A mobile phone is a device which behaves as a normal

telephone whilst being able to move over a wide area (compare

cordless phone which acts as a telephone only within a limited

range). Mobile phones allow connections to be made to the

telephone network, normally by directly dialling the other

party's number on an inbuilt keypad. Most current mobile

phones use a combination of radio wave transmission and

conventional telephone circuit switching, though packet

switching is already in use for some parts of the mobile phone

network, especially for services such as Internet access and

WAP.

Some of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers

include Alcatel, Audiovox, Kyocera (formerly the handset

division of Qualcomm), LG, Motorola, Nokia, Panasonic

(Matsushita Electric), Philips, Samsung, Sagem, Sanyo,

Siemens, SK Teletech, and Sony Ericsson.

There are also specialist communication systems related to, but

distinct from mobile phones, such as satellite phones and

Professional Mobile Radio.

Worldwide deployment

Mobile phones have a long and varied history that stretches

back to the 1950s, with hand-held devices being available since

1983. Due to their low establishment costs and rapid

deployment, mobile phone networks have since spread rapidly

throughout the world, outstripping the growth of fixed

telephony. Such networks can often be economic, even with a

small customer base, as mobile network costs are mostly call

volume related, while fixed-line telephony has a much higher

subscriber related cost component.

In most of Europe, wealthier parts of Asia, and Australasia,

mobile phones are now virtually universal, with the majority (in

some countries and age groups up to 100 percent) of the adult,

teenage, and even child population owning one. They are less

common in the United States — while widely used, market

penetration is lower than elsewhere in the developed world

(around 66 percent of the U.S. population as of 2003). Reasons

advanced for this include incomplete coverage, a mixture of

incompatible technical standards (many European nations and

some Asian nations force the GSM standard by law on all

phones, while in other Asian nations the CDMA standard is

enforced; in the United States and Canada there is no such law

and each provider chooses a standard), relatively high

minimum monthly service charges (around $30), and the

availability of relatively low-cost fixed-line networks (around

$30 for unlimited local calling). Prepaid or pay as you go

services, common elsewhere, are far less common in the U.S.,

and are much more expensive than comparable services in

other countries. The shortage of telephone numbers in the

North American Numbering Plan (NANP), and the lack of non-

regional special telephone numbers for mobile services, means

that the pricing system used elsewhere (calls cost more to

make to a mobile, but are free to receive) cannot be used, and

as a result users pay to receive calls, discouraging cellphone

use. The same technical issues affect mobile telephony in

Canada, as it uses the same mix of incompatible standards as

does the U.S., and is also part of the NANP.

Mobile phone features

Mobile phones are designed to work on cellular networks and

contain a standard set of services that allow phones of different

types and in different countries to communicate with each

other.
Before the phone can be used, a subscription to a mobile

phone operator (a.k.a. carrier) is required. For phones on GSM

networks, the operator will issue a SIM card which contains the

unique subscription and authentication parameters for that

customer; alternatively, the carrier will put the customer's

handset identifier into its subscriber database so that the

handset can make calls on the network. Once the SIM card is

inserted into the phone, services can be accessed. Mobile

phones do not only support voice calls; they can also send and

receive data and faxes (if a computer is attached), send short

messages (or "text messages"; see SMS),

access WAP services, and provide full Internet access using

technologies such as GPRS. Mobile phones usually have a clock

and a calculator and often one can play some games on them.

Newer models sometimes include a noise meter, a

thermometer, a compass and many other exotic features.

Many mobile phones support 'auto-roaming', which permits the

same phone to be used in multiple countries. For this to work,

the operators of both countries must have a roaming

agreement.

Today, most models also allow for sending and receiving

pictures and have a built-in digital camera. Sound and video

recording is often also possible. This gives rise to some concern

about privacy, in view of possible voyeurism, for example in

swimming pools. For this reason, Saudi Arabia has entirely

banned the sale of camera phones (although the country allows

pilgrims on the Hajj to bring in camera phones); South Korea

has ordered manufacturers to ensure that all new handsets

emit a beep whenever a picture is taken.

GPS receivers are starting to appear integrated or connected

(i.e. using bluetooth) to cell phones, primarily to aid in

dispatching emergency responders and road tow truck services.

Newer models have included many features aimed toward

personalisation, such as user defined and downloadable ring

tones and logos, and interchangeable covers, which have

helped in the uptake by the teenage market. Usually one can

choose between a ring tone, a vibrating alert, or a combination

of both.

Multi-mode mobile phones

A multi-mode (a.k.a. dual, tri or quad band) mobile phone is a

phone which is designed to work on more than one GSM radio

frequency. The multi-mode case occurs mostly in GSM which

originated in the 900 MHz band, but expanded to other bands

including 1800 and 1900Mhz bands. Some multi-mode phones

can operate on analog networks as well (for example, dual

band, tri-mode: AMPS 800 / CDMA 800 / CDMA 1900).

