Unit 2 – The Learning Approach

This approach is based on the study of learning in non-human animals which being generally
less complex than humans, makes them easier to study. It is particularly focused on three
theories – classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. It differs from the
psychodynamic and biological in 2 key ways. First, the learning approach focuses almost
exclusively on the influence of the environment on our behaviour. Secondly, research is
collected through observable changes in behaviour.

Definitions
Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Operant Conditioning
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcement
Secondary Reinforcement
Punishment
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Imitation
Model
The building of an association with two stimuli. The
neutral stimulus (something in the environment that
does not initially cause a response) and an
unconditioned stimulus which produces an effect. The
response is generally a reflex e.g. salivating, blinking
etc.
Over time, the strength of the CS declines and
eventually disappears. E.g. the bell in Pavlov’s dog is
rung several times with no food appearing.
When a conditioned response that was extinct
spontaneously appears in response to the CS.
This method of behavioural reinforcement takes on the
idea of the statement ‘behaviour is shaped and
maintained by its consequences’. Operant conditioning
consists of two types of reinforcement:
This is the arrival of good things such as receiving food,
water or the opportunity to access a mate. The
behavioural frequency increases when behaviour is
followed by reinforcement.
Something bad stops happening – relief. Behavioural
frequency increases as the situation is much more
pleasant than before. E.g. taking a pain killer to relieve a
headache.
These satisfy our basic needs or basic biological
requirements – food, water etc. strengthens behavioural
response.
These meet biological needs through ASSOCIATION
however; they are not reinforcing e.g. money.
Strengthens behavioural response.
An action that has unpleasant consequences and it
reduces the frequency of behaviour it follows.
The arrival of something unpleasant.
Removal of something pleasant.
In SLT, the person imitates or copies the model.
Important characteristics include: sex (more
importantly), age + status. These models are likely to be
imitated through observation.
Vicarious Reinforcement
Content
Classical Conditioning
Evaluation
For
Can explain a wide range of human and animal
behaviours and its existence is well supported
and can be seen in laboratories.
Operant Conditioning
This is when the observer sees the model being
positively reinforced for their actions. This makes it
more likely for the observer to imitate the model.
The neutral stimulus is presented at the same time as
the unconditioned stimulus allowing it to elicit a
response. The behaviour that is produced is called the
conditioned response and the trigger, the conditioned
stimulus. This was demonstrated by the Russian
Psychologist Pavlov in 1927:
 NS (bell)  no response
 UCS (food) UCR (salivation)
 UCS (food) + NS (bell)  UCR (salivation)
 CS (bell)  CR (salivation)
Against
It cannot explain complex human
behaviours e.g. why we respond in
specific ways to certain behaviours.
Does not explain how we learn from
consequences or learning from others.
Operant conditioning proposes that behaviour is learnt
through shaping to meet a consequence. This was
demonstrated by Thorndike (1911) whose kittens
worked their way through the puzzle box in order to
reach the food which was the consequence. The first
time it made its way to the food by chance, but on
entering again, it learnt its earlier mistakes and after 4/5
attempts it could recall the whole route. The kittens
formed an association with the stimulus (leaver and
puzzles) and a response – pushing it – as a result of the
consequence (food).
Skinner also conducted much research into operant
conditioning. He developed the Skinner boxes and
found that animals responded to schedules of
reinforcement. In 1938 he summarised “behaviour is
shaped and maintained by consequences”. He defined
reinforcement as:
 Positive Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement
 Primary Reinforcement
 Secondary Reinforcement
 Punishment
Skinner also used schedules of reinforcement:
  Fixed Ratio – where reinforcement is given after
a number of desired behaviours;
 Variable Ratio – reinforcement after several
responses have been made, with the number
varying the average;
 Fixed Interval – reinforcement is provided at
regular times e.g. pocket money each room if a
tidy room;
 Variable Interval – reinforcement at timed
intervals but varies around an average.
Skinner proposed that specific and entirely new actions
could be produced through conditioning. He suggested
that this could be achieved by selectively reinforcing
behaviours which more closely resembled the desired
response. This is known as shaping. This could be
comparable to tidying a room – reward for tidying the
floor one week, then the floor and the desk. Each time
is better than the last.
 Selective use of reinforcement to reward
behaviours that successively close to a desired
response

Uncontrollable reinforcers and Pickens + Skinner and Thompson illustrated the

learning to be superstitious
importance of contingency – the reinforcer should be
dependent on the performance of the behaviour. This
suggests when a positive consequence follows a
behaviour we would tend to repeat that behaviour even
if it was not the cause of the reward. Positive
consequences that occur regardless of our behaviour
are known being repeated at the time. This can lead to
superstition. Matute (1996) also found evidence of this.

