4

(a) In NaClO, oxidation number of Cl = +1

rs
E x a m in at io n a n s we
In NaCl, oxidation number of Cl = −1
∴ oxidation number decreases and Cl is reduced
84
(b) (i) n = ​ ______    ​ = 3.5 × 10−3 mol
1.1  Atoms and reactions 24 000
1 (a) particle (ii) F  rom equation, 1 mol NaClO → 1 mol O2
relative mass relative charge
∴ amount (NaClO) = 3.5 × 10−3 mol
proton 1 +1 c×V 1000 × n ________________
1000 × 3.5 × 10−3
(iii) n  = ​ _____   ​   ∴ c = ________
​     ​ = ​   ​
    
neutron 1 0 1000 V 5.0
= 0.70 mol dm–3
electron 1/2000 −1 (c) M  (NaClO) = 74.5 g mol−1
(b) (i) N
 umber of neutrons ∴ bleach has a mass concentration of
7Li has one more neutron than 6Li 74.5 × 0.70 = 52.15 g dm−3
(ii) N  umber of electrons This is 5.215 g per 100 cm3 and label information is
32S2− has two more electrons than 32S therefore correct
(iii) N  umber of protons (d) NaClO + 2HCl → Cl2 + H2O + NaCl
40Ca2+ has one more proton than 39K+  xidation   Loss of electrons
5 (a) (i) o
2 (a) isotope reduction    Gain of electrons
protons neutrons electrons
(ii) M  g(s) + ½O2(g) → MgO(s)
nickel-58 28 30 28 (iii) o  xidation   Mg → Mg2+ + 2e−
nickel-60 28 32 28 reduction   ½O2 + 2e− → O2−
(b) (i) T  here would be excess solid (MgO) remaining
nickel-62 28 34 28
V 2.00 × 25.0
(ii) n  = c × _____
​     ​ = ___________
​   ​   
= 0.0500 mol
(b) (i) Mass spectrometry 1000 1000
(ii) T  he weighted mean mass of an atom of an (iii) F  rom equation,
element compared with 1/12th the mass of the 1 mol MgO reacts with 2 mol HNO3
carbon-12 isotope ∴ amount of MgO = 0.0250 mol
77.2 22.8 m
(iii) A  r = 63.0 × _____ ​   ​ + 65.0 × _____
​   ​ = 63.456 (iv) n  = ​ __ ​   ∴ m(MgO) = n × M = 0.0250 × 40.3
100 100 M
= 1.0075 g = 1.01 g
= 63.5
(v) M  g: in MgO, ox no = +2; in Mg(NO3)2, ox no = +2
(iv) C  opper
H: in HNO3, ox no = +1; in H2O, ox no = +1
25
(c) (i) m ass Ni = ​ ____  ​ × 8.0 = 2.0 g O: in MgO + HNO3, ox no = −2;
100
2.0 in Mg(NO3)2 + H2O, ox no = −2
amount = ​ _____  ​ = 0.034 mol No ox no changes, ∴ reaction is NOT redox
58.7
(ii) n  umber = 0.034 × 6.02 × 1023 6 (a) (i) L
 oss of electrons
2.05 × 1022 atoms (ii) G  ain of electrons
1.80 (b) B a
3 (a) (i) amount = _____ ​   ​ = 0.0750 mol 0 to +2
24.0
(ii) M  (NaN3) = 65.0 g mol−1 m 2.74
(c) (i) n = ​ __ ​= ______
​   
 ​ = 0.01996 = 0.0200 mol
0.0500 mol NaN3 → 0.0750 mol N2 (from equation) M 137.3
m (ii) F  rom equation, 1 mol Ba → 1 mol H2
n = __ ​   ​   ∴ m = 0.0500 × 65.0 = 3.25 g ∴ 0.0200 mol Ba → 0.0200 mol H2
M
m 1.15 volume H2 = 0.0200 × 24.0 = 0.480 dm3
(b) n (Na) = ​ __ ​= _____
​   ​ = 0.0500 mol
M 23.0 (iii) F  rom equation, 0.0200 mol Ba → 0.0200 mol
∴ 0.0500 mol NaOH (from equation) Ba(OH)2
c×V 1000 × n _____________
1000 × 0.0500 c×V n × 1000 _____________
0.0200 × 1000
n = ​ _____   ​   ∴ c = ​ ________    ​ 
= ​   ​
     n = ​ _____   ​   ∴ c = ________
​      ​ 
= ​   ​
    
