girls differ in math test scores or whether a experimental
group differs on the outcome measure from a control
group.

Whenever you wish to compare the average performance
between two groups you should consider the t-test for
differences between groups.

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are
statistically different from each other.

This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to
compare the means of two groups, and especially
appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only two-
group randomized experimental design.

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

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INTERVIEWS

Strategies for analyzing interviews

You can begin with case analysis or cross case analysis

Case Analysis

Writing a case study for each person interviewed

Cross Case Analysis

Grouping together answers from different people to common
questions or analyzing different perspectives on central issues

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OBSERVATIONS
Strategies for Analyzing Observations

Chronology

Descrive what was observed chronologically, over time, to tell
story from beginning to end

Key Events

Present the data by critical incidents or major events, not
necessarily in order of occurence but in order of importance

Various settings

Describe various places, sites, settings, or locations before
doing cross setting pattern analysis

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OBSERVATIONS

People

If individuals or groups are the primary unit of analysis, then
case studies of people or groups may be the focus for case
studies.

Processes

The data may be organized to describe important processes

Issues

The observation may be pulled together to illuminate key
issues, often the equivalent of the primary evaluation questions,
such as how did participants change?

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 THANK YOU AND GOOD LUCK

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