Multi mode phones have been valuable to enable roaming but

are now becoming most important in allowing the introduction

of WCDMA without customers having to give up the wide

coverage of GSM. Almost every single true 3G phone sold is

actually a WCDMA/GSM dual-mode mobile. This is also true of

2.75G phones such as those based on CDMA-2000 or EDGE.

The special challenge involved in producing a multi-mode

mobile is in finding ways to share the components between the

different standards. Obviously, the phone keypad and display

should be shared, otherwise it would be hard to treat as one

phone. Beyond that, though, there are challenges at each level

of integration. How difficult these challenges are depends on

the differences between systems. The different variants of the

GSM system have only different frequencies and so aren't even

considered true multi-mode phones but rather are called multi-

band phones. When talking about IS-95/GSM multi-mode

phones, for example, or AMPS/IS-95 phones, the base band

processing is very different from system to system. This leads

to real difficulties in component integration and so to larger

phones.

An interesting special case of multi-mode phones is the

WCDMA/GSM phone. The radio interfaces are very different

from each other, but mobile to core network messaging has

strong similarities, meaning that software sharing is quite easy.

Probably more importantly, the WCDMA air interface has been

designed with GSM compatibility in mind. It has a special mode

of operation, known as punctured mode, in which, instead of

transmitting continuously, the mobile is able to stop sending

for a short period and try searching for GSM carriers in the
area. This mode allows for safe inter-frequency handovers with

channel measurements which can only be approximated using

"pilot signals" in other CDMA based systems.

A final interesting case is that of mobiles covering the DS-

WCDMA and MC-CDMA 3G variants of the CDMA-2000 protocol.

Initially, the chip rate of these phones was incompatible. As

part of the negotiations related to patents, it was agreed to use

compatible chip rates. This should mean that, despite the fact

that the air and system interfaces are quite different, even on a

philosophical level, much of the hardware for each system

inside a phone should be common with differences being

mostly confined to software.

As can be deduced from the above, most mobile phone

networks now use one of two standards, GSM or CDMA. A third

standard, iDEN, is found exclusively in North America and is

confined to use by the Nextel network. It's believed that this

network will eventually disappear as Nextel merges

with Sprint PCS, a CDMA carrier. Similarly, AT&T Wireless's

TDMA network in North America is slowly being phased out as a

result of its merger with Cingular, a GSM carrier.

Health controversy

Main article: Mobile phone radiation and health

As with many new technologies, concerns have arisen about

the effects on health from using a mobile telephone. There is

little scientific evidence for an increase in certain types of rare

tumors in long-time, heavy users. More recently a pan-

European study provided significant evidence of DNA damage

under certain conditions. So far, however, the World Health

Organization Task Force on EMF effects on health has no

definitive conclusion on the veracity of these allegations. (see

also Electromagnetic radiation hazard). It is generally thought,

however, that RF is incapable of producing any more than

heating effects, as it is considered non-ionizing radiation, in

other words that it lacks the energy to disrupt molecular bonds

such as occurs in genetic mutations.

Another controversial but perhaps more lethal health concern is

the correlation with automobile accidents. Some countries,

provinces and states are considering banning hand mobile

phone use whilst driving or require that a "hands-free" system

be used. Many European countries and New York already

require a "hands-free" device for mobile phone use in vehicles,

and other U.S. states and municipalities are following suit.

As technology progresses and data demands have increased on

the mobile network, the latest in scares is the 3G higher

bandwidth towers. The network has sparked many health

concerns and community outrage. Examples of such can be

seen from headlines around the world; locals in the UK pulling

down 3G masts, authorities in Denmark lobbying against the

Government's rollout of 3G Networks to stop until a dispute is

made, Australia - Sydney Leichhardt protests banners were

demonstrated outside housing and the local school to stop the

3G mast on the roof of a supermarket. The spurt of protest

appears to be the common reason for human fear, the

unknown. There have been very little communications between

governments and communities providing information about the

introduction of 3G upgrades. The ACA (Australian

Communications Authority) and ARPANSA (Australian Radiation

Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency) recently announced that

the 3G towers actually cause less radiation then the already

present 2G network. An average radiation power output of

3watt. No governmental fact sheet is available and it is

questionable that perhaps the current towers do release more

radiation, however, the propagation of more towers inevitably

adds to a more irradiated area.

