Gender Studies

By

Dr M Sultana Alam

Department of Social and Citizenship Studies

Faculty of Human Sciences
Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Gender Study: An Introduction

Gender studies is a broad of interdisciplinary field study which analyzes the phenomenon

of gender. Gender analysis critically analysis gendered conditions and articulation of

social power (Essed et al, 2005). It is related to studies of class, inequality, race,

ethnicity, sexuality and location. Gender studies focuses on both gender behavior and

their relation to each other. Understanding of gender and gender relations is crucial as

gender behavior is everywhere. The study of gender helps to broaden our understanding

of identity and culture, the intersection of gender with ‘race’ and ethnicity, class and

sexuality.

There are the biological, social differences and relations between men and women which

are learned, vary widely among societies and cultures, and change over time. Gender

studies is used to analyses the differences between men and women, the roles,

responsibilities, constraints, opportunities and needs of women and men in all areas an in

any given social context. Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society,

community or other social group. If we want to understand more about us then the study

of gender is a grate place to start. It takes into account how gender interacts to social,

ethical cultural differences.

Gender Studies will develop critical thinking, research and writing skills, the ability to

speak with confidence, an understanding of the meaning and importance of the politics of

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knowledge, and an enhanced understanding of gender and its intersections with ethnicity,

and will make sense of these through historical, cross-cultural, international and

contemporary perspectives. It also emphasizes the importance of applying critical gender

analysis in all areas of social life and its impact on areas such as law, politics, science,

education, art, commerce, psychology and health.

In Gender Studies the term “gender” is used to refer to the social and cultural

constructions of masculinities and femininities, not to the state of being male or female in

its entirety. The field emerged from a number of different areas related to gender.

Number of theories have been emerged which is important to know human relation with

self as well as society as a whole. The study of gender helps to broaden our

understanding of culture and identity, the intersection of gender with race and ethnicity,

class and sexuality. Gender studies leads to in-depth awareness of social life. It teaches

skills in critical thinking, development of our own understandings and communication of

our ideas.

Indeed to say that gender is an important and multifaceted area of study and

investigation. Gender behavior is everywhere, so the possibilities for the study and

understanding are almost endless. In we consider to entering any field in which dealing

with people is a major component especially counseling, social work, management, law,

health services, education, politics, consumer behavior, ministry and human resource,

understanding of gender and gender relations is crucial. It can be quite practical in what

we learn can be applied to our relationships, family life, and occupational endeavors.

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1.2 Defining of Gender

In the literature, gender usually focuses on women. In general, gender can be defined as

both men and women. It is understood about the two sexes, male and female, within the

context of society. The term gender refers to the behaviors and cognitive processes that

are more or less different for women and men in a particular society. It is the sum of the

observable differences between men and women. Gender comprises a range of

differences between men and women, extending from the biological to the social. At the

biological level, men and women are typically distinguished by the presence of a Y-

chromosome in male cells, and its absence in female cells.

Gender is viewed as the Psychological, social, and cultural suspects of maleness and

femaleness. In other words, it represents the characteristic taken on by males and females

as they encountered social life and culture through socialization (Wharton A., S, 2005) it

is a social construct which defines and differentiates the roles, rights, responsibilities and

obligations of women and men. From this point of view, gender can be referred to the

social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the

relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations

between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and

relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes.

They are context/ time-specific and changeable.

Gender is also a belief system. It is belief system about the characteristic of men and

women. It is the belief about the human. These beliefs may or may not accurate, but they

are powerful tool influencing how we perceive women and men, how we interpret what

they do and how we interact with members of both groups. These beliefs even influence

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how we perceive and evaluate ourselves. Thus, gender is a core aspect of internal self-

identity. This term can be referred to our inner sense of who we are. Being a man and

women is a central aspect of how we experience our self to be in the world.

However, gender is a social category and social identity. It represents the first and most

basic social learning about what people are: For example, he is a boy, a daddy, a man, a

women, she is a girl etc. This identity may be atomically given to someone by virtue of

being born. Sometimes the identity may be achieved. In many societies, a boy becomes a

man only after he has had a vision, earns or produces enough to support himself and

others. Thus he earns his social identity.

Gender in the western society refers to binary division (into two categories) of human

being and social practices to the point of this division even being constructed as

oppositional. More specifically it defines as the ‘opposite sex’. The two categories are

not merely regarded as distinct and opposed; they are also put into a chain of command in

which one is typically cast as positive and the other negative. In contemporary society,

gender also offers an insight into the lives of men and women. It includes information of

men and women’s characteristics, experiences and lifestyle, placing particular emphasis

on the differences between men and women. Gender determines what is expected,

allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. In most societies there are

differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned,

activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making

opportunities.

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Overall, it can be said that gender is a concept that refers to roles and responsibilities that

are expected of men and women as members of society. These roles and relationships are

determined not by biological differences but are socially defined and shaped by traditions

and beliefs.

1.2.1 Gender Relation

Gender relation defines the relation between men and women. Gender relations’ are

characterized by unequal power. ‘Gender norms’ assign specific entitlements

and responsibilities to men and women - for example, women might be

expected to take on caring or domestic duties and remain close to home, while

men may be expected to be the main breadwinner, working outside the home,

with greater freedom to move around in public places.

2.0 Differences between Sex and Gender

Sometimes it is hard to understand exactly what is meant by the term “gender”, and how

it differs from the closely related term “sex”. Sex refers to biological differences;

chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and external sex organs. Gender describes the

characteristics that a society or culture delineates as masculine or feminine.” Male" and

“female” are sex categories, while "masculine" and "feminine" are gender categories. The

terms sex, gender and sexual orientation are often used interchangeably. Despite of this,

gender is not well understood and is often confused with sex. Sex refers to universal,

biological characteristics of women and men. Gender refers to men’s and women’s roles

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and relationships in a specific society or culture. Despite sounding similar, they actually

have some distinct in meanings. Overall, sex and gender can be summarized the

following way:

Table 1 Difference between Sex and Gender

Gender Sex

• Gender = masculine and feminine • Sex = male and female

• Gender refers to the socially constructed • Sex refers to the biological and

roles, behaviors, activities, and physiological characteristics that define

attributes that a given society considers men and women

appropriate for men and women.

• Sex a complex interaction of genes,

• Gender is a social status, a legal
hormones, environment, and behavior,
destination, and a personal identity.
with loop-back effects between bodies
Through the social process of gendering,
and society. Male female and intersexes
gender division and their accompanying
are used when referring to sex.
norms and role expectations are built

into the major social institutions of

society, such as the economy, the

family, the state, culture, religion and

the law –the gendered social order.

