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AP Biology
Chapters 1 – 55
Identifications (do not do those in parentheses)

Ch. 2

Polar Covalent Bond

Chapter 3

Hydrogen Bond

Specific Heat

Chapter 4

Isomer

Polymer

Hydrolysis

Carbohydrate + types

Lipids + types

Proteins plus Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary strudtures

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotide

Pentose sugar

Chapter 6: The Cell and Organelles

In addition to the usual organelles and their functions:

Peroxisomes

Microtubules

Microfilaments

1
 Centrosome

Centriole

Cilia and 9+2 Arrangement of microtubules

Tight, Desmosome, and Gap Junctions

Central Vacuole in plants = Dump

Tonoplast

Plasmodesmata

Chapter 7

Aquaporins

Isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic

Facilitated diffusion

Active transport

Sodium-potassium pump

Cotransport

Exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

Chapter 8

Catabolic

Anabolic

Exergonic

Endergonic

Enzyme, substrate, activation site

Competitive inhibitor

Non-competitive inhibitor

2
Allosteric site on an enzyme

Feedback inhibition

Chapter 9

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Oxidation

Reduction

Mitochondria, matrix, Crista

Glycolysis: in cytoplasm, starts with glucose, produces pyruvic acid

Citric acid cycle, “

NAD, NADH

FADH, FADH2

Electron transport chain

Oxidative phosphorylation

Chapter 10

Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

Chlorophyll (based on the element Mg in a porphorin ring of hydrocarbons)

Palisade mesophyll

Thylakoid

stroma

light reactions and where

protein Z

3
antenna complex

photons

absorption spectrum

Photosystem I and II

Cyclic vs. non-cyclic electron flow

NADPH, NADPH2

products of light reactions

calvin cycle and where

carbon fixation

ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)

rubisco

glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate (G3P)

photorespiration

C4

Bundle sheath cells

CAM

Chapter 11

Signal Transduction

Ligand

G-Protein-coupled receptors produces 1 response

Tyrosine-kinase-coupled receptorsproduces multiple responses to 1 signal or ligand

Protein kinase

Second messengers such as Ca++ and cyclic AMP

4
Phosphorylation

Apoptosis

Chapter 12

Somatic cells vs. gametes

Sister chromatids

Centromere

Mitosis vs. cytokinesis

G1, S, G2, M phases

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Cell plate in plant cells

Regulation of cell cycle at checkpoints

Cyclin-dependent kinase

MPF

Chapter 13

Gene

Locus

Asexual reproduction vs. sexual

Karyotype

Homologous chromosome

Autosome

Sex chromosome

Daughter cell

Meiosis

5
 Prophase I as critical because Synapsis and Crossing over take place then

Chiasmata

Metaphase I as critical because homologous chromosomes may be arranged this way or that way
(Independent Assortment), resulting in the possibility of genetic variation

Anaphase II as critical because that is when Sister Chromatids separate

Chapter 14

Allele

Law of segregation

Mono vs. dihybrid cross

Testcross

Incomplete dominance as white flower + red flower makes pink

Multiple alleles as in human blood types

Pleiotropy as one gene with many effects, such as down syndrome

Epistasis as a gene is not expressed unless a different gene operates

Recessive inherited disorders

Cystic fibrosis
Tay-Sachs
Sickle-cell disease

Chapter 15

Sex-linked genes

X-inactivation

Barr body

Linked genes

Genetic recombination

6
Crossing over

Linkage map

Map unit on a linkage map

Nondisjunction

Trisomic

Polyploidy: having more than 2 sets of chromosomes, as in 3n or 4n

Chromosome rearrangement resulting in such mutations as

Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

Down syndrome: 3 chromo 21

Klinefelter syndrome: XXY

Turner syndrome: XO

Chapter 16

Hershey and Chase

Watson and Crick

Wilkins and Franklin

Chargraff

Nirenberg

Double helix

Antiparallel

Replication of DNA

DNA polymerase

Leading vs. lagging strands

Okazaki fragments

7
DNA ligase

Chromatin

Histones

Nucleosome

Chapter 17

Transcription makes mRNA

Translation uses the mRNA at the ribosome to make hook proteins via peptide bonds

Promoter

TATA

Introns

Exons

E, P and A sites on ribosomes

mG cap

Poly-A tail

Endonucleases

Wobble

Signal peptide is first 20 or so amino acids on a protgein, identifies area of ER where the protein goes

Point mutations are changes in 1 DNA base

Base-pair substitution

Missense

Nonsense

I insertion

Deletion

8
Mutagens

Chapter 18

Operon

Operator

Promoter

Repressible Operon like lac

Inducible Operon like trp

DNA methylation

DNA acetylation

Enhancer region

Activator

Transcription initiation complex

DNA Bending protein

Chapter 19

Virus is not alive

Capsis

Capsomere

Bacteriophage

T-even have tail, inject DNA

Host range

Lytic cycle

Lysogenic cycle

Prophage

9
Retrovirus

Reverse transcriptase

Viroids

Prions

Chapter 20

Recombinant DNA

Restriction enzyme

Sticky ends

DNA ligase

Plasmid

cDNA library

gel electrophoresis

southern blotting

microarray

PCR

RFLP

Chapter 22

Lamarck

Evidence for Evolution

fossil record

Homologous structures

Embryonic homologies

Vestigial organs

10
 Molecular homologies: share DNA base sequences, share amino acid sequences in protein

Convergent evolution: different organisms in similar environments become more similar

Divergent evolution: similar organisms get separated to very different environments become dissimilar

Chapter 23

Microevolution

Macroevolution

Hardy-Weinberg

5 Conditions to meet Hardy-Weinberg

Directional selection

Disruptive selection

Stabilizing selection

Heterozygote advantage

Animal (Includes Us) Systems Identifications

Things to know:

Phylum Porifera: Sponges that are colonies of cells with 2 layers. Radial Symmetry. Are not Metazoans
(true animals). All the animals below are Metazoans.

Phylum Cnidaria: also called Coelenterata: Jellyfish, Sea Anemone. 3 layers of cells, the middle layer is the
Mesoglia Reproduction is by budding and sexual, with both sex organs found on one individual.
Digestion takes place in the gastrovascular cavity, with digestive enzymes secreted by the Gastrodermis
Cells that line the cavity. These animals have nematocysts and a primitive nerve network. Radial
Symmetry

Phylum Platyhelminthes: Planaria and the Flatworms. 3 layers of cells. Acoelomates. Bilateral Symmetry.
Eye Spots with nerves and nerve ganglia. Includes Tapeworm, fluke, hookworm. Respiration through
skin, open circ. System.

Phylum Nematoda: Roundworms. Pseudocoelomates. Digestive system with mouth and anus. Mainly
decomposers, although some are parasites. Only 1 muscle layer makes their movement “jerky.”

11
 Phylum Annelida: Earthworms: Segmented Worms. Closed Circ. System with 5 ring hearts. Open Resp.
system with air in through skin. Primitive central nervous system with a brain and ventral nerve cord.
Nephridia for excretion. Are hermaphroditic. 2 muscle layers make movement smooth. Are
Coelomates. Are Protostomes (blastopore develops into mouth first, embryonic cleavage is Radial,
coelom develops from mesoderm). The Gizzard grinds ingested food.

Phylum Arthropoda: Exoskeleton and jointed legs. Body segmentation. Respiration is by Spiracles and
Trachea systems, blood is not involved in moving gases. Are also Protostomes. The Green Gland is
used for Excretion of Nitrogen Wastes. Has a nervous system.

Phylum Molluska: Clams, octopus, snails. Are Protostomes. Soft body parts with gills for oxygen. Mantle
Layer of cells can produce the shell. Have a Radula = a rasping tongue like organ. Have a muscular
“foot” for burrowing. The location of the “foot” determines the classification of mollusk (i.e. a
“gastropod” has the foot wrapped around the stomach, as in a snail).

Phylum Echinodermata: Starfish. Deuterostomes (anus develops first from blastopore, mouth later and at
the opposite end: Radial cleavage with coelom originating from the gut). Spinney exoskeleton,
complete digestive system. Have Bilateral symmetry as larva but Radial as adults. Use a Water
Vascular System for movement.