1000 V 25.0 1000 V 250
−3
= 2.00 mol dm = 0.0800 mol dm−3
(c) (i) G ood conductor of heat (iv) H  Cl
(ii) S  odium is very reactive Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + 2H2O

© Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original

 7 (a) (i) A
 mmonia is a base (b) (i) T
 he attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of
m 100 electrons in a covalent bond.
(ii) n  (NH3) = __ ​   ​= _____
​   
 ​ = 5.88 mol
M 17.0 (ii) O x Hδ+
 δ−–
2 mol NH3 → 1 mol (NH4)2SO4 ?
In the example above, the electron pair is
∴ 2.94 mol (NH4)2 SO4 forms attracted closer to the more electronegative
m = n × M = 2.94 × 132.1 oxygen atom.
mass = 388 g (c) H
(iii) fertiliser + –
(b) S  olid disappears, gas evolves O H O
2HNO3 + MgCO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2 H
H
432
 = ​ _____ 
8 (a) (i) n  ​ = 18.0 mol 3 (a) T
 he electrostatic attraction between oppositely
24.0
(ii) n  = c × V in dm3 charged ions.
n 18.0 (b)
∴ c = __ ​   ​= _____
​   ​ = 12.9 mol dm−3 2–
V 1.40 2+
(b) (i) S olid disappears Ca O O C O
MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
(ii) B  ubbles and solid disappears
MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O CaO CO2

(c) 1 s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 6
1.2  Electrons, bonding and structure
m 1.50
1 (a) (d) (i) n = ​ __ ​= _____
​   ​  
= 0.0267 mol
M 56.1
(ii) F  rom equation,
1 mol CaO reacts with 2 mol HNO3
s-orbital p-orbital ∴ 0.0267 mol CaO reacts with 0.0534 mol HNO3

c×V 1000 × n _____________
1000 × 0.0534
(b) number of electrons n = ​ _____   ​   ∴ V = ________
​     ​ 
= ​   ​
  
  
1000 c 2.50
a d-orbital 2 = 21.4 cm 3

(e) (i) A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. In a

a p sub-shell 6 dative covalent bond, the shared pair comes from
the third shell (n = 3) 18 one of the bonded atoms only.
(ii) C  a(NO3)2 → CaO + 2NO2 + ½O2
(c)
4 (a) N
 a has metallic bonding with attraction between Na+
2p
ions and delocalised electrons.
Cl2 has covalent bonding with a shared pair of
2s
Energy electrons between the Cl atoms.
NaCl has ionic bonding with electrostatic attractions
1s between Na+ and Cl− ions.
(b) Cl2 does not conduct electricity as there are no
mobile charge carriers. Cl2 also has low melting and
(d) (i) T he energy required to remove 1 electron from boiling points because the intermolecular forces are
each atom in 1 mole of gaseous atoms. weak.
(ii) O  2+(g) → O3+(g) + e− NaCl cannot conduct electricity when solid as the
(iii) T  here is a large jump in ionisation energies ions are fixed in position in the ionic lattice structure.
between the 6th and 7th. This indicates that the When molten or aqueous, the ions can move,
seventh electron has been removed from a conducting electricity.
different shell, closer to the nucleus. NaCl has high melting and boiling points because the
2 (a) (i) T
 he electrostatic attraction between oppositely ionic bonds are strong and these are broken during
charged ions. melting and boiling.
(ii) A  shared pair of electrons.

 © Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original
5 (a) T
 he attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of 7 Sodium chloride does not conduct electricity because the
electrons in a covalent bond. ions have fixed positions in the ionic lattice and cannot
 H—Nδ−     δ−F—Bδ+        δ+H—Iδ−
(b) δ+ move. In graphite, the delocalised electrons between the
(c) layers can move and conduct electricity.
F
The ionic bonding in sodium chloride is strong and a large
H N H amount of energy is required to break the ions from the
solid lattice.
B
In graphite the carbon atom in the layers are bonded
H F F covalently. The bonds are strong and require a large
amount of energy to break.
NH3 BF3 Sodium chloride interacts with water, the ions being
(d) attracted to the polar water molecules. Hence NaCl is
F soluble.
N
H H
Graphite is non-polar and does not interact with polar
B water molecules.
H
F F
Bond angle: 107° Bond angle: 120° 1.3  The Periodic Table
Shape: pyramidal Shape: trigonal planar 1 (a) (i) S
i
(e) In NH3 the bonds are polar and the molecule is (ii) F 
non-symmetrical. Therefore there is an overall dipole. (iii) C 
In BF3, the dipoles cancel as the molecule has a (b) A  cross a period, the number of protons increases.
symmetrical shape. Electrons are added to the same shell.
(f) H
The attraction on the outer electrons from the nucleus
+ – increases, drawing the electrons closer in.
N H N H (c) N  a+ is smaller.
H
It has one fewer shell than Na and the remaining
H H
electrons will be attracted more to the nucleus.
(g) In NH3, there are 3 bonded pairs and 1 lone pair of 2 (a)  element
electrons surrounding the N. structure bonding
In NH4+, there are 4 bonded pairs. Lone pairs Mg giant metallic
repel more than bonded pairs. Si giant covalent
6 (a) (i) H
+ – S simple covalent
O H O
(b) S ilicon has strong bonds (covalent bonds) that are
H H broken on boiling.
(ii) Ice is less dense than water because hydrogen Phosphorus has weak forces between molecules that
bonds hold the water molecules apart in an open are broken on boiling.
lattice structure. (c) F rom sodium to aluminium, the number of delocalised
Water has a higher boiling point than expected electrons increases. The ionic charge also increases.
because hydrogen bonds act between the The overall effect is that attraction between the ions
molecules and extra energy has to be supplied to and electrons increases.
break the hydrogen bonds. 3 (a) element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
(b) N
 is surrounded by 3 bonded pairs and 1 lone pair.
boiling 883 1107 2467 2355 280 445 –35
This would give a tetrahedral arrangement of electron
point/°C
pairs around the N as the electron pairs repel one
another to break as far apart as possible. The lone bonding M M M C C C C
pair repels more, reducing the tetrahedral bond angle structure G G G G S S S
to 107°.

© Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original

 –
(b)  +
–
+ + + –  Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
(c) 2
Positive
ions – Delocalised (ii) + – +
+ – + + + electrons
– –– Na+ ion – + –

+ – + –
Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction
Cl– ion +
between positive ions and delocalised electrons.
– + – +
(c) (i) P hosphorus has weak forces between molecules
–
that are broken on boiling. Silicon has strong
+ – +
forces (covalent bonds) that are broken on
boiling. An alternating lattice of Na+ and Cl− ions.
(ii) A  luminium has more delocalised electrons than (d) C  l2(g) and Br−(aq):
magnesium. Al3+ ions are present rather than An orange colour of bromine is seen
Mg2+. Cl2(g) + 2Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
The overall effect is that the ion/electron attraction Cl2(g) and I−(aq):
is stronger in aluminium than in magnesium. A brown colour of iodine forms. With an organic
4 (a) R aCl2 solvent, the colour changes to purple.
(b) R  a2+ gains electrons to form Ra Cl2 + 2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
(c) (i) B ubbles This shows that chlorine is more reactive than
S  olid radium disappears. bromine and iodine.
(ii) 1 4 Chlorine has smaller atoms than bromine and iodine
(d) (i) F irst ionisation energy and can more readily gain an electron.
Ra(g) → Ra+(g) + e− It is a stronger oxidising agent.
(ii) T  he atomic radius and electron shielding are 7 (a) (i) O
 range
greater in radium. There will be less attraction (ii) C  l2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
from the nucleus despite the nuclear charge (iii) D  uring oxidation, an electron is lost. Chlorine can
increasing. take this electron more readily than bromine
 4.3 + 35.2 × 2 + 6 × (1.0 × 2 + 16) = 203.3
5 (a) (i) 2 because the atoms are smaller and the attraction
(ii) W  hite precipitate forms. from a chlorine atom’s nucleus will be greater
(iii) A  g+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s) than from a bromine atom’s nucleus.
(iv) A  gCl(s) dissolves in dilute NH3(aq) (b) (i) T he amount of substance with the same number
AgBr(s) dissolves in concentrated NH3(aq) of particles as are in 12 g of carbon-12.
AgI(s) is insoluble in concentrated NH3(aq) c × V ____________
0.275 × 120
(ii) n  = ​ _____ 
 ​= ​    
 ​  = 0.0330 mol
(b) (i) 0 1000 1000
+1 (iii) F  rom equation, 1 mol Cl2 reacts with 2 mol NaOH
−1 ∴ 0.0165 mol Cl2 reacts with 0.0330 mol NaOH
(ii) T  ap water contains dissolved Cl− ions which volume = 0.0165 × 24.0 = 0.396 dm3
would react with the aqueous silver nitrate. (iv) B  leach
c × V ___________
12.0 × 50.0 (c) N  aClO3
 = ​ _____ 
6 (a) (i) n  ​= ​   ​   
= 0.600 mol
1000 1000
(ii) F  rom equation, 4 mol HCl forms 1 mol Cl2 2.1  Basic concepts and hydrocarbons
∴ 0.600 mol HCl forms 0.150 mol Cl2  r – Br → Br? + Br?
1 (a) (i) B
volume Cl2 = 0.150 × 24.0 = 3.60 dm3 (ii) B  r – Br → Br+ + Br−
(b) In MnO2, oxidation number Mn = +4 (iii) B  r?
In MnCl2, oxidation number Mn = +2 Br −
∴ Mn has decreased its oxidation number and has
been reduced.

 © Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original
 H H H H H H

H H H H H H
(b) (i) R
HadicalC substitution
C C C C C Br (d) (i) 2
 ,2-dimethylpentane
(ii) H H H H H H (ii)
H C C C C C C Br
H H H H H H
2-methylhexane 2,3-dimethylpentane
H C C C C C C Br
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
2,2,3-trimethylbutane 2,4-dimethylpentane
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H H H H Br H
H C C C C C C H
H H H H Br H
H H H H H H
H H H H Br H
compound C
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H H H Br H H
(c) H
H C C C C H C H C H
H H H H Br H H

C CH H HC2H5 Br C H C H C2H5
+
C2H5 C2H5
Br
Br +
–
Br
(iii) 2
 ,2,3-trimethylbutane
Br –
Intermediate (iv) B ranched chained isomers are more difficult to
(d) (i) C2H5 H C2H5 C2H5 pack together. The more branching the less van
der Waals forces present and the higher the
C C C C boiling point.
(e) (i) A  fuel whose feedstock is obtained from plants or
H C2H5 H H
animal waste.
trans cis (ii) F  ossil fuels are non-renewable because they take
In the trans isomer the C2H5 groups are arranged millions of years to be formed.
diagonally across the double bond. Ethanol is renewable as sugar can be grown.
(ii) T  he product does not have a double bond and so 3 (a) (i) U V radiation
the groups can freely rotate to give the same (ii) initiation   Cl2 → 2Cl·
structure. propagation    C4H10 + Cl? → C4H9? + HCl
2 (a) T
 he separation of the components in a mixture of C4H9? + Cl2 → C4H9Cl + Cl·
liquids on the basis of their boiling points. (iii) C  l? + C4H9? → C4H9Cl
(b) C 7H16 → C4H10 + C3H6 (iv) H  omolytic
(c) (i) H (b) (i) 2  ,3-dichlorobutane
(ii) Cl (iii) Cl
H C H
H H H
C
H C C H Cl Cl
4 (a) (i) A
 compound containing carbon and hydrogen only
H C C H
C (ii) C  10H22
H H (iii) C  5H11
H H
 7H16 → C7H14 + H2
(ii) C (b) (i) A species with an unpaired electron
(ii) U  V radiation
(iii) H  omolytic
(iv) C  l? + C12H26 → C12H25? + HCl
C12H25? + Cl2 → C12H25Cl + Cl?

© Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original

 (v) S  ix 2.2  Alcohols, halogenoalkanes and analysis
 12H26 → 2C2H4 + C8H18
(c) (i) C  6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
1 (a) (i) C
(ii) O  ctane (ii) T  he reaction takes place in the absence of air
(d) (i) between 25 °C and 40 °C (aqueous and warm)
(iii) T  here would be no more bubbles of CO2
produced
(b) (i) P hosphoric or sulfuric acid
(ii) (ii) A  n electron pair donor
(c) (i) CH H
CH3 H CH
3