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3.0 Gender Analysis

As I discussed earlier gender is defined as biological and social differences between men

and women. Women’s and men’s lives, experiences, needs, issues and priorities are

different. These experiences, needs, issues, and priorities also vary for different groups of

women (dependent on age, ethnicity, disability, income levels, employment status,

marital status, sexual orientation. Gender is defined as biological and social differences

between men and women. Women’s and men's lives, experiences, needs, issues and

priorities are different. These experiences, needs, issues, and priorities also vary for

different groups of women (dependent on age, ethnicity, disability, income levels,

employment status, marital status, sexual orientation. Gender analysis identifies the

different needs, issues and priorities for men and women. A gender analysis is a

systematic effort to identify and understand the roles, needs, opportunities, and life

circumstances of women and men in a given – or more often a changing – socio-

economic context.

Therefore, the aims of gender analysis’s aims are:

-to examine the differences in women's and men's lives

-to indentify the causes of gender based inequality

- to achieve positive change for women

3.1 Importance of Gender Analysis

It is documented that gender analysis is a tool to identify the differences between women

and men regarding their specific activities, conditions, needs, access to and control over

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resources, and access to development benefits and decision-making. It studies the

linkages of these and other factors in the larger social, economic, political and

environmental context. Gender analysis involves first and foremost collecting sex-

disaggregated data and gender-sensitive information about the population concerned.

Gender analysis is the first step in gender-sensitive planning for promoting gender

equality.

Indeed to say that gender analysis is very important. It helps to identify differences

between men and women. It also indentifies gender differences in the division of labor

and the access to and control over resources. Due to gender based inequality social,

economic, political constraints and opportunities facing women and men. Gender analysis

helps to find out constrains facing by men and women. Gender analysis provides a basis

for strong and correct analysis of the differences between women's and men's lives, and

this removes the possibility of analysis being based on incorrect assumptions and

stereotypes. Overall, gender analysis is an essential component for the overall analytical

process of gender.

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 CHAPTER TWO

0.1 Understanding of Masculinity and Femininity

Generally, masculinity and femininity is the biological fact of being either male or

female. Masculinity and femininity are the characteristics, behaviors, roles and values -

which are imposed on the sexes through conformity to social norms and through social

interaction. Femininity and masculinity are usually seen as the quality, nature or state of

the female or male sex. From physiological point of view, these terms designate a

collection of characteristics of each sex, including appearance, gender identity, gender

roles, sexual object preference and culturally determined social behavior.

Masculinity is manly character. It specifically describes men and boys, that is personal

and human. Masculinity is often associated with characteristics such as aggressiveness,

competitiveness, dominance, strength, courage and control. These characteristics result

from a combination of biological, cultural and social influences, and relate to our

understanding of power in society as a whole. Masculinity has its roots in genetics.

Masculinity behavior comes from family genetic and culture. Some scholars define

masculinity as an ideal of male behaviour which men are strongly encouraged to aim,

which is calculated to guarantee the dominant position of some men over others.

On the other hand, femininity can be referred to the qualities and behavior judged by a

particular society which is appropriate to women and girls. Femininity is different from

male, which is a biological and physiological classification concerned with the

reproductive system, femininity principally refers to secondary sex characteristics and

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other behaviors and features generally regarded as being more prevalent and better suited

to women.

Differences between men and women are originally “natural” and genetically determined.

According to this traditionalist perspective, what it is to be a man and what it is to be a

woman are two opposite personalities within the same continuum and from whose

relation appropriate between them are derived. Based on this approach, literature has used

different terms to refer to these extremes: instrumentality-expressivity, domination-

subordination, and masculine vs. feminine, setting forth the existence of two distinct and

separate worlds: the masculine one, known as “Masculinity”, and the feminine one,

known as “Femininity”.

From modern point of view, Masculine and Feminine roles are not opposite ends of the

same scale but are instead two separate dimensions. A person may be described as

“masculine,” as “feminine,” as “or having characteristics of both, or as

“undifferentiated,” that are, having neither strong masculine nor strong feminine

characteristics. Masculinity and femininity behavior start in early age when children

understand gender identity. In a family when fathers and other male family members

offer a positive role, boys develop a more flexible vision of manhood and are more

respectful in their relationships with women. All members of the family have important

roles in raising boys, including fathers and grandfathers.

2. Gender Stereotype: Traditional and Modern view on Masculinity and Femininity

The gender stereotypes reflect beliefs that appeared during the 19th century. That time,

most people lived and worked on farms where men and women worked together. Men

coped with the harsh business and industrial world; women were left in the relatively

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unvarying and sheltered environments of their homes. True Women were wives whose

concern was with domestic affairs—making a home and having children. The true

woman’s place was unquestionably by her own fireside—as daughter, sister. Since then

it is commonly believed that women’s and men’s interest’s diverge-women and men have

their separate areas of influence. For women, the areas of influence are home and

children, whereas men’s sphere includes work and the outside world. Women were

passive, dependent, pure, refined, and delicate; men were active, independent and strong.

From this approach, the terms “traditional” and “conservative" can be described the belief

that men’s and women’s roles are distinct, and the terms “modern” and “liberal” to

describe the belief that roles are no ascribed according to sex. Traditional gender roles

emphasize separate spheres of influence for women and men, with women inside the

home and men outside the home. A modern or liberal view of gender roles is that both

men and women may engage in behaviors that have traditionally been ascribed to either

sex.

3.0. Masculine and feminine behaviors and its effects on family and society

It is said that traditional gender roles influence negatively to Masculinity and femininity.

On the other hand, Negative Masculine and feminine behaviors affect on family and

society. One of the traditional ideologies is patriarchy which creates many problems in

our family as well as society. There is a relation socio-cultural norm and patriarchal

ideology. A list of Positive/Negative masculinity and positive /negative femininity are

presented in table 2.