Chordates: Deuterostomes have notochord,

Chapter 24: THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

Essay: Microevolution vs. Macroevolution
Speciation
Preventing Speciation:
Reproductive Isolatin by Prezygotic barriers to reproduction
Reproductive Isolation by Postzygotic barriers

Encouraging Speciation:
Allopatric Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
Polyploidy
Autopolyploid
Allopolyploid
Adaptive Radiation

12
 Chapter 25:PHYLOGENY AND SYSTEMATICS
Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution
Clade
Monophyletic
Paraphyletic
Polyphyletic
Outgroup
Body Structure
Gene Duplication
• The morphology of multicellular fungi
– Enhances their ability to absorb nutrients from their
surroundings
Chapter 31: FUNGI Hyphae. The
mushroom and its Reproductive structure.
The mushroom produces
subterranean
Exoenzymes mycelium
tiny cells called spores.

(networks) are a
Mycorrhizae on Legumes continuous
network of hyphae.

Mycelium Spore-producing
structures

Hyphae 20 m

Septa Figure 31.2

Mycelium

Plasmogamy
Karyogamy
• The generalized life cycle of fungi
Key

Recognize the following as Fungi: Zygomycota, Rhizopus Haploid (n)

Heterokaryotic
Heterokaryotic
stage
(unfused nuclei from PLASMOGAMY
different parents) (fusion of cytoplasm)

stolonifer, Ascomycetes, Diploid (2n)

KARYOGAMY
(fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing

Lichens: algae with hyphae of fungi

structures
SEXUAL Zygote
REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL Mycelium
REPRODUCTION

MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
Chapter 32: Animal Diversity GERMINATION
Spore-producing
structures
Spores

Zygote Figure 31.5

Cleavage
• Early embryonic development in animals
Blastula
1 The zygote of an animal 2 Only one cleavage 3 In most animals, cleavage results in the
undergoes a succession of mitotic stage–the eight-cell formation of a multicellular stage called a blastula.

gastrulation cell divisions called cleavage. embryo–is shown here. The blastula of many animals is a hollow ball of cells.

Blastocoel

Cleavage Cleavage
Gastrula
6 The endoderm of
the archenteron de-
velops into the tissue Eight-cell stage Blastula Cross section
lining the animal’s Zygote of blastula
digestive tract.
Blastocoel
Endoderm
5 The blind pouch
formed by gastru-
lation, called
the archenteron,
Ectoderm
opens to the outside
via the blastopore. Gastrula Gastrulation
Blastopore 4 Most animals also undergo gastrulation, a rearrangement of
the embryo in which one end of the embryo folds inward, expands,
and eventually fills the blastocoel, producing layers of embryonic
tissues: the ectoderm (outer layer) and the endoderm (inner layer).

Figure 32.2

13
Blastocoel
Protostome development Deuterostome development
(examples: molluscs, annelids, (examples: echinoderms,
arthropods) chordates)
(a) Cleavage. In general, protostome
Eight-cell Eight-cell
development begins with spiral,
stage stage
determinate cleavage.
Deuterostome development is
characterized by radial,
indeterminate cleavage.

Spiral and Radial and

determinate indeterminate

Archenteron
Anus Mouth

Digestive tube

Mouth Anus
Mouth develops Anus develops
from blastopore from blastopore
Figure 32.9c

Blastopore
Germ layers
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
endoderm
Hox genes: found only in animals
Redial symmetry • Cnidarians: hydra, jellyfish. Have stinging cells called cnidocytes. There are two
variations on this body plan
– The sessile polyp and the floating medusa
Bilateral symmetry
Coelom
Polyp Mouth/anus Medusa

Coelomate Tentacle
Gastrovascular
cavity

Acoelomate
Gastrodermis

Mesoglea
Epidermis
Body
Pseudocoelomate stalk

Protostome
Tentacle
Mouth/anus
Figure 33.5

Deuterostome
Determinate cell formation of protostome
Indeterminate cell formation of deuterostome

14
 Parazoa vs. Eumetazoa

Chapter 33: Invertebrates

Choanocytes
Spicules
Amoebocytes
Porocytes
Sessile
Cnidaria (Jellyfish and hydra group)
• The best-known turbellarians, commonly called planarians
– Have light-sensitive eyespots and centralized nerve nets

Medusa Ph arynx . The mouth is at the

ti p of a muscul ar pharynx that
extends from the animal ’s
ventral side. Dig esti ve j uices
D iges tion is compl eted w ithi n
t he c ell s l ini ng the gast ro-
v as cul ar c avi ty, whic h ha s
t hree branche s, each w ith
f ine s ubbranches that pro-
vid e an extens i ve surfac e area.
are s pill ed onto prey, and t he
pharynx sucks s mal l pieces of Undi gested waste s
food into the gastrovas cul ar are egested
cavity, whe re di gestion conti nues . through the mouth.

Polyp
Gas trovasc ula r
c avity

Eyespots

Gastrovascular cavity
Gan glia. Loc ated at the anteri or end Ventral nerve cords. From
of t he worm, near the mai n sources the gan gli a, a pai r of
of s ensory input, i s a pai r of ganglia, ventral nerv e c ords runs
Figure 33.10 den se clusters of nerve c ell s. the length of the body.

Cnidocytes
Acoelomate
Planarian
Turbellarian Molluska: Clams, Squid, Octopus. Mantle layer of cells
that make the shell, muscular foot for movememt.
Pseudocoelomate
Heart. Most molluscs have an open circulatory
system. The dorsally located heart pumps
Nematode = roundworm = decomposers; parasites Nephridium. Excretory organs
called nephridia remove metabolic
circulatory fluid called hemolymph through arteries
into sinuses (body spaces). The organs of the
wastes from the hemolymph. mollusc are thus continually bathed in hemolymph.

Molluska = clams, squid, octopus Visceral mass The long digestive tract is
coiled in the visceral mass.
Coelom Intestine
Mantle layer of cells Mantle
Gonads
Stomach Radula. The mouth
Mantle region in many
Shell
Radula cavity
Anus
Radula
Mouth mollusc species
contains a rasp-like
feeding organ
The nervous Gill called a radula. This

Nephridia
system consists belt of backward-
of a nerve ring curved teeth slides
around the back and forth,
esophagus, from Foot Nerve Mouth
cords Esophagus scraping and
which nerve
Open circulation cords extend.
scooping like a
backhoe.
Figure 33.16

15
 • Anatomy of an earthworm: First True Coelomate (True body Cavity). Must
keep skin moist for air exchange.
Annelid worm
Metanephridia
Coelom. The coelom Metanephridium. Each
Each segment is surrounded by longitudinal muscle, which in of the earthworm is
turn is surrounded by circular muscle. Earthworms coordinate segment of the worm
partitioned by septa. contains a pair of
the contraction of these two sets of muscles to move (see
Figure 49.25). These muscles work against the noncompressible excretory tubes, called
coelomic fluid, which acts as a hydrostatic skeleton. metanephridia, with
Epidermis Cuticle
ciliated funnels, called

5 ring-hearts
Circular Septum nephrostomes. The
muscle (partition metanephridia remove
Hermaphroditic. between wastes from the blood
segments) and coelomic fluid
through exterior pores.

hermaphroditic
Longitudinal
Chaetae. Each segment Anus
muscle
has four pairs of Dorsal
chaetae, bristles that vessel
provide traction for
burrowing. Intestine
Tiny blood vessels are

ventral nerve cord

abundant in the earthworm’s
skin, which functions as its
Nerve respiratory organ. The blood
Ventral
cords contains oxygen-carrying
vessel
hemoglobin.
Nephrostome Clitellum

chaetae Pharynx Esophagus

Cerebral ganglia. The Metanephridium
Crop
earthworm nervous system
features a brain-like pair of
Giant Australian earthworm
cerebral ganglia. Intestine

Breath through skin that MUST be moist Mouth

Subpharyngeal
ganglion
Gizzard

Ventral nerve cords with segmental ganglia.

The circulatory system, a network of vessels,
The nerve cords penetrate the septa and run
is closed. The dorsal and ventral vessels are linked

cerebral ganglia
the length of the animal, as do the digestive
by segmental pairs of vessels. The dorsal vessel
tract and longitudinal blood vessels.
and five pairs of vessels that circle the esophagus
of an earthworm are muscular and pump blood
Table 33.23 through the circulatory system. 5- Ring Hearts.