Security concerns

Earlier mobile phones were fairly simple and the major security

concern was "cloning", a variant of identity theft which is much

more difficult with newer, digital systems. Many users fail to

realize that a cell phone is literally a basic walkie-talkie style

radio, with some computers helping along the way. Radio

scanners dating to about 1996 or '97 typically can receive the

old analog cell phones as easy as one can listen to an FM radio.

However, over the years technology has made cell phones in

the gigahertz range, well above most conventional scanners. In

addition, many (most) cell phones on the market today are

backed by many digital type encryption systems. There are

also new means of digital communications, such as text

messaging and e-mail. As of 2004, even basic phones can send

and receive text messages which makes them vulnerable to

attack by worms and viruses. Advanced phones capable of e-

mail can be susceptible to viruses that can multiply by sending

messages through a phone's address book. Of more important

concern, a virus may allow unauthorized users to access a

phone to find passwords or corporate data stored on the

device. Moreover, they can be used to commandeer the phone

to make calls or send messages at the owner's expense. Unlike

computers that are restricted to only a few widespread

operating systems, cellular phones use a variety of systems

that require separate programs to be designed in order to

disable each one. While reducing overall compatibilty from an

application design standpoint, this has the beneficial effect of

making it harder to design a mass attack. However, the rise of

cellular phone operating system programming platforms shared

by many manufacturers such as Java, Microsoft operating

systems, Linux or Symbian OS, may in the future change this

status quo.

Bluetooth is a wireless communication feature now found in

many higher-end phones, and the virus Cabir hijacked this

function, sending Bluetooth phones on a search-and-destroy

mission to infect other Bluetooth phones. In early November

2004, several web sites began offering a specific piece of

software promising ringtones andscreensavers for certain

phones. Those who downloaded the software found that it

turned each icon on the phone's screen into a skull-and-

crossbones and disabled their phones, so they could no longer

send or receive text messages or access contact lists or

calendars. The virus has since been dubbed "Skulls" by security

experts. The Commwarrior.A virus was identified in March

2005, and it attempts to replicate itself through MMS to others

on the phone's contact list. Like Cabir, Commwarrior.A also

tries to communicate via Bluetooth wireless connections with

other devices, which can eventually lead to draining the

battery. The virus requires user intervention for propagation

however. Bluetooth telephones are also subject to bluejacking,

which is the generally benign transmission of messages from

anonymous Bluetooth users. In 2004, rumors spread of using

Bluetooth to arrange casual sex hookups; this activity, widely

publicized in both print and online media as toothing, was

revealed to be a hoax in 2005.

Mobile phone culture

In less than twenty years, mobile telephones have gone from

being rare and expensive pieces of equipment used by

businesses to a pervasive low-cost personal item. In many

affluent countries, mobile phones now outnumber land-line

telephones, with most adults and many children now owning

mobile phones and is not uncommon for young adults to own

simply a cell phone instead of a land-line for their residence,

even in the U.S. where mobile phone use is less prevalent than

other industrialized countries. Mobile phone penetration is

increasing around the world; this is particularly true of

developing countries, where there is little existing fixed-line

infrastructure.

With high levels of mobile telephone penetration, a mobile

phone culture has evolved, where the mobile phone becomes a

key social tool, and people rely on their mobile phone

addressbook to keep in touch with their friends. Many people

keep in touch using SMS, and a whole culture of "texting" has

developed from this.

The mobile phone itself has become a totemic and fashion

object, with users decorating, customizing, and accessorizing

their mobile phones to reflect their personality.

The capabilities of mobile phones are now being expanded

further, to become smartphones which can adopt the roles of

Internet browser, game console, personal music player and

personal digital assistant.

Mobile etiquette has become an important issue with mobiles

ringing at funerals, weddings, movies and plays. Users often

speak at increased volume, with the effect of nearby people

hearing personal conversations that they don't necessarily want

to hear; it has become common practice for places like libraries

and movie theatres to ban the use of cell phones, even to the

point of installing jamming equipment to prevent them. (In

areas where public safety radio networks use frequencies near

the cellular range, such jammers have been known to disrupt

emergency operations. Such equipment, though cheap and

readily available, is therefore illegal under most countries'

communications regulations.)

The behavior engaged in by Bullies: Bullying

In colloquial speech, bullying is most often used to describe a

form of harassment associated with being performed by a child

who is older, stronger, or otherwise more powerful socially,

upon weaker peers. Bullying can occur in situations including in

school or college/university, the workplace, by neighbours, and

between countries. Whatever the situation the power structure

is typically evident between the bully and victim. It seems to

those outside the relationship that the bully's power depends

only upon the perception of the victim, with the victim being

too intimidated to put up effective resistance. However the

victim usually has just cause to be afraid of the bully due to the
threat and actually carrying out of physical/sexual violence, or

loss of livelihood. Bullying is behind most claims of

discrimination in the workplace.