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 Table 2. Positive/Negative Masculinity and Positive /Negative Femininity

Positive Masculinity Negative Masculinity Positive Femininity Negative Femininity

Independent Rude Sincere Crying attitude

Hardworking Violent Thoughtful Weak

Honest Dominant Helpful Intolerant

Organized Conflicting Emotional Fearful

Trustworthy Arrogant Polite Insecure

Self-sufficient Abusive Understanding Manipulating

Cultured Gossipy Caring Selfish

Intelligent Unstable Patient Gossipy

Brave Selfish Selfless

Assertive Corrupt

Polite Lazy

Reflexive Unskilled

Sociable Dishonest

Motivating

Skilled

Loyal

3.1 Concept of Patriarchy and its Effect on Family as well as Society

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Generally, patriarchy is defined as a system of social structures and practices, in which

men dominate, oppress and exploit women. Patriarchy is defined by Batiwala (1995) as

“rule of the father” but in social terms, refers to the system of male dominance i.e. where

children name is traced through the father; where the ownership, control and inheritance

of all assets is in the hands of men; where males exercise the right of all major decision-

making in the family, and hence maintain ultimate control over the family and its

relations. Therefore, patriarchy establishes an unequal power equation between men and

women, justifying the control of women by men in society in general, and the family in

particular.

Patriarchy also may be viewed as a “gender system” consisting of societal norms or

contracts based on formal and coded or unwritten and assumed rules and regulations that

“govern the position of women within the family and household, in the sphere of

production or the labour market, in the political system, and in cultural institutions”. In a

patriarchal society, men of higher socio-economic and political status dominate all

women. These practice bring unequal gender power relation can be seen in family

whereby women are more likely to be disadvantaged relative to men, have less access to

resources, benefits, information and decision-making.

Due to patriarchy, masculinity is often associated with characteristics such as

aggressiveness, competitiveness, dominance, strength, courage and control. These

characteristics result from a combination of biological, cultural and social influences and

affect to family and society as a whole. Patriarchal behavior is also one kind of socio-

cultural belief that limits equality in society. Due to this practice, the root structure of

gender inequality is often visible at household levels and these create many problems in

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family and society. Different types of social problems occur due to patriarchy which is

shown in Figure 1. :

Figure: 1 Patriarchy and Its Negative Norm

Patriarchy

Unequal Decision-Making
Domestic Violence Forced Marriage
power in Family

3.1.1 Domestic violence

Violence against women is an ancient and universal problem occurring in every culture

and society. Power inequalities between women and men and the masculine culture are

the major sources of this violence. All forms of violence are associated with power

inequalities: between women and men or between children and their caregivers, as well

as with growing economic inequalities within family. However, the primary inequality

that gives rise to gender-based violence is the power inequality between women and men.

It can be said that patriarchal ideology and cultural practice in the masculinity is an

important reason for men’s violence against women. Because of the patriarchal ideology

and cultural values, customs and laws are based on sex differences, with men being the

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powerful and the dominant, and women being the weak and the subordinate. This pattern

still can be seen in many societies, particularly in rural areas.

3.1.2 Patriarchy and Fatherhood

Patriarchal ideologies of women’s subordination are of central significance in

constructing ‘fatherhood’ in the family unit. Here, father performs masculine behaviors

as the head of the family. He regulates rules and regulations in order to care and control

of children. These patriarchal ideologies bring negative effect to family especially when a

father forces his daughter to marry against her will. Father’s control on other members of

the family, particularly the female members, is construed as valuable representation of

responsible masculinity, while his ‘accountability’ is not. Forced marriage is an

institution of paternal domination. The notion of men as fathers has been historically

constructed in a way to ensure the presence of dominant father.

3.1.3 Unequal Decision-making power in family

Negative masculinity brings inequality in family decision-making. Due to negative

masculinity women’s decision-making power is limited by patriarchal control and For

this practice husbands have more power particularly in deciding the major decisions.

Patriarchal social structure was also found in women’s decision-making power at the

household level. For this practice, men have greater power to make decisions particularly

important decisions. This practice brings many problems in family life such, unhappy

family, broken family even divorce is happened.

3.1.4 Women’s traditional ideology

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It is important to note that in our society, both men and women, hold strong beliefs

regarding appropriate behavior for women. Women are often required to put men first.

Women are often expected to defer to male authority. These feminine beliefs give men

greater power. Therefore, women have fewer rights both within the household and in the

public sphere. This behavior may negatively affect on family and society.

CHAPTER FOUR

01. Gender Based Equality, Equity and Inequality

Gender equality can be defined numerous ways. Generally, gender equality means

equality between men and women. The concept of equality is that all human beings, both

men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the

limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and injustice. Gender equality defines

that the different behavior, aspirations and needs of women and men should be

considered and valued equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the

same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether

they are born male or female. Gender equity is the fairness of treatment for women and

men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment

that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations

and opportunities.

The concept of equality is that all human beings, both men and women, are free to

develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by

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stereotypes, rigid gender roles and injustice. Biological differences between women and

men do not change. But the social roles that they are required to play vary from one

society to another. It can be changed. This should to bring equality between men and

women. Gender equality requires equal enjoyment by women and men of socially-valued

goods, opportunities, resources and rewards.

1.1 The views of International Organization on Gender based Equality

Many international organizations give emphasize on gender based equality. Gender

based equality is the one of the goals of many international organizations. Every signal

goal of the many international organization is directed related to women’s right. Gender

equality is a key element of the human rights system established by the international

organizations. Promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater

economic and social prosperity.

According to UNICEF gender equality is leveling the field for girls and women by

ensuring that all children have equal opportunity to develop their talents. Similarly, the

United Nations Population Fund declared gender equality first and foremost, a human

right. However, gender based equality is the one of the goals of many international

organizations. Gender equality is a key element of the human rights system established

by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The declaration

states that rights and freedoms shall not be limited by a person’s sex. It establishes that

“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” It is also determined

that without women’s equal right as men, no nation can achieve development in a

sustainable manner. Most importantly, promoting gender equality is seen as an

encouragement to greater economic and social prosperity.

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According to the UN (2002), “equality is the basis of every democratic society that

aspires to social justice and human rights.” The term gender equality has been defined in

multiple ways in the development literature and has been the subject of great debate in

the U.N. It often means women having the same opportunities in life as men, for instance

equality of access to education and employment, which does not necessarily lead to

equality of outcomes. The United Nations Human Development Report (1995) refers to

gender equality in terms of capabilities (education, health, and nutrition) and

opportunities (economic and decision-making). Similarly, the World Bank defines gender

equality in terms of equality under the law, equality of opportunity (including equality of

rewards for work and equality in access to human capital and other productive resources

that enable opportunity), and equality of voice (the ability to influence and contribute to

the development process).