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine

Arthropod
Crustacean
Arachnid
Insecta
Hemolymph The insect body has three regions: head,
thorax, and abdomen. The segmentation Cerebral ganglion. The two nerve
Heart. The cords meet in the head, where the

Open circulatory system

of the thorax and abdomen are obvious,
but the segments that form the head are fused. insect heart ganglia of several anterior segments
drives hemolymph are fused into a cerebral ganglion
Abdomen Thorax Head through an (brain). The antennae, eyes, and
Compound eye open circulatory other sense organs are concentrated
on the head.

Tracheal tubes
system.
Antennae
Ovary
Dorsal
artery Crop

Spiracles Spiricles
Malpighian tubules.
Metabolic wastes are
removed from the Vagina
Anus

hemolymph by excretory
for air to organs called Malpighian

Malpighian tubules enter

trachea
tubules, which are out-
pocketings of the
digestive tract.
Tracheal tubes. Gas exchange in insects is Nerve cords. The insect Insect mouthparts are formed from

Closed respiratory system

accomplished by a tracheal system of branched, nervous system several pairs of modified appendages.
chitin-lined tubes that infiltrate the body and consists of a pair of The mouthparts include mandibles,
carry oxygen directly to cells. The tracheal ventral nerve cords which grasshoppers use for chewing.
system opens to the outside of the body with several In other insects, mouthparts are
through spiracles, pores that can control air segmental ganglia. specialized for lapping, piercing, or

Book lung of spiders Figure 33.35 flow and water loss by opening or closing. sucking.

Echinoderms: Deuterostomes.
Green gland Unique to echinoderms is a water vascular system
– A network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet that function in
Echinodermata locomotion, feeding, and gas exchange

Madreporite Central disk. The central

disk has a nerve ring and
nerve cords radiating from
Anus
Stomach Spine

the ring into the arms. Gills

Ring canal Digestive glands secrete

Radial
Madreporite. Water can flow
in or out of the water vascular
system into the surrounding
digestive juices and aid in Gonads nerve
Ring water through the madreporite.

Tube feet
the absorption and storage canal Ampulla
of nutrients. Podium
Tube
feet
Radial canal. The water vascular

Water vascular system system consists of a ring canal in the

central disk and five radial canals,
each running in a groove down the
Branching from each radial canal are hundreds of hollow, muscular tube
feet filled with fluid for suction and movement.
entire length of an arm.

Ampula

16
 Bony Fish = Osteichthyes: Fishes breathe by drawing water over four
or five pairs of gills

Chapter 34: Vertebrates Two-chambered heart mixes O2

and CO2

Countercurrent
exchange in gills

Dorsal nerve cord Swim bladder

Dorsal fin Adipose fin
(characteristic of
Caudal
fin
Spinal cord trout)

Notochord
Brain
Nostril

Pharyngeal gill slits

Tunicate Cut edge of
operculum Gills
Gonad
Urinary
Anus bladder
Anal fin

Heart
Liver Lateral
Chondrichthyes Figure 34.16
Kidney
Stomach Pelvic fin line = sensory

Intestine

Osteichthyes
2-Chambered heart
Lateral line
Swim bladder
Countercurrent circulation over gills
Amphibia
3-Chambered heart
• Concept 34.6: Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg
External fertilization • Amniotes are a group of tetrapods that have eggs with protective
membranes

Eggs laid in Water – Whose living members are the reptiles, including birds, and the
mammals
Extraembryonic membranes

Amniotes Allantois. The allantois is a disposal Chorion. The chorion and the membrane of the
allantois exchange gases between the embryo
sac for certain metabolic wastes pro-
duced by the embryo. The membrane and the air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse

Yoke Sac for blood production of the allantois also functions with
the chorion as a respiratory organ.
Amnion. The amnion protects
the embryo in a fluid-filled
freely across the shell.
Yolk sac. The yolk sac contains the
yolk, a stockpile of nutrients. Blood
vessels in the yolk sac membrane transport

Allantoids
cavity that cushions against nutrients from the yolk into the embryo.
mechanical shock. Other nutrients are stored in the albumen (“egg white”).

Chorion
Embryo

Amniotic cavity
with amniotic fluid

Amnion Yolk (nutrients)

Reptiles Albumen
Shell
Figure 34.24
Eggs laid on land
Most are Ectotherms
3-Chambered Hearts
Aves
4-Chambered Hearts
Feathers are modified scales

Mammals

17
 Placenta
Primates

Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nerve tissue
Kleenex tissue
Basal metabolic rate
Standard metabolic rate
Torpor
Estivation • Glucose is a major fuel for cells
• Its metabolism, regulated by hormone action, is an important example
of homeostasis

When fewer 1 When blood glucose

level rises, a gland called
calories are the pancreas secretes insulin,
taken in than are a hormone, into the blood.

expended 2 Insulin enhances the

transport of glucose into body
Fuel is cells and stimulates the liver
taken out and muscle cells to store
glucose as glycogen. As a
of storage STIMULUS: result, blood glucose level
Blood glucose drops.
(adipose) level rises
after eating.
and
oxidized Homeostasis:
90 mg glucose/
100 mL blood

4 Glucagon promotes

Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition

the breakdown of
glycogen in the
liver and the STIMULUS:
release of glucose Blood glucose
into the blood, level drops
increasing blood below set point. 3 When blood glucose
Figure 41.3
Insulin
glucose level. level drops, the pancreas
secretes the hormone
glucagon, which opposes
the effect of insulin.

Glucagon
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Set point
Leptin
• Several chemical signals called hormones
PYY – Regulate both long-term and short-term
appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the
Ghrelin brain
Secreted by the stomach

Limiting factor
wall, ghrelin is one of the
signals that triggers feelings
of hunger as mealtimes
approach. In dieters who lose
weight, ghrelin levels increase,

Vitamins
Produced by adipose (fat) which may be one reason
tissue, leptin suppresses it’s so hard to stay on a diet.
appetite as its level increases.
When body fat decreases,
leptin levels fall, and appetite
increases.

Coenzymes Insulin
Ghrelin

The hormone PYY, A rise in blood sugar level

Leptin
secreted by the small after a meal stimulates

Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

PYY
intestine after meals, the pancreas to secrete
acts as an appetite insulin (see Figure 41.3).
suppressant that In addition to its other
Figure 41.5 counters the appetite functions, insulin suppresses
stimulant ghrelin. appetite by acting on the brain.

Minerals Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

18
 Ca
P
Na
S
K
Fe
I
Cofactors Oral cavity, Polysaccharides
Carbohydrate digestion

Disaccharides
Protein digestion Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion

pharynx, (starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose)

esophagus

Intracellular digestion
Salivary amylase

Smaller polysaccharides,
maltose

Stomach

Extracellular digestion
Proteins

Pepsin

Small polypeptides

Gastrointestinal cavity (tract)

Lumen of Polysaccharides Polypeptides DNA, RNA Fat globules (Insoluble in
small intes- water, fats aggregate as
tine Pancreatic amylases globules.)
Pancreatic trypsin and Pancreatic
chymotrypsin (These proteases nucleases
Bile salts
cleave bonds adjacent to certain
Maltose and other
amino acids.)

Epiglottis
disaccharides
Fat droplets (A coating of
bile salts prevents small drop-
Nucleotides
Smaller lets from coalescing into
polypeptides larger globules, increasing
exposure to lipase.)

HCl
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic lipase

Amino acids
Glycerol, fatty
acids, glycerides

Pepsinogen Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush Disaccharidases
Small peptides

Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase (These

Nucleotidases

Nucleosides
border) proteases split Nucleosidases
off one amino acid at a time, working from opposite ends of a

Pepsin
and
polypeptide.) phosphatases

Monosaccharides Nitrogenous bases,

Amino acids
sugars, phosphates

Chief cells
Figure 41.21
Parietal cells Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Amylases (amylase, pancreatic amylase)

Pepsin, trypsin, peptidases
(carboxypeptidases, dipeptidases,
• Hormones help coordinate the secretion of
aminopeptidases) digestive juices into the alimentary canal
Cholecystokinin
Secretin Enterogastrone secreted by the
Liver duodenum inhibits peristalsis and

Gastrin acid secretion by the stomach,

thereby slowing digestion when
Entero- acid chyme rich in fats enters the
gastrone duodenum.
Enterogastrone Gall-
bladder
Gastrin Gastrin from the stomach
CCK recirculates via the bloodstream
Microvilli Stomach
back to the stomach, where it
stimulates the production
Amino acids or fatty acids in the
duodenum trigger the release of Pancreas of gastric juices.