Evaluation of Operant Conditioning

For Against
Well supported by experimental evidence Does not take into account the
Clearly operates in both humans and animals conditioning of others e.g. models and
Schedules of reinforcement and effect of imitation
uncontrolled reinforcers help to explain observations
about behaviour
Can explain how completely new behaviours are
learnt e.g. through shaping

Aversion Therapy A therapy using classical conditioning:

Some behaviours e.g. alcoholism are undesirable and
aversion therapy may be used to eliminate them. Prior
to treatment a UCS – which will become part of the
treatment – produces an unpleasant (aversive) UCR
e.g. vomiting. During treatment this unpleasant
response becomes associated with the stimulus to be
 avoided, this is the CS. Thus an association is built to
which the client’s behaviour becomes linked to the
unpleasant response. E.g. the case with alcoholism:
 UCS (antabuse)  UCR (vomiting)
 UCS + NS (alcohol)  UCR (unpleasant
expectation accompanying vomiting)
 CS (alcohol)  CR (unpleasant expectation)
As the CR is aversive the individual stops drinking
alcohol.
Aversion therapy has also been successful in Duker &
Seys (2000). They reduced self-harm in children with
learning difficulties by aversion therapy. After ethics
consideration they were given permission to give very
small electric shocks to individuals when they self-
harmed. They found the rate reduced. But up to 108
months later, the behaviours reappeared. This
extinction suggests that the learned suppression is in
instances lost over time.
Weinrott et al (1997) used aversion therapy on sex-
offenders and in this case their sexual arousal fell as
they heard criminal offences and watched a video of
the consequences. Howard (2001) found it to be
effective on alcoholics.

Evaluation
For Against
Evidence suggests that aversion therapy is of Does not solve the cause of the
great use e.g. Duker & Seys (2000). problem, only alters behaviour.
Changes in behaviour were produced by Can be unpleasant for patients.
experimental advice.

Social Learning Theory
SLT proposes that learning can occur when one
individual (learner) observes and imitates another, the
model. Bandura (1977) proposed modelling will occur
when the observer pays attention, is able to remember
and reproduce what they have observed and when they
are motivated to do so. This motivation may be an
external reward or some inner drive. Internal motivation
may be generated by the model and this can explain
why there are differences in the effectiveness of
different models. In SLT we can see the process
happening directly. Vicarious reinforcement plays a part
in SLT.

SLT as an explanation for gender
development
All individuals have an internal concept of whether they
are male or female (gender identity). One way that we
characterise maleness and femaleness is through
behaviour and social roles. Gender stereotypes refer to
the beliefs people hold about the way that males and
 females behave. Learning is of great importance in the
acquisition of gender identity and sex-typed
behaviours, that is the performance of actions that fit
with gender stereotypes.
Once appropriate gender-behaviour is demonstrated it
is reinforced with praise rather than being punished by
sarcastic comments if the wrong behaviour is shown.
Therefore only the appropriate behaviour will be
repeated.
One gender stereotype suggested is aggression. Whilst
stereotypes suggest that males are generally more
aggressive than females, social aggression, for
example engaging in malicious gossip, is believed to be
typically a female trait. Underwood et al (2004)
investigated how boys and girls differ in their response
to a different play partner when playing a board game.
Each pair was with a same-gender child-confederate
trained to be a difficult play partner. Observers
recorded the children’s vocalisations and gestures,
identifying indicators of social exclusion, verbal
aggression and verbal assertion. Boys tended to
socially exclude the actor and be more verbally
aggressive whereas girls excluded them more and
rolled their eyes (non-verbal).
The findings of Bandura (1961) was that same-sex
models are more effective than opposite sex-models for
increasing aggressive behaviour in children. Golombok
& Fivush (1994) suggest the essence of gender
stereotypes are:
 Male: being instrumental, acting on things in the
world to make things happen – beliefs are more
aggressive, active + competitive.
 Female: being relational – having concern for
interactions – believed to be nurturing, passive
and cooperative.
Evans & Davies (2000) found that text-books in school
were stereotyped. Milburn et al (2001) found similar
results in stereotyped clipart. Similarly Bandura (1961)
found that we imitate models that are of the same sex,
older and of higher status. This is what often leads to
drug-taking.