1.2 Effect of Gender Based Inequality on Globalization

Despite many international agreements for women’s equal rights, girls and women are

still much more likely than men to be poor, illiterate, and have limited access than men to

medical care, property ownership, education, credit, training and employment. In most

societies, men and women have different in access and control of resources, and in

participation in decision-making. In most societies, women as group have less access than

men to resources, opportunities and decision-making. These inequalities are a constraint

to development because they limit the ability of women to develop and exercise their full

capabilities, for their own benefit and for that of society as a whole. Gender based

inequality between men and women globally effect on

- Gender gap in education

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 - Gender gap in labor force participation

- Poverty

1.2.1 Gender gap in education: Equal access to educational opportunity is a basic

human right essential to well being. Globally, women have less opportunity than men in

education. Especially, in developing countries, women are far behind than men in

education. Girls' and women’s educational opportunities in many countries continue to be

limited. In much of the developing world daughters receive lower education and other

investments than do their brothers. Daughter perceive disadvantage situation due to social

norms that daughters move away from their parents upon marriage. This increases gender

gap in education.

1.2.2 Gender gap in labor force participation: Women’s illiteracy affect negatively on

labor force participation as education increase women’s employment opportunity. When

women have illiteracy and low level of education, they are unable to take part in labor

force participation. In most countries women and men are also distributed differently

across manufacturing sectors, between the formal and informal sectors, and within

agriculture.

1.2.3 Poverty: Women’s illiteracy and lack of employment opportunity lead poverty.

Women are half of the total population of this country. The status of women is an

important factor for the socio economic development of the country. When women are

uneducated and unemployed they cannot contribute to the economy of the country. Thus,

gender based inequalities lead women’s poverty and a lower economic status particularly

in developing countries.

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2.0 Gender based Equality and Socio-economic Development

Gender based equality is very important for social and economic development. Women

are an integral part of their societies and that sustainable development must include the

full and equal participation of women and men. The overall development of a country

depends upon the maximum utilization of her people, both men and women. Women

participation in social and economic development is essential to the overall development

of the nation. Socio-economic development cannot be fully achieved without the

women’s full participation in education as well as employment.

There is a relation between women education and socio-economic development. Higher

educational attainment increases women's employment and income opportunity

Employed women are able to contribute to family as well economy of the country.

Gender based inequality in education, health, employment and earning capacity has an

impact on future generations and can accelerate socio-economic development. Higher

educational attainment increases women's income-generating capacity. Women’s income

helps themselves to contribute to the economy of the family as well as to the country. The

figure shows how gender based equality helps to reduce poverty and increase socio-

economic development of the country. Figure 2 shows on how gender based equality

especially equality in education play an important role to the socio-economic

development of the country.

Figure 2: Development Framework

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 Overall, it can be said that gender based equality is very important for socio-

economic development of the country. Equality in education is the most powerful

tool for socio-economic development as it expands knowledge and skill which

helps to get employment. When women are employed, they are able to contribute

to the family income which reduces poverty. Therefore, it can be concluded that

gender based equality especially in education play an important role directly or

indirectly socio-economic development of the country.

CHAPTER FIVE

1.0 Definition of Feminism

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Feminism is an intellectual, philosophical and political movement. It aimed at equal

rights and legal protection for women. It involves various movements, theories, and

philosophies, all concerned with issues of gender difference; that advocate equality for

women and that campaign for women’s rights and interests. Feminism is a diverse and

often opposing collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies,

largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their

social, political, and economical inequalities. It is a philosophy in which women and their

contributions are valued. It is said that is a political movement. It is part of the broad

array of social movements that focused on social change.

Feminism is one kind of movement or a revolution that includes women and men who

wish the world to be equal without boundaries. These boundaries or blockades are better

known as discrimination and biases against gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status

and economic status. Feminists do belief that women and men are, and have been, treated

differently by our society, and that women have frequently and systematically been

unable to participate fully in all social arenas and institutions. Therefore they had a desire

to change that situation. That this gives a new point-of-view on society, when eliminating

old assumptions about why things are the way they are, and looking at it from the

perspective that women are not inferior and men are not the norm.

The origins of women's movements are rooted in women’s awareness of and

dissatisfactions with their subordinate position in patriarchal societies. Women are

oppressed and their status and potential are downgraded in such societies. Throughout

23
history, women have always struggled to gain equality, respect, and the same rights as

men. This has been difficult because of patriarchy, an ideology in which men are superior

to women and have the right to rule women. This ideology has filled the social structures

of societies throughout the world and as a result, women are still struggling for rights that

most men take for granted. The struggle was even more difficult for women of color

because not only were they dealing with issues of sexism, but also racism. In order to

fight patriarchy, feminism and feminist theory was born.

1.1 Who are feminist?

Generally, feminist is a supporter of feminism. Feminists can be anyone in the

population, men, women, girl or boys. Some feminists are:

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Susan B. Anthony

Lucy Stone

Olympia Brown

Helen Pitts

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In 1890s, Feminist as a word gained widespread practice in the western world. It emerged

at this time as a way to identify individuals who supported not merely an

increased public role for women but also women’s right to define themselves as

self-directed beings. Throughout the past century, the feminists have expanded

women’s private and public roles to political, cultural, economic, sexual, racial

and ethical dimension.

According to Adrienne Rich (1979), feminism is not a playful label but is an ethics, a

methodology, a more complex way of thinking about and acting upon the conditions of

our lives. Another American scientist critic bell hooks (1984), feminism constitutes a

social, economic, and political commitment to eradicating race, class, and sexual

domination and reorganizing society so that individual self-development takes priority

over imperialism, economic expansion, and material desires. According to British social

scientist Chris Weedon (1987), feminism is a politics directed at changing existing power

relations between women and men in society.

1.2 Feminism objectives are;

-eradicating gender inequality

-equal rights and legal protection for women.

-promote women’s rights, interests, and issues in society.

-establishing equity by and for women

-promote the same rights, interests, and issues, regardless of gender considerations.

2.0 Feminist Movement

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The history of feminism is the history of feminist movements. Most feminist historians

assert that all movements that work to overturn gender inequality and obtain women’s

rights should be considered feminist movements. The feminist movement is a series of

campaigns on issues such as reproductive rights including abortion, domestic violence,

maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, sexual violence and so on.

The history of the modern feminist movement is divided into three “waves”.