Lacteal cholecystokinin (CCK), which

stimulates the release of digestive Secretin
enzymes from the pancreas and bile Duodenum

Chylomicrons from the gallbladder.

CCK
Secreted by the duodenum,
secretin stimulates the pancreas
Key to release sodium bicarbonate,
which neutralizes acid chyme
Small intestine as place where Figure 41.22
Stimulation
Inhibition
from the stomach.

most of the digestion and Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

absorption occur

19
Small intestine needs to be larger in Herbivores
Colon absorption of Vitamin K and Water
Ruminants
Cellulose in intestinal protests = symbiotic with ruminants
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
• Herbivores generally have longer alimentary canals than carnivores
– Reflecting the longer time needed to digest vegetation
• Many herbivorous animals have fermentation chambers
– Where symbiotic microorganisms digest cellulose
• The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet
– Have evolved in the animals called ruminants

1 Rumen. When the cow first chews and

swallows a mouthful of grass, boluses
(green arrows) enter the rumen.

Reticulum. Some boluses

2
also enter the reticulum. In
both the rumen and the
Intestine
reticulum, symbiotic prokaryotes
and protists (mainly ciliates) go
to work on the cellulose-rich
meal. As by-products of their
metabolism, the microorganisms
secrete fatty acids. The cow
periodically regurgitates and
rechews the cud (red arrows),
which further breaks down the
fibers, making them more
accessible to further microbial
action.

Esophagus

Figure 41.28
4 Abomasum. The cud, containing great numbers of microorganisms, 3 Omasum. The cow then reswallows
finally passes to the abomasum for digestion by the cow‘s own the cud (blue arrows), which moves to
enzymes (black arrows). the omasum, where water is removed.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Hemolymph • Vertebrate circulatory systems

5 Ring hearts

differentiate the heart structure and FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS) MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Gill capillaries Lung and skin capillaries Lung capillaries Lung capillaries

circulatory patterns to gills/lungs and system in

Artery Pulmocutaneous Right Pulmonary
Gill Pulmonary
circulation • The heart rate, also
circuit called the pulse
systemic circuit circuit
aorta
Heart:

Fish ventricle (V)

Atrium (A)
A
– Is theAnumber of beatsA per minute A
Left
Systemic A A
V V V aorta V V

Systemic
• The cardiac output
Right Left Right Left Right Left
Systemic Systemic
Vein circulation
Amphibians circuit circuit
– Is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per
minute

Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries

Reptiles Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 42.4

Birds

20

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Mammals

Identify the chambers, blood flow patterns during systole and diastole in the mammalian heart

• The velocity of blood flow varies in the circulatory system

– And is slowest in the capillary beds as a result of the high
resistance and large total cross-sectional area
• Blood pressure
– Is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel

5,000
4,000

Area (cm2)
3,000
2,000
Systolic pressure 1,000
0
Is the pressure in the arteries during
SA vs. AV nodes ventricular systole Velocity (cm/sec)
50
40
30
20
Is the highest pressure in the arteries 10
0
Diastolic pressure
Parasympathetic slows heart via acetylcholine, Is the pressure in the arteries during
diastole
Is lower than systolic pressure
Pressure (mm Hg)

120
100 Systolic

Sympathetic speeds heart via Adrenalin 80

60
40
20
Diastolic
pressure
pressure

0
Capillaries
Arteries

Veins
Aorta

Venae cavae
Venules
Arterioles

Differentiate systolic from diastolic blood Figure 42.11

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

pressure; Identify places where blood pressure is highest/lowest

The difference between blood pressure (hydrostatic pressure) and osmotic pressure Drives fluids out of

capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end

Blood Cells

Red: carry oxygen via hemoglobin with 4 Fe atoms

Lymphocytes: produce antibodies

21
 Neutrophils: phagocytosis

Macrophages: large phagocytes that can present Antigen (antigen-presenting cells = APCs)

Platelets: blood clotting; release ADP to attract other platelets

Hemostasis – Blood Clotting. Requires Calcium. Results in conversion of thromboplastin to Thrombin,

which converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin, which is the clotted fiber.

Blood Components

Plasma: 55%, mainly water and proteins made in the liver

Bubby Coat: platelets and white blood cells

Red blood cells: 45%

Serum: plasma without the clotting factors

Respiration
• The effectiveness of gas exchange in some
gills, including those of fishes
Countercurrent exchange in fish
– Is increased by ventilation and countercurrent
flow of blood and water
Oxygen-poor
blood
Gill arch
Oxygen-rich
Lamella
blood
Blood
vessel
Gill
arch

Water
flow Operculum

O2 Blood flow
Water flow through capillaries
over lamellae in lamellae
showing % O2 showing % O 2
Figure 42.21
Gill
filaments Countercurrent exchange

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Tracheal Systems in Insects

• The tracheal system of insects
– Consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate the body

Closed Respiratory System

Air sacs

Tracheae

Insects used Closed respiratory systems

Spiracle

with air moving into spiracles in the
(a) The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched internal
tubes that deliver air directly to body cells. Rings of chitin reinforce
the largest tubes, called tracheae, keeping them from collapsing.
Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs that require
a large supply of oxygen. Air enters the tracheae through openings
called spiracles on the insect’s body surface and passes into smal ler
tubes called tracheoles. The tracheoles are closed and contain fluid
(blue-gray). When the animal is active and is using more O2, most of
Figure 42.22a

exoskeleton and into tracheal tubes

the fluid is withdrawn into the body. This increases the surface area
of air in contact with cells.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

22
 Internal Lungs in spiders, land snails, most terrestrial vertebrates

Human respiratory structures:

Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look
Pharynx •A system of branching ducts
– Conveys air to the lungs

Larynx Branch Branch

from the from the
pulmonary pulmonary
vein artery
(oxygen-rich (oxygen-poor

(esophagus): tube: mouth to stomach Nasal

blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
blood)

cavity
Pharynx
Left

epiglottis
Larynx lung Alveoli

5 0 µm
Esophagus
Trachea

Right lung

50 µm
Bronchus

trachea Bronchiole

Diaphragm
Heart SEM Colorized SEM

bronchial tubes Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 42.23

alveoli (sacks that are 1-cell thick where air exchange occurs)

Medulla in brain controls breathing

Air Exchange: Gases move from high to low Inhaled air Exhaled air

120 27
160 0.2 Alveolar spaces
partial pressure in both the lungs and in the tissue Gasses diffuse Alveolar
O2 CO2
104 40
O2 CO2
O2 CO2

epithelial
from high Partial cells
CO2 O2 2
Pressure to Low Blood
1
Blood
entering leaving
in both the Lungs alveolar O2 alveolar
and Tissue. capillaries capillaries
Alveolar
40 45 104 40
O2 CO2 capillaries O2 CO2
of lung
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries veins

Systemic
Systemic arteries
veins Heart
Tissue
O2
CO2 capillaries
3
Blood 4 Blood
leaving entering
tissue tissue
capillaries capillaries

40 45 CO2 O2 100 40
O2 CO2 O2 CO2

(a) PO2 and Hemoglobin Dissociation at 37°C and pH 7.4 Tissue O2 unloaded from
100
O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)

cells hemoglobin
during normal
Figure 42.27 <40 >45
O2 CO2 80 metabolism

O2 reserve that can

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 60 be unloaded from
In the lungs, the pH increases, increasing hemoglobin to
tissues with high
hemoglobin affinity for oxygen, so oxygen 40 metabolism
moves from the tissue into the blood.
20
In tissue, the pH drops, causing unloading
of oxygen from the blood into the tissue. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Exercise causes further drops in the tissue
Tissues during Tissues Lungs
pH, thus more oxygen is unloaded into exercise at rest
metabolically active tissue.
PO (mm Hg)
2

(b) pH and Hemoglobin Dissociation 100

O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)

pH 7.4
80
Bohr shift:
60 Additional O2
released from
40 pH 7.2 hemoglobin at
lower pH

20 23
(higher CO2
concentration)

Figure 42.29a, b 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PO2 (mm Hg)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Bohr Shift

80% of all CO2 is carried in Plasma in the form of HCO3.