+ H2
C C H C C H H C
Step 1 + Step 2
H H
5 Margarine is made from the hydrogenation of unsaturated H O
H+ +
vegetable fat. It is carried out using hydrogen in the –
O H
presence of a nickel catalyst.
+ +
Poly(propene) can be made from propene H by
H H H
H H
polymerisation. This process requires high temperature CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H
CH3 H
andn pressure
C and
C often uses a catalyst.C C
H H C H C H H C C H H C C H H C C H +
H CH3 Step 1 + Step 2 Step 3
H CH3 n
n C C H C CH H O H O H
H+ +
–
H CH3 H H H
H CH3 n O
CHH3 H + CH3 H CH3 H
HH H H +
CH3 H H

C of
Structure C C Step 1 C HC CC C TwoHrepeat units H C C H H C C H + H+
+ Step 2 Step 3
polymer H H H H
H H
H CH3 CH3 H H O H O H
+
Structure of H+ C C– C C
Two repeat units
Addition
polymer polymers are non-biodegradableO
and do not H H H
break down naturally in the environment. If burned they (ii) H
 + acts as a catalyst because it is not consumed
H CH3 H + CH3 +
produce toxic fumes. H H in the reaction
In future these polymers may be recycled or incinerated (d) C  H3CH(OH)CH3 + 4½O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
for energy production. They may be cracked to produce (e) CH3COOH   Ethanoic acid
more useful organic materials. 4.44
 o of moles = ​ _____ 
2 (a) (i) N  ​ 
= 0.0600 mol
6 (a) (i) u
 nsaturated contains double or multiple bonds 74. 0
hydrocarbon contains carbon and hydrogen only 5.48
(ii) N  o of moles = ​ _____ ​ = 0.0400 mol
(ii) a  ngle a 109.5° 137
angle b 120° Actual moles
_______________ 0.0400
(iii) %  = ​       ​× 100 = _______
​    × 100
 ​ 
(iii) H H H H Expected moles 0.0600
= 66.7%
C C C C (b) (i) H Cl H Cl H Cl

H H H H
C C C C C C
Adjacent p-orbitals overlap sideways to form a
π-bond. H H H H H H

(ii) H armful toxic fumes are produced
(iii) R
 ecycling of polymers / using as a feedstock
Cracking polymers / as a source of fuel
Development of biodegradable alternatives

 © Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original
 (c) C  –Br because it is the weakest of the three possible 5 (a)
C-halogen bonds
H H H H
3 (a) (i) Prop-2-en-1-ol Acrolein
H H H O H C C C C H
H H

C C C O H C C C
H H OH H

H H H Isomer 1
H
(ii) C  =C double bond or alkene H
(b) (i) K 2Cr2O7/H+ (acidified dichromate)
H C H
(ii) C  H2CHCH2OH + [O] → CH2CHCHO + H2O H CH3 H H H
(c) A crylic acid because the presence of a strong sharp
absorbance at 1650 cm−1 to 1720 cm−1 indicates a H C C C OH H C C C H
C=O. The presence of a strong broad absorbance at
2500 cm−1 to 3300 cm−1 indicates the presence of an H H H H OH H
O–H in a carboxylic acid.
(d) (i) CH2=CHCOOH + CH2=CHCH2OH → Isomer 2 Isomer 3

CH2=CHCOOCH2CH=CH2 + H2O
(b) (i) C
 olour changes from orange to green
(ii) H H O
(ii) C  4H9OH + 2[O] → C3H7COOH + H2O
(iii) isomer 2
C C C O CH2 CH CH2
56
 H2   12 + 2 = 14  ​ ___ ​ = 4
(c) (i) C
H 14
4 (a) A
 test tube of the halogenalkane is placed in a water ∴ C4H8
bath at 60 °C. A solution of AgNO3 and ethanol (ii) C  4H9OH → C4H8 + H2O
(which acts as a common solvent) is placed in the (iii) isomer 1
water bath. The two solutions are then added (d) (i) H
 2SO4
6.96
together and the time taken to form the precipitate is (ii) N  o of moles = ​ _____ ​ = 0.0600
found. 116
Actual
_________ 0.0600
The fastest will be the iodoalkane and the slowest will (iii) %  = ​    × 100 = _______
 ​  ​  × 100
 ​ 
Expected 0.100
be the chloroalkane.
= 60.0%
Iodoalkanes undergo hydrolysis faster than
bromoalkanes which in turn hydrolyse faster than 2.3  Energy
chloroalkanes. 1 (a) (i) T
 he enthalpy charge when one mole of
This is because the carbon–halogen bond gets substance in its standard state is formed from its
stronger from an iodoalkane to a bromoalkane with elements in their standard states
the chloroalkane having the strongest carbon–halogen (ii) 6  C(s) + 7H2(g) → C6H14(l)
bond. (iii) temperature   298 K
The halogenoalkanes are hydrolysed by water, which pressure   1 Atmosphere
acts as the nucleophile. An equation for this reaction
is shown below
CH3CH2Cl + H2O → CH3CH2OH + HCl
The chloride ion then reacts with silver nitrate as
shown.
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
white ppt.

© Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original

 (b) 3 (a) C 3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
(b) T  he enthalpy change when one mole of substance is
completely burned in excess oxygen under standard
Ea conditions.
Enthalpy/kJ mol–1

(c) (i) Q = mc DT
6C(s) + 7H2(g) Q = 200 × 4.18 × 50.3
= 42050 J
DH =
–199 kJ mol–1 = 42.1 kJ
1.00
C6H14(l)
(ii) amount of C3H8 = _____ ​   ​ 
 = 0.0227 mol
44
–42.1
(iii) DH = _______
​   
 ​ 
= –1850 kJ mol–1
0.0227
4 (a) (i) E
 nergy is needed to break bonds
Reaction pathway
Bond breaking is endothermic
(c) DH ? (ii) T  he energy required to break one mole of bonds
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
in a gaseous substance to form gaseous atoms.
(–394) + –890 DH – 890 = –394 + 2  –286 Reaction occurs in gas phase.
(–286  2) (iii) Bonds broken
DH = –76 kJ mol–1
3 C–H 3 x 410 = 1230
CO2 + 2H2O C–O 1 x 336 =   336
1652 O–H 1 x 465 =   465
 –H = + _____
(d) (i) C ​   ​  = + 413 kJ mol–1
4 1½ O=O 1½ x 500 =   750
(ii) H H +2781 kJ mol–1
6 + 413 = 2478 Bonds formed
H C C H
C C = 2825 – 2478 4x OH = 4 x 465 = 1860
2 C=O = 2 x 810 = 1620
H H
3470 kJ mol–1
+347 kJ mol–1
+2781 – 3470 = −689 kJ mol–1
2 (a) W
 hen a system in equilibrium is subject to a change
(iv) A  ctual bond enthalpies may be different from
the system readjusts itself to minimise the change
average bond enthalpy values
that has been made.
Under standard conditions, methanol is a liquid
(b) (i) A
 decrease of pressure will cause the equilibrium
(b) (i) Increasing the temperature. The position of
to move to the side with the larger number of gas
equilibrium moves to the left as the forward
molecules to oppose the change. Equilibrium
reaction is exothermic.
moves left so more X2 and Y2 present.
There will be more CO and H2 produced.
(ii) A  decrease in pressure means these are the
Increasing the pressure. There will be less CO
same number of molecules in a greater volume
and H2. With an increase in pressure, the position
hence the molecules collide less often and the
of equilibrium moves to the right to the side with
rate of reaction will decrease.
the least number of molecules.
(c) (i) 1
 7%
(ii) Increasing the pressure means there are the
(ii) A  s the temperature increases the rate of
same number of molecules in less volume so rate
conversion of reactants into products decreases.
increases as there are more collisions.
The position of equilibrium therefore must move
(iii) N  one – as it speeds up the forward and reverse
to the left. This is consistent with an exothermic
reaction equally.
reaction.
5 (a) T
 he enthalpy change when one mole of substance is
(d) (i) A
 catalyst increases the rate of the reaction
formed from its elements under standard conditions.
because more collisions have energy exceeding
(b) C (s) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g)
the lowered Ea.
(ii) N  o change
Forward and reverse reactions are changed by
the same amount.

 © Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original
 (c) DHDH (iii) Nitrogen oxides are converted into N2 using a
CHCH 4(g)
4(g) + H+2H2O(g)
O(g) CO(g)
CO(g) + 3H
+ 3H 2(g)
2(g)
–75 + DH + (–242) = –110
catalyst of rhodium, platinum and palladium.
–75 + DH + (–242) = –110
–75 –242
–242 –110 2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
–75 –110 DHDH = 110
= 110 + 242
+ 242 + 75
+ 75
The large surface area of the catalyst adsorbs the
–1 –1
C(s)
C(s) + 3H
+ 3H 2(g) DHDH + 207
+ 207 kJkJ
molmol
reactant molecules, allowing them to react.
2(g)
(d) M
 anufacture of ammonia in the Haber process. (c) O zone causes irritation to the lungs.
(d) (i) Ozone reacts with C=C bonds, breaking the
2.4  Resources polymer chain.
1 (a) (i) A gas that absorbs infrared radiation emitted from (ii) The rubber would crack and crumble.
the Earth. The gas then re-emits the infrared 5 (a) (i) C8H18 + 12½O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
radiation. (ii) By reactions of nitrogen and oxygen from the air.
(ii) Water (b) (i) Rhodium, platinum and palladium.
(iii) An N2 molecule has two identical atoms with no (ii) Gases are adsorbed onto the surface. The bond
polar bond. It doesn’t absorb infrared radiation. in the gas molecule weakens allowing reaction to
(iv) 1  The concentration of the gas. take place by lowering the activation energy and
2  The residence time of the gas. providing an alternative route.
2 (a) (i) Ultraviolet radiation The products desorb from the surface, making it
(ii) It absorbs high energy ultraviolet radiation that is available for more reactant molecules.
damaging to life. (iii) 2CO + 2NO → N2 + 2CO
(b) C FCs are unreactive and slowly diffuse into the (c) O zone
stratosphere. Once there, the ultraviolet radiation 6 (a) S
 ugar is readily available. It is renewable and can be
breaks C—Cl bonds in CFCs forming Cl? radicals. grown over a short time span.
The Cl? radicals react with ozone in a chain reaction, Ethane is obtained from crude oil which is a finite
resulting in decreased ozone concentration. resource, taking millions of years to form.
(c) H FCs are chemically broken down as they are more In terms of energy, fermentation requires energy for
reactive than CFCs. This is achieved by breaking of distillation; hydration requires energy for generation of
C—H bonds. steam.
3 (a) (i) Ultraviolet radiation In terms of atom economy, fermentation also
(ii) Cl? + O3 → O2 + ClO? produces CO2, lowering the atom economy for
Cl? + O → Cl? + O2 ethanol production.
(iii) O3 + O → 2O2 Hydration is an addition reaction with 100% atom
(iv) Homogeneous catalysis economy.
The catalyst and reactants all have the same The only identifiable waste product from either
physical state (all gases) method is CO2 from fermentation which is non-toxic.
(b) (i) 24.0 + 2.0 + 35.5 + 38.0 = 118.5 7 (a) (i) The natural balance of ozone is maintained by the
(ii) C8H18 process below.
(iii) Hydrocarbons do not lead to breakdown of the O2 → 2O
ozone layer. O2 + O Y O3
(iv) Hydrocarbons are flammable. Ultraviolet radiation breaks C–Cl bonds in CFCs
4 (a) P
 hotochemically describes a chemical process that forming Cl? radicals.
uses light as the energy source. The Cl? radicals break down ozone in a chain
(b) (i) The first reaction as a bond is being broken. reaction:
The light energy provides energy for the bond Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
breaking. ClO + O → Cl + O2
(ii) The chain reaction breaks down more ozone than
N O would be the case from the natural balance
between O3 and O2.
(ii) HFCs are broken down in the lower atmosphere
There is an unpaired electron on the nitrogen. by reactions involving C–H bonds which are
absent in CFCs.

© Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original

 (b) (i) NO is formed by reaction of nitrogen + oxygen
from the air in car engines.
(ii) 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
(iii) +2
(c) In the lower atmosphere, photochemical smog.
In the stratosphere, ozone may be broken down.
8 (a) (i) In the stratosphere temperature is different from
298 K and the pressure is less than 1
atmosphere (101 kPa)
(ii) 8
(b) (i) Ultraviolet radiation.
(ii) Steps 2 and 3 propagate the chain reaction.
In step 2, Cl is used up.
In step 3, Cl is regenerated.
(iii)
Cl O O

(c) (i) Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation.
(ii) Ozone contributes to photochemical smog.
(iii) CFCs have a long residence time. They also take
a long time to diffuse to the ozone layer.
(iv) The presence of the C–H bond allows HFCs to
be broken down naturally before reaching the
stratosphere.

10 © Pearson Education Ltd 2008

This document may have been altered from the original