First-wave feminism

Second wave feminism

Third wave Feminism

2.1 First-Wave Feminism

First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth and early

twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. It focused primarily on

gaining the right of women’s suffrage (the right to vote) .In Britain, the Suffragettes

campaigned for the women’s vote, which was eventually granted − to some women in

1918 and to all in 1928. In the United States leaders of this movement include Elizabeth

Cady Stanton and Susan B Anthony, who each campaigned for the eradication of slavery

prior to championing women’s right to vote

2.2 Second-Wave Feminism

Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s

and lasting through the late 1980s. Second-wave feminism saw cultural and political

inequalities as inextricably linked. The movement encouraged women to understand

aspects of their own personal lives as deeply politicized, and reflective of a sexist

26
structure of power. Second-wave feminism was largely concerned with other issues of

equality, such as the end to discrimination.

2.3 Third-Wave Feminism

Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity

and study from 1990 to the present. The movement arose as responses to perceived

failures of the second-wave. It was also a response to the reaction against initiatives and

movements created by the second-wave. Third wave feminists often focus on micro

politics, and challenged the second wave’s paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for

females

3.0. Type of Feminism

3.1 Liberal Feminism

In the 1960s and 1970s, liberal feminism grew out of the social, political and political

transformation. Liberals feminists state that freedom is a fundamental value, therefore it

is basic right and to ensure the freedom for every citizen. Liberal feminists share this

view, and insist on freedom for women. The ideology of the liberal feminist is that

women will transform society, through their own personal interactions with the opposite

sex. Liberal feminism claimed that gender differences should not be based on biology and

therefore men and women are different from each other. Meaning is that biological

differences should be ignored in order to achieve gender equality. They said that if

women and men are not all that different, then they should not be treated differently.

The liberal feminist also believe that the equality of men and women can only be

achieved by changes being brought through political and legal reform. They want the

27
eradication of institutional bias and implementations of fairer laws towards women.

Women should have the same legal rights as men and the same educational and work

opportunities. Women and men should be treated equally especially under the law.

Politically, liberal feminism focus has been on visible source of gender discrimination,

such as gendered job markets and inequality wage scales, and with getting women into

positions of authority in the professions, government and cultural institutions.

Liberal feminism states the equality of men and women through political and legal

reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to

show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism

looks at the personal interactions of men and women as the starting ground from which to

transform society into a more gender-justice place.

Some of the main issues of liberal feminism include reproductive rights and abortion

access, sexual harassment, voting, education, fair compensation for work, affordable

childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and

domestic violence against women. In the United States, liberal feminism has been

successful in breaking down many barriers to women’s entry to job and professions

formerly dominated by men, in helping equalize wage scales, and legalizing abortion. But

liberal feminism has not been able to overcome prevailing belief that women and men are

inherently different. Liberal feminism politics takes important weapons of the civil rights

movement –antidiscrimination legislation and affirmative action programs-and uses them

fight to fight gender inequality, especially in the job market. Liberal feminism has

28
achieved gender based equality in the workplace and home basically based on good jobs,

steady incomes and family friendly employers and colleagues.

2.5 Socialist Feminism

Like the liberal feminism, socialist feminism has its root in the political, intellectual and

socio-economic transformation. Socialist feminism grew up in the middle and late

nineteenth century. It focuses both the public and private sphere of life. They believed

that due to cultural practice women are oppressed both the public and private sphere of

life. They argued that equality can be achieved to working to end both the economic and

cultural sources of women’s oppression. Socialist feminism also sees women’s

relationship to the economy as the origins of women’s oppression.

Socialist feminism provides a general theory of inequality that combines the effects of

gender, social class and racial ethnic status. For women inequality goes beyond their

exploitation in the family and workplace. Socialist feminism says that upper-middle class

women do not have the same advantage as men of the same status. It claimed that men’s

lack of responsibility for social production of the next generation frees them to pursue

carriers and political power. Their accumulation of advantages gives them wide-ranging

social power and the means to dominate women.

Politically, socialist feminism calls for a redistribution of responsibilities in the family

and redistribution of economic and social power. They believe that equal sharing of

29
family work would give women the opportunity to accumulate of advantages gives them

wide ranging social power now monopolized by men. They feel that it is necessary to

access to high paying jobs and positions of power. For all the disadvantaged, socialist

feminism has fought for universal entitlements to education, childcare, health care and

income support as well as more open access to governmental and non-governmental

political power.

2.6 Radical Feminism

Radical feminism is characterized by small, leaderless women only consciousness-raising

groups. Radical feminists feel that there is a male-based authority and power structure

and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and

its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way.

Radical feminism expands the concept of patriarchy by defining it as a worldwide system

of subordination of women by men through violence and sexual and emotional

exploitation.

Radical feminist basically see sexual relation, men’s dominance over women and male

control of female sexuality as the central cause oppression. They think that men control

women’s sexuality. Even they claimed that female sexuality is used to serve for men’s

needs and desire. Radical feminism sees sexual violence against women as a continuum

from sexual murder, rape and prostitution to sexual harassment and date rape. They

claimed that the physical, political and economic oppression of women reflects a

society’s inherent violence. Most of the Radical feminists agree that women’s oppression

is the first, the most widespread, and the deepest for of human oppression. They claim

30
that women’s oppression is the most fundamental for of oppression as it widespread and

international and hardest form of oppression to eradicate.

4.0 The Women’s Movement in Malaysia

The origins of feminism in Malaysia started about twentieth century. The evolution of

Malaysia has been a result of many factors. One of these factors is the establishment

of a strong and authoritarian national state which showed democratic expression.

Feminism is also forced by many cultural and ideological factors that compete for

social acceptance. Like western feminism, the characteristic of Malaysian feminism

was political revolution. Feminism is seen in Malaysia as a western concept. It can

be traced to the political struggle against colonial rule. The history of struggles by

women in Malaysia started on a different footing from that in the west because of the

Malaysian history of being a British colony for over 200 years.

One major difference between the struggles in Malaysia, and those of many western

countries, was that Malaysian women did not have to fight to get the vote as in the long

struggles of the suffragettes. The right to vote was handed to them as enscribed in the

constitution when Malaysia achieved its independence from Britain in 1957.

The four dominant feminisms can be identified namely,

Nationalist, feminism

Islamic feminism

31
 Political feminism and Social feminism

3.1 Nationalist

In Malaysia, the feminist movement fought against foreign domination about women’s

role in the workplace, their right to formal education and participation in political

organizations. Three major races live in Malaysia: the Malays, the Chinese, and the

Indians. Of these, the Malays were the earliest settlers. The Chinese and Indians came

around 1900, mostly as workers in the rubber plantations and tin mines. But the colonial

administrator never had a clear policy of ethnic integration. However, women of Malay,

Chinese and Indian origin were all able actively to participate in nationalist movements.