Tissue cell
1 Carbon dioxide produced by CO2 transport 7 Most of the HCO3– diffuse
CO2 produced from tissues

Transport of CO2 body tissues diffuses into the

interstitial fluid and the plasma. Interstitial CO2
into the plasma where it is
carried in the bloodstream to
fluid
the lungs.
1
2 Over 90% of the CO2 diffuses Blood plasma CO2
Capillary
into red blood cells, leaving only 7% within capillary
wall 8 In the Lungs, the HCO3– diffuse
in the plasma as dissolved CO2. 2
from the plasma to red blood cells,
CO2
3
H2O 4 combining with H+ released from
3 Very Little CO2 is picked up and Red H2CO3
Hemoglobin hemoglobin and forming H2CO3.
transported by hemoglobin. blood Carbonic acid Hb picks up
cell CO2 and H+
6
5
HCO3– + H+ 9 Carbonic acid is converted back
Bicarbonate
4 However, most CO 2 reacts with water into CO2 and water.
HCO3 – 7
in red blood cells, forming carbonic To lungs

acid (H2CO3), a reaction catalyzed by 10 CO2 formed from H 2CO 3 is unloaded

carbonic anhydrase contained. Within HCO3–
CO2 transport
to lungs from hemoglobin and diffuses into the
red blood cells. 8
interstitial fluid.
HCO3 – + H+
11 CO2 diffuses into the alveolar
5 Carbonic acid dissociates into a Hemoglobin space, from which it is expelled
Chapter
biocarbonate ion43: (HCO3–)The
andImmune
a System H2 CO3 Hb releases
CO2 and H+
during exhalation. The reduction
hydrogen ion (H+). 9 of CO2 concentration in the plasma
H2O
CO2 drives the breakdown of H2CO3
– Innate immunity and acquired immunity Into CO2 and water in the red blood
6 Hemoglobin binds most of the cells (see step 9), a reversal of the
CO2
H+ •from Innate immunity
H2CO3 preventing the H+
Figure reaction
43.1 that occurs in the tissues 3m
from acidifying the blood and thus (see step 4).
CO2 10
Is present
preventing–the Bohr shift. before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth
CO2 11
Figure –42.30Involves nonspecific responses to pathogens
Alveolar space in lung

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Rapid responses to a Slower responses to
Low pH, Lysozymes in broad range of microbes specific microbes
Tears, Cilia,
Also Called Adaptive
External defenses Internal defenses Immunity

Skin Phagocytic cells Humoral response

Chapter 43: Immune System Mucous membranes Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies)

Invading Secretions Inflammatory response

Cell-mediated response
microbes Natural killer cells
(cytotoxic
(pathogens)
lymphocytes)

Figure 43.2
24

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Innate vs Acquired Immunity

Phagocytic Cells
• Phagocytes attach to their prey via surface receptors
– And engulf them, forming a vacuole that fuses with a lysosome
• Macrophages, a specific type of phagocyte
General phagocytosis, Lysosomes, etc. – Can be found migrating through the body
– Can be found in various organs of the lymphatic system
1 Pseudopodia
surround
Microbes microbes.

2 Microbes
are engulfed
into cell.
MACROPHAGE

3 Vacuole
containing
microbes
forms.
Vacuole Lysosome
containing 4 Vacuole
enzymes and lysosome
fuse.

5 Toxic
compounds
and lysosomal
enzymes
destroy microbes.

6 Microbial
debris is
released by
Figure 43.4 exocytosis.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Thymus Gland for maturation of T-Cells

25
 Spleen for immune surveillance of blood and destruction of red blood cells

Interferons interfere with viral Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes

replication in neighboring cells
Diapedesis: squeezing of white
• The vertebrate body is populated by two main types of lymphocytes
– B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells), both of which circulate
through the blood
• B cell receptor bind to specific, intact antigens and respond by producing plasma
cells that make antibodies, and memory cells.

blood cells into an area of infection Antigen-

binding
Antigen-
binding site
site V Disulfide
The variable region is the bridge

V
V
Variable

V
ONLY region that binds to Light

Heparine and histamine: make antigen. The Constant

chain
C
regions

C
region is the same for all Constant
C C regions
antibodies. Thus only the
Transmembrane
variable area needs to be
blood vessels leaky to fluids and specially coded-for in the
region

DNA.
Plasma

diapedesis, resulting in swelling Heavy chains

membrane

B cell Cytoplasm of B cell

(edema) (a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy

chains and two identical light chains linked by
Figure 43.8a several disulfide bridges.

Antibody Structure Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• An antigen is any foreign molecule

– That is specifically recognized by lymphocytes
and elicits a response from them
• A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds
– To just a small, accessible portion of the antigen
called an epitope
Antigen Antigen-
binding Epitopes
Antibody A sites (antigenic
Epitope determinants)

Antigen

Antibody B
Antibody C
Figure 43.7
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26
MHC Type 1
• Class I MHC molecules, found on almost all
Cytotoxic T-Cells nucleated cells of the body
– Display peptide antigens to cytotoxic T cells
Infected cell
1 A fragment of
foreign protein
Antigen (antigen) inside the
An additional CD8 fragment cell associates with
molecule “double- an MHC molecule
checks” the “match” by and is transported
binding from the 1 to the cell surface.
Cytotoxic-T cell
receptor to the Class I Class I MHC
MHC. molecule CD8

2 2 The combination of
T cell MHC molecule and
receptor antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it
to the infection.

Figure 43.9a (a) Cytotoxic T cell

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

MHC Class II • Class II MHC molecules, located mainly on dendritic cells,

macrophages, and B cells
– Display antigens to helper T cells
T-Helper Cells
Microbe Antigen-
presenting
Cytokines 1 A fragment of
foreign protein
cell

(antigen) inside the Antigen

An additional CD4 fragment
molecule “double- cell associates with
checks” the “match” an MHC molecule
by binding from the and is transported
to the cell surface. 1 Found on
Helper-T cell receptor Macrophages,
Class II MHC
to the Class II MHC. B cells and
molecule
dendritic cells
2 The combination of 2
CD4 T cell
MHC molecule and receptor
antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it Produce Cytokines which
to the infection. cause B and T-Cells to divide
and activate.

Helper T cell
Figure 43.9b (b)
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27
Clonal Selection of B-Cells
• In a primary immune response
Opsonization – Binding of antigen to a mature lymphocyte induces the lymphocyte’s proliferation and
differentiation, a process called clonal selection
• Clonal selection of B cells
– Generates a clone of short-lived activated effector cells and a clone of long-lived memory cells

Antigen molecules
Antigen molecules bind to the antigen
B cells that
receptors of only one
differ in
of the three B cells
antigen
shown.
specificity Antigen
receptor

The selected B cell

proliferates, forming
a clone of identical
cells bearing
receptors for the
selecting antigen.

Some proliferating cells Some proliferating

develop into long-lived cells develop into
memory cells that can Antibody short-lived plasma
respond rapidly upon molecules cells that secrete
subsequent exposure antibodies specific
to the same antigen. Clone of memory cells for the antigen.
Clone of plasma cells
Figure 43.12
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• In the secondary immune response, memory cells facilitate a faster, more

efficient response. Their creation is the primary reason for most
Immunizations.