Evaluation

For Against
Classical conditioning can explain the acquisition of some There is powerful
gender-related behaviour such as fetishes. This means that reinforcement for male
behaviour as well as emotions and attitude to gender, such behaviours in both sexes.
as stereotypes, may be affected by classical conditioning. “Tomboy” girls are more
Operant conditioning can explain how children are tolerated than boy “wimps”.
selectively reinforced for sex-typed behaviour, e.g. by peer Not all media models are
pressure or approval from parents. Peers will tend to stereotyped. They often use
positively reinforce gender-consistent behaviour and punish counter-stereotypes e.g.
the opposite. Parents also reinforce sex-typed behaviour homosexuals.
and tend to punish “wimps” and “tom-boys”.
SLT can explain the acquisition of sex-typed behaviours
through observation. Bandura showed how children are
more likely to copy same-sex models, so this is likely to
affect their gender behaviours as children may observe
gender-stereotyped models in the homes as well as in the
media.
SLT is further reinforced by observing reinforcement in the
model – vicariously. This can explain why gender
stereotypes are often reinforced in the media e.g. through
stereotyped advertising.

Comparing Gender Development with other approaches

 Learning suggests that gender development is based on other people. Although

parents are important, children are affected by peers and the media, all have an
influence on the behaviour. This is common with the psychodynamic which stresses
the importance of parents and the development during our childhood.
 Psychodynamic like learning theory suggests children identify with their same sex
parent seeing them as a role model e.g. through the Oedipus complex.
 The biological approach is in direct conflict with the learning. It suggests gender
identity is determined by genetic factors, and that the environment has little to do with
it. This is supported by cases such as David Reimer but it ultimately ignores the
results of Bandura and other such examples.

Studies in Detail
Bandura Ross & Ross (1961) – Transmission of aggression through
imitation of aggressive models
Aim To investigate whether aggression could be acquired
through modelling. To see whether children are more
likely to imitate same-sex role models.
Procedure Children aged 3-6 years (36 boys, 36 girls) were
assigned to 3 groups. One group were exposed to an
aggressive adult role model – assembled tinker toys for
1 minute after bobo doll was attacked by a sequence of
punches, being picked up and being hit with a mallet.
These actions were accompanied by aggressive
comments such as “kick him” and “pow”. Another group
was exposed to a non-aggressive model – model
assembles tinker toys for 10 minutes. Control group did
not see any model. All participants were deliberately
annoyed and were shown to a room with attractive toys
e.g. fire engine. After a short time to play with these
toys, they were told that the toys were meant for other
 children and were moved into a room containing the
bobo doll. The children were then observed (from
behind a screen) for 20 minutes.
Findings Children exposed to violent models imitated their exact
behaviours and were significantly more aggressive,
both physically and verbally, than those who did not
receive aggressive modelling. This effect was greater
for boys than it was girls. Girls were more likely to
imitate verbal aggression than boys. However boys
were more likely to imitate a same-sex model and
physical aggression.
Conclusion Observation and imitation can account for learning
specific acts without reinforcement of either model or
observer. Observers have a greater tendency to imitate
same-sex models.

Skinner (1948) – Superstitious Pigeons

Aim To demonstrate the superstitious behaviours could be
acquired by animals.
Procedure 8 pigeons were given limited food to reduce them to
75% of their normal weight to ensure that they were
hungry. Each was placed in a skinner box for a few
minutes a day and received a food pellet every 15
seconds regardless of its behaviour. After several days
of conditioning 2 independent observers recorded the
birds’ behaviour. The time interval between pellets was
increased to 1 minute and the frequency of responding
was recorded again. Finally, the pigeons were given
time for acquired behaviours to extinguish by stopping
the release of the pellets. After this 20 minute
extinction, the 15 second interval pellets were
reintroduced to one pigeon.
Findings 6 of 8 pigeons developed repetitive behaviours that
they performed between the arrival of the pellets.
These included turning, hopping, head tossing, and
pendulum swings of the head – none of which were
exhibited before the experiment. Most of the new
behaviours were exhibited in the same part of the cage
each time 5-6 times between every reinforcement (very
frequent). When the time between the reinforcers had
increased to 1 minute, the pigeons behaviour increased
and they became frantic. The extinction was SLOW
e.g. over 10,000 hopping responses were displayed
before extinction. When the pellet intervals went back
to 15 seconds the pigeon started hopping again.
Conclusion Pigeons behaved as though they believed that the
delivery of food pellets depended upon their response
even though it did not, as people do when they hold
 superstitions. Since reinforcement was intermittent, the
pigeons’ behaviour was difficult to extinguish. When
extinction occurred the behaviour could be
reconditioned.