The Malay nationalist party was one of the first political parties to establish women’s

group. In 1948, The British Military administration banned the MNP. Then, British

administrators cultivated and more moderated nationalist but British –aliened party, the

United Malays National Organization (UMNO). It is said that UMNO was male

dominated. Women issues were not the main concern to judge by UMNO.

After six years of independence, 1963, a non-governmental multiracial women’s

organization, National Council for Women’s Organization (NCWO) was formed. This

was encouraged by the issue of women’s unequal pay which was first highlighted by the

Women’s Teachers Union (WTU) formed in 1960. The movement of the formation of

also came from an overall global trend in 1960s to gain the rights for working women.

International bodies like Young Women’s Christian Association contributed significantly

towards the formation of the NCWO. NCWO was also encouraged by the Wanita

UMNO. The Wanita UMNO leader Fatima Hashim saw in the NCWO a formal structure.

32
She felt that as a partnership they could serve as an Umbrella coalition. Therefore,

NCWO and UMNO celebrated National Women’s Day on 25th August. The NCWO

leaders were deliberately elected from among women of the three major ethnic groups. It

struggled for women’s rights and achieved the equality for equal pay, women’s equal

access to public service jobs and marital rights were achieved.

3.2 Islamic Feminism

Islamic feminism is Muslim women’s challenges to Islamic Law. According to Islamic

women’s movements, in Malaysia, women can work, can be a part of civil society, and

can vote on equal terms with men. Foley describes Islam in Malaysia as a “softer”

version than those found in the Middle East, because it has been influenced by the native

Malaysian custom of adat, which stipulates that descent and inheritance are equal for men

and women.

The Malaysian government, however, has pursued an authoritarian control of civil

society and the interpretation of Islam, which limits feminist movements in the country.

Foley claims that this has lead women’s organizations to accept conservative social

norms, such as emphasis of a woman’s role in the family over her ability to work. They

felt that the Malaysian government has pursued an authoritarian control of civil society

and the interpretation of Islam, Government limits feminist movements in the country.

Despite this, women’s movements are active in Malaysia. These movements, such as the

Malaysian group Sisters in Islam, advocate equal rights for men and women and do not

accept the patriarchal interpretation of Islam taken by the government.

3.3 Political Feminism

33
Within the Islamic context the feminist movement began to take on political character.

Some new women organizations were formed namely;

Violence against women (VAW) was formed in the early to mid -1980.

The Women Aid Organization (WAO)

Women’s Crisis Centre (WCC- later women’s centre for change

Women’s Development Collective (WDC)

All Women’s Action Society (AWAM)

Sabah Action Women’s Resource Group (SAWO)

Sarawak Women’s for Women Society

These are initiated by middle class urban women, many of whom completed tertiary

education in the west. At the various times, these organization came together under the

umbrella of the joint action group. (JAG) and violence against women (VAW). The

violence against women (VAW) campaign is an unfinished agenda of the Malaysian

women’ movement.

3.4 VAW Campaign in Malaysia

Gender Equality in Malaysia In the early 1980s, a group of about 20 women aged

between 20 and 30 came together in Petaling Jaya , Selangor to discuss issues related to

the status of women in Malaysia. Malaysia's Malaysia, Women’s Aid Organization

(WAO) joined this campaign in 1998. WAO began this campaign in Malaysia by

working with The Star newspaper to produce a 16-day series on Violence Against

Women. The campaign grew with more partners when Amnesty International Malaysia

(AI), Malaysian AIDS Council (MAC) and Sisters in Islam (SIS) joined WAO in 2004.

34
Gender Based Equality in Malaysia

In Malaysia, before independence women and men are not equal as men. Women

continue to suffer from encounter sexual discrimination. Even though law has been

formulated in the formulation of laws, the lack of enforcement of law were unable to

protect women against discrimination. Inequality and a failure to protect women against

discrimination manifest itself in many detrimental ways in all spheres of women’s lives.

Since independence, some progress and equality have been achieved in various areas. In

Malaysia, we can see that women are actively contributing towards the development of

the country. Much progress has been achieved in the past few decades in narrowing the

gender gap in Malaysia; The Governments has taken various steps to bring equality.

Some the efforts are as follows:

• Increase women’s participation in decision-making.

• Safeguard women's rights to health, education and social well being.

• Remove legal obstacles and gender discriminatory practices.

Beside government, women’s groups and NGOs in Malaysia have a vital role to highlight

areas where women continue to face discrimination. They are doing work to remove the

barriers in order to bring women’s equality in all spheres of women’s lives. However, it

is observed that the educational attainment of women is at a higher level has increased.

The participation in the labor force has increased and legislation that grants equal

35
opportunities for women and respect for their human rights has been adopted in Malaysia.

The result we can observe that the country now has a growing number of women

ministers and policy makers.The situation of women in Malaysia has improved over time.

Overall we can say that, feminism brought the equality between men and women some

areas especially in education, employment, economy, legal protection and family code. It

is important to note that the major achievement has been achieved in education and

employment. At the same time, it is observed that still many customary and traditional

practices continue to distinguish between the sexes. Malaysia is a multiracial society.

Different religion and practice are exit which negatively and positively effect on the issue

of equality. . It is reported that that each ethnic group in Malaysia is influenced by values

that determine the role of women in the domestic/private sphere, while men dominate the

public sphere. It should be noted that women’s civil liberties appear to be more restricted

in the state of Kelantan than elsewhere. Similarly, violence against women stills a major

problem in Malaysian societies.

CHAPTER SIX

1.0 Gender from Socio-cultural perspective

There is a positive relation between socio-cultural and gender role. We know that gender

is set of male and female behavioral and mental potentials that are shaped and developed

by particular societies. On the other hand, gender roles are socially and culturally defined

prescriptions and beliefs about the behavior and emotions of men and women. In every

society, the social cultural and religious factor plays an important role in the development

36
of the behavior and attitude of the people. Socio-culture in the anthropological sense of

broad patterns are thinking, feeling and acting. More broadly culture can be understood

as a people’s “way of life” or tradition. Gender differs the different ways that men and

women are culturally defined and evaluated. Gender is a cultural construction. Many

theories supported this opinion.

Gender schema theory Bem 1981) focuses on the role of cognitive organization in

addition to socialization. This theory postulates that children learn how their cultures

and/or societies define the roles of men and women and then internalize this knowledge

as a gender schema, or unchallenged core belief. The gender schema is then used to

organize subsequent experiences (Bem 1993). Children’s perceptions of men and women

are thus an interaction between their gender schemas and their experiences. Eventually,

children will incorporate their own self-concepts into their gender schema and will

assume the traits and behaviors that they deem suitable for their gender.