1 Day 1: First 3 Day 28: 4 Secondary response to anti-

2 Primary
exposure to Second exposure gen A produces antibodies
response to
antigen A to antigen A; first to A; primary response to anti-
antigen A
produces anti- exposure to gen B produces antibodies to B
bodies to A antigen B

104
Antibody concentration
(arbitrary units)

103

102 Antibodies Antibodies

to A to B
1
10

Memory Cells
100
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
Figure 43.13
Time (days)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Concept 43.3: Humoral and cell-mediated immunity defend against different

types of threats
• Acquired immunity includes two branches
– The humoral immune response involves the activation and clonal selection
of B cells, resulting in the production of secreted antibodies
– The cell-mediated immune response involves the activation and clonal
selection of cytotoxic T cells
Humoral immune response Cell-mediated immune response

First exposure to antigen

Antigens engulfed and Antigens displayed

Intact antigens displayed by dendritic cells by infected cells

Activate Activate Activate

Secreted
cytokines
B cell Helper activate Cytotoxic
T cell T cell

Gives rise to Gives rise to Gives rise to

Humoral Immunity Destroy your

viral-infected
Active and Memory cells, cancer
Plasma Memory Active
memory
cytotoxic cytotoxic
cells B cells helper T cells T cells
cells,
T cells
transplanted
cells.
Secrete antibodies that defend against Defend against infected cells, cancer
pathogens and toxins in extracellular fluid cells, and transplanted tissues
Figure 43.14
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

28
Cell Mediated Immunity

• The five classes of immunoglobulins

IgM First Ig class produced after initial exposure to
(pentamer) antigen; then its concentration in the blood declines

IgM J chain
Promotes neutralization and agglutination of
antigens; very effective in complement activation
(see Figure 43.19)

IgG Most abundant Ig class in blood; also present in

IgG
(monomer) tissue fluids
Only Ig class that crosses placenta, thus conferring
passive immunity on fetus

Promotes opsonization, neutralization, and agglutination

of antigens; less effective in complement activation than
IgM (see Figure 43.19)

IgA IgA
(dimer)
Present in secretions such as tears, saliva, mucus,
and breast milk

Secretory J chain Provides localized defense of mucous membranes by

agglutination and neutralization of antigens (see

IgE
component
Figure 43.19)

Presence in breast milk confers passive immunity on

nursing infant

IgE
(monomer) Triggers release from mast cells and basophils of
histamine and other chemicals that cause allergic
reactions (see Figure 43.20)

IgD Present primarily on surface of naive B cells that have

(monomer) not been exposed to antigens

Acts as antigen receptor in antigen-stimulated

proliferation and differentiation of B cells (clonal
Transmembrane
selection)
Figure 43.18 region

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

29
 Active and Passive Immunization
• Active immunity: You MAKE Antibodies
– Naturally acquired active immunity: You got the virus
– Artificially acquired active immunity: You got
vaccinated.
• Passive Immunity: You get antibodies from elsewhere
– Naturally acquired passive immunity: You get
antibodies from mom’s milk
– Artificially acquired passive immunity: You get COW
antibodies from a cow.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Types: Born with Antigens: A, B, Rh

– Rh+ = have the Rh Antigen

• MHC molecules are responsible for stimulating the rejection of tissue grafts and
organ transplants

Antiges You’re
born with

Table 43.1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

30
Chapter 44: Osmoregulation, Fluid Balance

Osmoregulation

Osmoconformers

Osmoregulators

Freshwater vs Saltwater Fish in

• Marine bony fishes live in Salt water and thus lose water by osmosis
terms of Osmoregulation and gain salt by both diffusion and from food they eat
• These fishes balance water loss

– By drinking seawater and excreting salt and little water in

their urine.

Gain of water and Osmotic water loss

salt ions from food
through gills and other parts
and by drinking
of body surface
seawater

Excretion of Excretion of salt ions

salt ions and small amounts
from gills of water in scanty
urine from kidneys

Figure 44.3a (a) Osmoregulation in a saltwater fish

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Freshwater Animals
• Freshwater animals
– Constantly take in water from their freshwater environment and Lose
salts by diffusion
• Freshwater animals maintain water balance
– By excreting large amounts of dilute urine
• Salts lost by diffusion
– Are replaced by foods and uptake across the gills
Osmotic water gain
through gills and other parts
of body surface
Uptake of
water and some
ions in food

Uptake of Excretion of
salt ions large amounts of
by gills water in dilute
urine from kidneys

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Marine birds have salt glands

in head that get rid of salt

31
 • Among the most important wastes
– Are the nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids

Nitrogenous Wastes Proteins Nucleic acids

Amino acids Nitrogenous bases

Role of Liver –NH2

Amino groups

Role of Kidneys

Many reptiles
Most aquatic Mammals, most (including
animals, including amphibians, sharks,
birds), insects,
most bony fishes some bony fishes
land snails
The LIVER of Mammals
O
and Amphibians convert H
C
Ammonia to Urea HN C N
NH2 C O
O C C C N
NH3 O N
NH2 H H
Ammonia Urea Uric acid

To be Excreted Excreted as
by Kidneys white paste in
with small amt. poop
of water.
Figure 44.8
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Structures for removal of nitrogenous wastes: Vertebrate Kidneys

Metanephridia of earthworms • Concept 44.4: Nephrons and associated blood
vessels are the functional unit of the
Flame bulbs (cells) of planaria mammalian kidney

Malpighian tubules of terrestrial arthropods

Posterior vena cava

Kidneys with nephrons in vertebrates Renal artery and vein

Aorta Kidney

Ureter

Urinary bladder

Urethra

(a) Excretory organs and major

associated blood vessels

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

32
Glomerulus
• The nephron, the functional unit of the vertebrate
Juxtamedullary nephron kidney
Bowman’s capsule – Consists of a single long tubule and a ball of
capillaries called the glomerulus
Proximal tubule Juxta- Cortical
medullary nephron
nephron Afferent
arteriole
from renal Glomerulus
Collecting duct Renal
artery
Bowman’s capsule
cortex Proximal tubule
Peritubular
capillaries

Collecting
SEM
duct 20 µm
Efferent Distal
Renal
arteriole from tubule
To medulla glomerulus
renal
pelvis Branch of Collecting
renal vein duct
Descending
Loop limb
of
Ascending
Henle
limb
Figure 44.13c, d Vasa
(d) Filtrate and recta
(c) Nephron
blood flow
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

From Blood Filtrate to Urine: A Closer Look

• Filtrate becomes urine
– As it flows through the mammalian nephron and collecting duct

1 Proximal tubule 4 Distal tubule

NaCl Nutrients H2 O
HCO3 H2O K+ NaCl HCO3

H+ NH3 K+ H+

CORTEX
2 Descending limb 3 Thick segment
Filtrate of loop of of ascending
H2O Henle limb
Cells and Large Salts (NaCl and others) NaCl
Proteins Stay in HCO3–
H2O
H+
Blood Urea OUTER NaCl
Glucose; amino acids MEDULLA
Some drugs 3 Thin segment 5 Collecting
of ascending duct
limb
Key Urea

Active transport NaCl H2O

Passive transport INNER
MEDULLA

Figure 44.14
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33
 Reabsorption = Stuff going Back to Blood
• Secretion and
reabsorption in the
proximal tubule
– Substantially alter
the volume and
composition of
filtrate
• Reabsorption of water
continues..
– As the filtrate
moves into the
descending limb of
the loop of Henle

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• As filtrate travels through the

ascending limb of the loop of
Henle
– Salt diffuses out of the
permeable tubule into the
interstitial fluid
• The distal tubule
– Plays a key role in
regulating the K+ and NaCl
concentration of body
fluids and is influenced by
the hormone Aldosterone
• The collecting duct
– Carries the filtrate through
the medulla to the renal
pelvis and reabsorbs NaCl

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

34
 • Two solutes, NaCl and urea, contribute to the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid
– Which causes the reabsorption of water in the kidney and concentrates the urine
• The countercurrent multiplier system involving the loop of Henle
– Maintains a high salt concentration in the interior of the kidney, which
enables the kidney to form concentrated urine

The collecting duct, permeable

Osmolarity of
to water but not salt interstitial
Conducts the filtrate 300
fluid
(mosm/L)
through the kidney’s 300
300 100

osmolarity gradient, and 100

300 300
more water exits the filtrate CORTEX H2O NaCl H2O

by osmosis. Urea diffuses Active

400 200 400
transport 400
out of the collecting duct Passive
H2O NaCl H2O

As it traverses the inner transport

H2O NaCl H2O
medulla
OUTER NaCl
Urea and NaCl MEDULLA
H2O
600 400
H2O
600 600
Form the osmotic gradient H2O NaCl H2O
that enables the kidney to Urea
H2O NaCl H2O 900
produce urine that is 900 700
Urea
hyperosmotic to the blood INNER H2O NaCl H2O
1200
MEDULLA Urea
1200
1200
Figure 44.15
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The osmolarity of the urine

– Is regulated by nervous and hormonal control of water and salt reabsorption in the
kidneys
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
– Increases water reabsorption in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the
kidney
Osmoreceptors
in hypothalamus Thirst
Hypothalamus
Drinking reduces
Alcohol decreases blood osmolarity
to set point
ADH, which is why ADH
Increased
you have no fun when permeability

drinking (you’re Pituitary

gland
always peeing!) Distal
tubule Effect of ADH
H2O reab-
Animation
sorption helps
STIMULUS: prevent further
The release of ADH is osmolarity
triggered when osmo- increase
receptor cells in the Collecting duct
hypothalamus detect an
increase in the osmolarity
of the blood

Homeostasis:
Blood osmolarity

Figure 44.16a (a) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances fluid retention by making
the kidneys reclaim more water.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

35
• The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
– Is part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis. It is
activated during exercise in order to conserve water.
• Another hormone, atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)
– Opposes the RAAS when the atria detect high blood pressure. ANF decreases blood
volume and pressure.