Types of bullying

Bullying is when someone repeatedly acts or says things to

have power over another person. Bullies mainly use a

combination of intimidation and humiliation to torment others.

The following is some examples of bullying techniques:

* Calling the victim names and stating the victim is useless at

whatever they do

* Spreading gossip and rumours about him/her

* Threats of job loss and disciplinary action for unspecified

reasons

* Constant negative criticism for unspecified allegations

* Taking the victim's possessions or taking control of the

victim's work

* Demoting the victim

* Making the victim do what they do not want to do with a

threat of violence or disciplinary action if they refuse

* Actually following through with a threat on one occasion to

ensure the victim will comply with all future orders

Locations of bullying

Bullying can occur in schools, universities, families, between

neighbours, workplaces, between countries and in the military.

Both school and workplace bullying has come increasingly to

public attention. Bullying is now one of the most contentious

issues in the occupational health and safety arena.

Cyberbullying is bullying through the internet, e.g. in a blog.

In the 1990s, the United States saw an epidemic of school

shootings (of which the most notorious was the Columbine

High School massacre). Many of the children behind these

shootings claimed that they were the victims of bullies and that

they resorted to violence only after the school administration

repeatedly failed to intervene. In many of these cases, the

victims of the shooters sued both the shooters' families and the

schools.

Since media coverage has exposed just how widespread is

bullying, juries are more likely now to sympathize with victims.

In recent years, many victims have been suing bullies directly

for intentional infliction of emotional distress, and including

their school as a defendant under the principle of joint and

several liability.
As a result of all these trends, schools in many countries

strongly discourage bullying, with programs designed to teach

students cooperation, as well as training peer moderators in

intervention and dispute resolution techniques.

However, with respect to workplaces, there are few localities

that are governed by legislation which specifically targets

workplace bullying. This is because lawmakers fear that those

rules could be used as leverage in other industrial or

interpersonal matters. Therefore most bullying claims are

conducted under discrimination laws.

Bullying in the family is normally ignored by society unless it

includes a form of physical/sexual abuse. Once it does outside

parties such as the police and social services can get involved if

the victim speaks up, or if the abuse has gone too far - the
victim is in hospital or dead.

Between neighbours bullying normally takes the form of

intimidation by nuisance behaviour, such as excessive noise to

disturb sleep and normal living patterns, and reports to

authorities such as the police for minor or made up incidents.

The purpose of this form of behaviour is to make the victim so

uncomfortable they move from their property. It should be

noted that not all nuisance behaviour is bullying, as some

individuals are unaware of other people's feelings and the

havoc they are causing.

Bullying between countries occurs when a more powerful

country such as a superpower decides to make a smaller one

do its bidding. This is normally done with military force, the

threat that aid and grants will not be given to the smaller

country or the smaller country will not be allowed to join a

trading organisation.

Bullying in the military can occur when a superior misuses their

power to get subordinates to do whatever they want including

sexual favours. However the excuse for this sort of behaviour is

that the military is not subject to normal civilian laws so they

should be allowed to do what they want. This can lead to a high

number of suicides and mysterious deaths of subordinates

which are not investigated openly. Deepcut Barracks in the UK

is one example of this where the UK government refuses to do

a full public enquiry.

An extreme case was where an eighth grader named Curtis

Taylor at a middle school in Iowa had been the victim of

continuous bullying for three years, which included name-

calling, him getting bashed into a locker, chocolate milk poured

down his sweatshirt and vandalism of his belongings. This

drove him into committing suicide on March 21, 1993.

Effects of bullying

Persistent bullying may have a number of effects on an

individual, and in the environment where bullying takes place.

Effects on the individual include:

* Reactive Depression, a form of clinical depression caused by

exogenous events

* Posttraumatic stress disorder

* Anxiety

* Gastric problems

* Unspecified aches and pains

* Acne and other skin disorders

* Loss of self esteem

* Relationship problems

* Drug and alcohol abuse

* Suicide (also known as bullycide)

Effects on a school include:

* High levels of truancy

* High staff turnover

* Disrespect for teachers

* High level of absence for minor ailments

* Weapon-carrying by children for protection

* Legal action

o Against the school or education authority

o Against the bully's family

* See Only Wayne

(http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Only_Wayne) - a

racist bullying case study in a wiki-format, that illustrates some

of the unfortunate effects of bullying on a particular school

community.

Effects on the organisation such as a workplace:

* Loss of morale

* High level of sick leave absence for depression, anxiety and

backache

* Decreased productivity and profit

* High level of staff turnover

* Loss of customers

* Bad reputation in industry

* Negative media attention

* Legal action

o Against the organisation for personal injury

o Against the organisation and individual bully under

discrimination laws