Many other theorists such as Kabeer, (2001), Bisnath and Elson (1999) Sen and

Grown( 1987) and Batliwala (1994) argued that gender is socially and culturally

determined. They suggested that for achieving gender based equality, fundamental

changes are necessary in the patriarchal social structure. Patriarchal behavior is one kind

of socio-cultural belief that limits equality in society. The root structure of gender

inequality is often visible at household levels which are considered within a particular

socio-cultural context. It is said that socio-cultural norms particularly patriarchal ideology

has a significant influence on the variance of women’s decision-making power in the

family. It is clear from the discussion that gender cannot be understood without

37
understanding the socio-cultural contexts. There is a strong relation between socio-

cultural norm and gender.

2.0 Socio-cultural Factors Influencing Gender Gap in Education

It should be noted that as socio-cultural norms, patriarchal kinship systems enforce norms

of female seclusion and restrict women’s education opportunities. Women education is

viewed from socio-cultural and gender perspective. It is argued that patriarchy influence

on women’s education opportunity in many developing countries particularly in

Bangladesh, Pakistan, India and Malaysia. Socio-cultural norms particularly patriarchal

norms are considered to gender gap in education in these countries. Thus it is important

to discuss gender gap in education in developing countries especially India, Pakistan,

Malaysia, Bangladesh.

2.1 Women Education in India

India has one of the lowest female literacy rates in Asia, although the Indian government

has expressed a strong commitment towards education for all. Therefore, in India the

overall literacy level is increasing. Despite the improvements in literacy, there continues

to be a large gap between the literacy levels of men and of women.There are several

reasons for the low levels of literacy in India. Social-cultural norms are one of the

important factor women’s lack of education in this country. In India, gender

discrimination is currently prominent and a major issue. India has a rich religious and

38
cultural heritage, extending about 5,000 years into the past. The population of India is

multi-racial and multi-religious.

2.2 Socio-cultural influence on gender gap in education in India

Sons as the shoulder of family income: In India, boys are considered to be responsible

for parental well-being, so investment in them is seen as a rational decision, and cultural

practices that reinforce the ‘giving away’ of girls at marriage are likely to serve as a

disincentive for educating daughters.

Poverty: Poverty one of the reason that limit women’s education opportunity in

developing countries. Although school attendance is free, the costs of books, uniforms,

and transportation to school can be too much for poor families. Poor families are also

more likely to keep girls at home to care for younger siblings or to work in family

enterprises. If a family has to choose between educating a son or a daughter because of

financial restrictions, typically the son will be chosen. This is socio-cultural practice.

Lack of female teachers: Lack of female teachers is another potential barrier to girls’

education. Girls are more likely to attend school and have higher academic achievement

if they have female teachers. This is particularly true in highly gender-segregated

societies such as India

2.3 Gender in Pakistan

39
Gender is one of the organizing principles of Pakistani society. Patriarchal values

embedded in local traditions and culture predetermines the social value of gender. In

Pakistan, though presently girls’ enrollment rates have risen over time and gender gaps

have narrowed. In Pakistan, especially, rural girls are in lag behind than men in

education. The rural women of Pakistan are far behind in education. The cultural norms

of the society are reported to be major constraints in the schooling of rural girls. The

literacy rate for urban women is more than five times the rate for rural women. The

school dropout rate among girls is very high (almost 50 percent), the educational

achievements of female students are higher as compared with male students at different

levels of education.

The social-cultural context of Pakistani society is predominantly patriarchal. Women

have a low percentage of participation in society outside of the family. In Pakistan , the

role of culture in educating females is of vital importance. The socio cultural norms of the

rural society of Pakistan keep the girls away from school. In rural Punjab, the low level of

girls enrolment in school can be viewed due to the cultural and religious norms of the

society .The traditional societies expecting females simply to perform household chores

and to look after the younger children increase the chance of low parental investment in

the education of their daughters.

2.4 Gender issue in Malaysia

40
In the area of education, there are written laws which categorically forbid discrimination

against women and men with regard to education. While women’s enrollment at all levels

of education is comparable to men, their participation in vocational and technical

education is limited. In Malaysia, gender gap in technical and vocational education has

been observed due to socio-cultural practice as these type of education offer better

employment opportunity .At the household level parents think that sons might more able

to contribute to family income than daughters. Therefore, sons are preferred in this field.

This limits women from participating in new employment opportunities. Women got

equal opportunity in education; they are discriminated against by their religions and

cultures, particularly due to patriarchal ideology. Malaysian women face much

discrimination in the area of marriage and divorce through patriarchal attitudes.

2.5 Gender issue in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a traditional society influenced by the norms and values of the patriarchal

societies of India and Arabia. Patriarchal social system determines power relations within

households. Due to patriarchal ideology men is considered as the authority. The socio-

cultural values and norms has a strong influence on the issue of women education. Due

to traditional socio-cultural practice, son preference is well known in Bangladesh which

limits women education opportunity especially in rural Bangladesh There are other socio-

cultural norms which limit women’s education opportunity such as: Early marriage and

Purdah Norms

41
2.5.1 Early Marriage

Early marriage is a common practice in rural Bangladesh It is also one of reason for

women lack of education. Daughters are often married of at a very young age . A woman,

on an average, is married before reaching the age of 20 years. Most of the parents do

believe in early marriage due to daughters’ safety.

2.5.2 Purdah-related norms

In rural Bangladesh, the concept of Purdah is for more comprehensive. Women are

required not only to cover their head and face using the Purdah in public and in the

presence of men, they are also expected not to speak directly to the men. This is not only

being defined as a religious belief but also the practice has culture dominate in rural

societies. Following strictly this practice, most parents are simply not allowed their

daughters to go to the co-educational system at tertiary level, whereas universities for

women only are not yet being established in the country.

However, In Bangladesh, at national level women lag behind men in terms of literacy.

Although noteworthy achievements have been made in female enrollment at the

primary/secondary level, progress has been very slow in tertiary level education. By

custom a patriarchal social system exists in Bangladesh. The traditional patriarchal

society of Bangladesh is based on class and gender divisions. It is not felt necessary for

Bangladeshi girls to receive formal education. Education for girls is often considered

42
irrelevant. Most parents would only let their daughters learn the teaching and reciting the

Quran.