Homeostasis:
Blood pressure,
volume
Increased Na+
Returns and H2O reab-
sorption in
water and distal tubules

Na to the STIMULUS:
The juxtaglomerular
blood apparatus (JGA) responds
to low blood volume or
Aldosterone blood pressure (such as due
to dehydration or loss of
blood)

Arteriole
constriction
Adrenal gland

Angiotensin II
Distal
tubule

Angiotensinogen

JGA

Renin
production

Renin

Figure 44.16b (b) The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) leads to an increase

in blood volume and pressure.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

36
 • The major human endocrine glands
Chapter 45: Endocrine System
Hyopthalamus: monitors
many things, releases
“releasing hormones” that
Control Ctr.
stimulate the Pituitary to
Melatonin → Sleep Hypothalamus release hormones, which have
The Master Pineal gland an effect somewhere, causing
things to stabilize, which is
Pituitary gland
Gland locations Increase Metabol. Thyroid gland
detected by the hypothalamus
and pituitary, shutting if all off.
Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid H, ↑ Ca++ in
blood

Adrenalin
Adrenal glands
Insulin, Glucagon
Pancreas
Estrogen + Progesteron Ovary
(female)

Testosterone Testis
(male)

pituitary gland Figure 45.6

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oxytocin

ADH • Major human endocrine glands and some of

their hormones
Growth hormone

Prolactin

FSH

TSH

Table 45.1
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37
Pancreas

Insulin

Glucagon

Pineal gland = sleep

Table 45.1

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

– Control the secretion of thyroid hormones
through two negative feedback loops
Hypothalamus

Anterior
pituitary

TSH

Thyroid

Figure 45.9 T3 + T4
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

38
 Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Control of
Blood Calcium
• Two antagonistic hormones, parathyroid hormone
(PTH) and calcitonin
Parathyroid hormone by parathyroid gland
– Play the major role in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis
in mammals Thyroid gland Calcitonin

Calcitonin by thyroid gland

releases
calcitonin.
Reduces
Stimulates Ca2+ uptake
Ca2+ deposition in kidneys
in bones

STIMULUS: Blood Ca2+

Rising blood level declines
Ca2+ level to set point

Homeostasis:
Blood Ca2+ level
(about 10 mg/100 mL)

Blood Ca2+ STIMULUS:

level rises Falling blood
to set point Ca2+ level
Stimulates Parathyroid
Ca2+ release gland
from bones

PTH

Increases
Ca 2+ uptake
in intestines
Active Stimulates Ca2+

Figure 45.11 vitamin D

uptake in kidneys

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Set point • Maintenance of glucose homeostasis

Body cells
Insulin take up more
glucose.

Pancreas
Beta cells of
pancreas are stimulated
to release insulin
into the blood.

Liver takes

Insulin lowers blood sugar up glucose

and stores it
as glycogen.
STIMULUS:
Blood glucose level
Rising blood glucose
declines to set point;
level (for instance, after
stimulus for insulin
Glucagon raises blood sugar eating a carbohydrate-
rich meal)
release diminishes.

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level

Glycogen is stored glucose (stored in (about 90 mg/100 mL)

Blood glucose level STIMULUS:

rises to set point; Dropping blood glucose
stimulus for glucagon level (for instance, after

muscle and liver) release diminishes. skipping a meal)

Alpha cells of pancreas

are stimulated to release
glucagon into the blood.
Liver breaks
down glycogen
and releases
glucose into Glucagon
Figure 45.12 blood.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

39
 • In insects
– Molting and development are controlled by
three main hormones
1 Neurosecretory cells in the brain produce Brain
brain hormone (BH), which is stored in
the corpora cardiaca (singular, corpus
cardiacum) until release.

Ecdysone: stimulates molts Brain

hormone (BH)
Neurosecretory cells

Corpus cardiacum

Corpus allatum
Low
Prothoracic 4 Juvenile hormone (JH), secreted by the corpora allata,
JH determines the result of the molt. At relatively high concen-
gland trations of JH, ecdysone-stimulated molting produces
another larval stage. JH suppresses metamorphosis.
Ecdysone But when levels of JH fall below a certain concentration, a
pupa forms at the next ecdysone-induced molt. The adult
Juvenile insect emerges from the pupa.
2 BH signals its main target
organ, the prothoracic hormone
gland, to produce the (JH)
hormone ecdysone.

• The reproductive cycle of the human female

EARLY LATER
3 Ecdysone secretion
LARVA LARVA PUPA ADULT
from the prothoracic
gland is episodic, with (a)
Control by hypothalamus

Chapters 46 – 47
each release stimulating Inhibited by combination of
estrogen and progesterone
a molt. Hypothalamus

Figure 45.15 1 GnRH

Stimulated by high levels
of estrogen
Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of
estrogen
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 2 FSH LH
(b)

Asexual Reproduction:
Pituitary gonadotropins
in blood 6

Hermaphroditic LH

Parthenogenesis
FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8

Fission Growing follicle Mature Corpus

luteum
Degenerating
corpus luteum

Budding
follicle
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
Estrogen secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estrogen secreted

Vegetative reproduction in plants (new plant from cutting, runners)

increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d)
Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood 5 LH surge

10
Estrogen Progesterone

Estrogen level Progesterone and estro-

9
very low gen promote thickening
of endometrium
(e)
Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium Endometrium

Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Estrogen Figure 46.13a–e 0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28

ays
D

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Progesterone

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) Chapter 47: Developmental Biology

• The acrosomal reaction
1 Contact. The 2 Acrosomal reaction. Hydrolytic 3 Contact and fusion of sperm 4 Entry of 5 Cortical reaction. Fusion of the
sperm cell enzymes released from the and egg membranes. A hole sperm nucleus. gamete membranes triggers an

Acrosome contacts the

egg’s jelly coat,
triggering
exocytosis from the
acrosome make a hole in the
jelly coat, while growing actin
filaments form the acrosomal
process. This structure protrudes
sperm’s acrosome. from the sperm head and
penetrates the jelly coat, binding
to receptors in the egg cell
membrane that extend through
the vitelline layer.
is made in the vitelline layer,
allowing contact and fusion of
the gamete plasma membranes.
The membrane becomes
increase of Ca2+ in the egg’s
cytosol, causing cortical granules
in the egg to fuse with the plasma
membrane and discharge their
depolarized, resulting in the contents. This leads to swelling of the
fast block to polyspermy. perivitelline space, hardening of the
vitelline layer, and clipping of
sperm-binding receptors. The resulting
fertilization envelope is the slow block

Ca++ Sperm plasma

membrane
to polyspermy.

Sperm
nucleus
Acrosomal
Ca++
process

Depolarization of membrane to block polyspermy

Basal body
(centriole)
Sperm Fertilization
head envelope
Fused plasma
Cortical membranes
granule
Actin
Perivitelline
Hydrolytic enzymes

Cleavage
space
Acrosome Cortical granule
Jelly coat Vitelline layer membrane
Egg plasma
Sperm-binding EGG CYTOPLASM
membrane
receptors
Figure 47.3
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Blastula

Blastocoel • Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large

cell
– Into many smaller cells called blastomeres

(a) Fertilized egg. Shown here is the
zygote shortly before the first
cl eavage division, surrounded
by the ferti lization envelope.
The nucl eus is visible i n the
center.
(b) Four -cell stage. Rem nants of the (c) Morula. After further cleavage (d) Blastula. A singl e layer of cells
mitotic spindl e can be seen divi sions, the embryo is a surrounds a large blastocoel
between the two cells that have multicellular ball that is still cavity. Although not visible here,
just completed the second surrounded by the fertilizati on the fertilization env elope is still
cleav age divi sion. envelope. The blastocoel cavity present; the embryo will soon
has begun to form. hat ch from it and begin swi mm ing.