Methodology
Observation – an evaluation:
When psychologists observe, they watch people’s behaviour and measure particular aspects
in a way which is as precise as possible
It is usual to have more than one observer because behaviour is complex and the observer
may be biased. If the behaviour is videoed, the observers will analyse the behaviour from the
video. They need to be trained in how to analyse and measure the behaviour being studied
so that they all interpret it in the same way (inter-observer reliability).

Evaluation for Naturalistic Observations

For
It is valuable to see how people behave in a
natural setting and an observation provides
very detailed qualitative information which can
be used as a starting point for further, more
controlled research.
It can be used when other methods might be
unethical.
Against
The presence of observers could influence
the behaviour of those being observed, and
it is difficult to control extraneous variables.
It is difficult for another psychologist to
replicate the observation.
Because there are so many variables which
could affect behaviour it is not possible to
draw conclusions that determine the cause
and effect (i.e. there is no manipulation of
the IV)

Controlled Observations e.g. Bandura (1961)

For
By controlling some variables, it is
possible to draw conclusions.
Extraneous variables can be
controlled.
Against
Low ecological validity: the artificial (and unfamiliar)
setting may affect participants’ behaviour and make it
less natural.
There are also ethical issues relating to informed
consent, deception and privacy.

Non-participant – when the observer is not considered part of the group being observed

 This makes recording easier as the observer can readily focus on different individuals
or behaviours without drawing attention to them
 They retain objectivity

Participant – when the observer is part of the group

 They can benefit from understanding more about the feelings of the participants and
the reasons for their behaviour

Covert observation – the observer is hidden from the participants and the reasons of the
behaviour

 Bandura Ross & Ross (1961) does this through the use of a one-way mirror
  Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics when observer is
absent
 Difficult to ask participants of their informed consent, would make observations
obvious, leads to deception.

Chi-squared

Must be an experiment and not a correlation,

 Must only be applied to experiments that use nominal data
 Independent measures design must be present if chi-squared is being measured.

Key Issue
Media Violence
Children as young as 2 years old could use information they had seen on a video (Troseth
2003). Children watched themselves ‘live’ on the family television and were asked to look for
a hidden toy in another room. Generally this is a difficult task for children however, they
managed it successfully by reproducing what they had seen on TV.

Applying SLT to Media Imitation of role models – when characters on TV show

violence they are modelling aggression. 4 processes
are required in SLT: attention, retention, reproduction,
and reinforcement –
1. By watching TV and following a storyline you
show attention
2. If violence is shown on TV children may be
impressed by the violence motivating them to
reproduce it
3. If vicarious reinforcement is present, the
children will be motivated further.

Operant Conditioning Children who show aggression may receive positive

reinforcement through the benefit of threatening others
e.g. taking sweets. The feeling of power over others
may also be positive reinforcement.

Practical
We hypothesised that gender stereotypes exist in television commercials. To measure this
we used event sampling and a tally chart. We counted the number of adverts that showed
either a male or female indoors or outdoors. We used 2 observers who compared their
results after the viewing of each advert to ensure inter-rater reliability.

Results Male Female

Number of adverts indoors 4 19
Number of adverts outdoors 12 6
The total calculated value was 9.7. Since this is a one-
tailed hypothesis the probability that this set of
 observation is correct is p<0.05. The critical value is
2.71 so therefore the calculated value is higher. This
therefore is significant so we can accept the
hypothesis.

Evaluation of Practical

For Against
Inter-rater reliability Was it valid?
Large sample size Difficult to judge adverts in this way
We could accept our hypothesis