3.0 Summary

We can say that socio-cultural norms directly or indirectly effect on gender gap in

education in developing countries especially India, Bangladesh, Pakistan which has

shown in Figure

Figure: 3 Frame work about the socio-cultural norms on women education in

developing countries

43
 Son preference

Early
Purdah Norms
Marriage

Socio-
cultural
norms

Lack of Female
Poverty
teacher

It is clear from the discussion that socio-cultural norms influence on gender gap in

education in developing countries especially India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Socio-

cultural norms create gender-based inequality that limits women’s education opportunity

in these countries. It is important to note that in our society, both men and women, hold

strong beliefs regarding appropriate behavior for women. Women are often required to

put men first; they are often expected to defer to male authority. These socio-cultural

44
beliefs give men greater power. These attitudes and beliefs systems we can notice in our

traditional society which limit women’s opportunity in every aspect. Overall, we can say

that socio-cultural norms have an influence on gender gap in education in developing

countries.

0.4. Education and Women Empowerment

Before conceptualizing empowerment of women, it is important to know what

disempowerment of women is. An understanding of empowerment is an awareness of

what constitutes disempowerment. Disempowerment can be defined as lack of awareness

and lack of exercising power which is socially and culturally determined..In some

societies especially in rural areas, women do not know about their own rights, they are

just ignorant women. They are not aware about their situation as well as their

disempowerment. Women in rural societies, women do have decision –making power

especially when the important the important decision is made in family. As the head of

the authority, husband or other male family member is the decision-maker. Lack of

exercising decision-making power and awareness can be considered as disempowerment

In order to define or conceptualize empowerment, it is important first to say that

empowerment means, in a very broad sense: gaining power (Oxaal and Baden, 1997).

Empowerment is a process that addresses all sources and structures of power.Those do

have power, cannot be considered as empowered. Education plays an important role

towards women empowerment.

45
Before to discuss the role of education towards women empowerment, it is important to

discuss how empowerment can be measured. Generally, Empowerment can be measured

in various ways. Most commonly used level are

 Increasing Awareness

 Participation in Decision-making power

The level of empowerment can be measured through women’s autonomy and control

over decision-making power. In developing countries, especially in rural areas, women

have less decision-making power in family. Husbands are the decision-maker especially

when important decisions are made.

Some examples are given bellow:

 Do you feel free if you want to buy something by your husband’s income?

 Can you participate in decision making for family planning matters?

 Do you have the greatest say in the decision on what to do when a child falls sick

The above mentioned aspects women have little participation in decision-making. There

are many factors affect on women lack participation on decision-making position. One of

the important can be mentioned here which significantly affect on women lack of

involvement in family decision-making that is women illiteracy. On the other hand, it is

argued education plays an important role for increasing women decision-making power

as well as well empowerment.

46
Now it can be discussed the role of women’s education and how it helps to increase

women’s empowerment. Women’s education is considered as the key factor in women’s

empowerment. Education is the most powerful instrument for the empowerment women

(Olakulfi, 2006). Empirical evidence shows that there is also a positive relationship

between education and empowerment. It is noted that higher level education provides

better employment opportunities and enhances income. Many authors ( Yavas et al.,

1994; Opeala, 1996) supported this view.

On the other hand, employment is argued to improve women’s empowerment for similar

reasons, i.e., because it gives women access to their own earnings or contributions to

family income that in turn increases their understanding of money, right to participate in

financial decisions, or financial independence (Mason and smith, 2003). Oliveira (2000)

also stressed that education has an important impact on access to other resources such as

extra-domestic work and greater income. Similarly, according to Chaudry (1995)

educated women have demonstrated a better ability to keep control of their husband’s

expenditures and to maintain their own economic independence, to improve household

management, and be more able to save money and generally contribute more to the

family income pool.

The basic component of the theoretical approaches is power and empowerment. The

approach in studying power and empowerment and its nature is influenced by socio-

cultural norms in relation to household decision-making power. In the literature review,

there were several theories and explanations perceived about how socio-cultural ideology

influence in power and empowerment; how empowerment should be measured, how

47
power might be conceptualized in relation to empowerment and what factors play an

important role in women’s empowerment. For better understanding, a theoretical

framework can be shown. Although each theory has its own weakness and strengths, the

study endeavored to examine some theories and concepts and considered which were

relevant to this study.

Power is viewed as a dynamic and relational process which is unequally distributed

between two groups, one is powerful group and another is powerless group (Batliwala,

1995). In this context, men are always seen as the powerful and dominant, while women

remain powerless, dominated, and subordinate (Kandiyoti, 1998). These are supported by

ideological and sex stratification theories (Deaux, 1987). Ideological and sex

stratification theories stressed on the importance of socio-culture ideology particularly its

belief about the basic nature of men and women and how it relate to sex status and

culture. However, the main concern of these theories is that naturally and culturally

women are valued less and have lower socio-economic status than men in relation to

power.

As mentioned earlier,measuring the level of empowerment, power can be referred to

decision-making power. On the other hand, decision-making power is influenced by

resources including intellectual (education, knowledge, information and ideas) and

financial resources (occupation and income). Resources theory is developed by Blood

and Wolfe (1960) to explain the relationship between resources (income, educational

attainment and occupation) and household decision-making power. The main argument

48
of this theory is that in a family if a person has more resources he/she will have more

power to exercise in decision-making within the family. This theory of decision-making

is supported by various authors as well (Buric and Zecevic, 1967; Kandel and Lesser,

1972).

The empowerment approach emerged concerning the issues of gender equality in

decision-making, increasing self-esteem and a sense of self-confidence for bringing the

fundamental changes. The theory is developed by Moser (1993) and supported by various

theories (Young, 1993; Kabeer, 1999; Rowlands, 1997; Mayoux, 1998b; Friedmann,

1992; Chen and Mahmud, 1995; Stromquist, 1993). The main approaches of these

theories is that empowerment is a process whereby women able to understand the

situation of her subordination, to assert their independent right to make choices and to

control resources which will help them in challenging and eliminating their own

subordination and to make independent decision. In this process, women are aware of all

their options and sufficiently informed themselves to make their own decisions.

Intellectual
Resources
(Education)
EMPOWERMEN
POWE
T
R

Financial
Resources
(Occupation,
income)

49
Figure 1:

Conclusion

Overall it can be said that women empowerment is influenced by intellectual and

financial resources. Many theories supported that resources such as educational

attainment, occupation and income may play an important role in increasing women

power and empowerment. Many empirical researches show that there is a relation

between women education and empowerment. Many theories supported that when a

woman has more resources such as education and income, she will have more power to

exercise.

50