Figure 47.7a–d

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40
 Homeotic genes • The development of body axes in frogs
– Is influenced by the polarity of the egg
Anterior

Hox genes
(a) Body axes. The three axes of the fully developed embryo, the
tadpole, are shown above. Right

Ventral Dorsal
Homeotic genes control overall body plan.
Left
The Hox component controls dev. Of major
Posterior
body parts.
Animal hemisphere and pole Point of
Animal
hemisphere
Animal pole
1 The polarity of the egg determines the anterior-posterior axis sperm entry
Most Least
before fertilization.
Yolk
Vegetal

Vegetal hemisphere and pole hemisphere Vegetal pole

Point of
2 At fertilization, the pigmented cortex slides over the underlying sperm
cytoplasm toward the point of sperm entry. This rotation (red arrow) entry Future
exposes a region of lighter-colored cytoplasm, the gray crescent, dorsal
which is a marker of the dorsal side. side of
Gray tadpole

Gray crescent Blastocoel in 3 The first cleavage division bisects the gray crescent. Once the anterior-
posterior and dorsal-ventral axes are defined, so is the left-right axis.
crescent
First
cleavage

Figure 47.8a, b (b) Establishing the axes. The polarity of the egg and cortical rotation are critical in setting up the body axes.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Meroblastic cleavage, incomplete division of

the egg
– Occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs, such as
reptiles and birds
Fertilized egg
Disk of
cytoplasm

animal hemisphere due to large amount 1 Zygote. Most of the cell’s volume is yolk, with a small disk
of cytoplasm located at the animal pole.

2 Four-cell stage. Early cell divisions are meroblastic

of yoke in the vegetal (incomplete). The cleavage furrow extends through the
cytoplasm but not through the yolk.

Meroblastic cleavage = incomplete 3 Blastoderm. The many cleavage divisions produce the
blastoderm, a mass of cells that rests on top of the yolk mass.

Cutaway view of the blastoderm. The cells of the

blastoderm are arranged in two layers, the epiblast
and hypoblast, that enclose a fluid-filled cavity, the

division of a yolk-rich egg (birds, reptiles, Blastocoel

BLASTODERM
blastocoel.

YOLK MASS
Figure 47.10 Epiblast Hypoblast
many fish) Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Holoblastic cleavage = complete division of eggs having little yolk (as in sea urchins)

41
 • Many different structures
– Are derived from the three embryonic germ
layers during organogenesis
ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
• Epidermis of skin and its • Notochord • Epithelial lining of
derivatives (including sweat • Skeletal system digestive tract
glands, hair follicles) • Muscular system • Epithelial lining of
• Epithelial lining of mouth • Muscular layer of respiratory system
and rectum stomach, intestine, etc. • Lining of urethra, urinary
• Sense receptors in • Excretory system bladder, and reproductive
epidermis
• Cornea and lens of eye
•
systems • In these three types of organisms, the three
Circulatory and lymphatic system
• Liver
• Nervous system
• Adrenal medulla
•
germ layers
Reproductive system
(except germ cells)
• Pancreas
• Thymus
• Tooth enamel • Dermis of skin • Thyroid and parathyroid
• Epithelium or pineal and • Lining of body cavity glands
pituitary glands • Adrenal cortex – Also give rise to the four extraembryonic
Figure 47.16 membranes that surround the developing embryo
Allantois. The allantois
functions as a disposal sac for
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Amnion. The amnion protects certain metabolic wastes
the embryo in a fluid-filled produced by the embryo. The
cavity that prevents membrane of the allantois
dehydration and cushions also functions with the
mechanical shock. chorion as a respiratory organ.

Embryo
Amniotic Albumen
cavity

Amnion with
amniotic
fluid

Shell
Allantosis Chorion. The chorion and the
membrane of the allantois
exchange gases between the
embryo and the surrounding
air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Yolk
(nutrients)
Yolk sac. The yolk sac expands
over the yolk, a stockpile of
nutrients stored in the egg.
Blood vessels in the yolk sac
membrane transport nutrients

Yolk sac Figure 47.17

diffuse freely across the egg’s
shell.
from the yolk into the embryo.
Other nutrients are stored in
the albumen (the “egg white”).

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chorion

Fibronectin

Cadherins

Inductive signals

Organization of Nervous Systems

• The simplest animals with nervous systems, the cnidarians
Eyespot
Brain
Radial
nerve
Nerve
cord
Nerve Transverse
Nerve net ring nerve

Figure 48.2a
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)
Figure 48.2b
(b) Sea star (echinoderm) Figure (c)
48.2c
Planarian (flatworm)

Brain Brain
Ventral
nerve
Ventral cord
nerve
cord Segmental
Segmental ganglia

Figure 48.2d, e
ganglion
(d) Leech (annelid)
(e) Insect (arthropod)
42

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chapter 48: Nervous Systems

Nerve net

Radial nerve

Eyespot

Brain

Sensory neuron
Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)

Interneuron
Inside Axon is Negative
Outside is Positive
Membrane keeps them separate
Axon is POLARIZED
Voltage difference across the membrane is the Membrane Potential (around -70 mV)

Motor neuron If Positives come in, Depolarizes

As Positives move back out, Repolarizes
Move too many positives out, Hyperpolarizes

Schwann cells

Myelin
Figure 11.8

Nodes of Ranvier
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Presynaptic terminal Action Potential: Resting State

• Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Postsynaptic terminal • Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+
and K+
• Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated
Neuroglial cells gates
– Activation gates –
closed in the resting
Astrocytes state
– Inactivation gates –
open in the resting
Microglials state
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.12.1

Oligodendrocytes

Ependymal cells

Na+, K+, channels

Polarized

Depolarized
Phases of the Action Potential
Repolarized • 1 – resting state
• 2–
depolarization
phase
• 3 – repolarization
phase
• 4–
hyperpolarization 43

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Hyperpolarized

Local current

Action potential

Threshold

Activation and inactivation gates

All or none response

44
Salutatory nerve conduction

Schwann cells provide myelin making nerve impulse faster

Increase diameter of axon also increases impulse speed

Gray matter = unmyelinated

• When an action potential reaches a terminal
White matter = myelinated – The final result is the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Ca++ Presynaptic
cell
Postsynaptic cell

5 Na+
Synaptic vesicles Neuro-
K+

Synaptic vesicles
containing transmitter
Presynaptic
neurotransmitter
membrane
Postsynaptic
membrane

Ligand-
gated

V and T-Snares
Voltage-gated ion channel
Ca2+ channel
1 Ca2+
4 Postsynaptic
2 6
membrane

Synaptic cleft 3

Acetylcholine Ligand-gated
Figure 48.17 ion channels

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Acetylcholine receptors

Acetylcholinesterase

Neuromuscular junction

Transverse tubules

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Ca++

Actin

Troponin

Tropomyosin

Active site

Myosin • The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

– Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Myosin cross bridges Parasympathetic division
Action on target organs:
Sympathetic division

Action on target organs:

Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Location of of eye Location of
preganglionic neurons: of eye
preganglionic neurons:
brainstem and sacral

ADP and ATP

Inhibits salivary thoracic and lumbar
segments of spinal cord Stimulates salivary
gland secretion segments of spinal cord
gland secretion
Sympathetic
Neurotransmitter Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi Neurotransmitter
released by bronchi in lungs Cervical in lungs released by
preganglionic neurons: preganglionic neurons:
acetylcholine
Slows heart Accelerates heart acetylcholine

Location of
postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or
within target organs
Stimulates activity
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Stimulates activity Thoracic Location of
of stomach and postganglionic neurons:
intestines Inhibits activity
of pancreas some in ganglia close to
target organs; others in
a chain of ganglia near
of pancreas Stimulates glucose spinal cord
release from liver;

45
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates Lumbar
Neurotransmitter
gallbladder
released by Stimulates Neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons: adrenal medulla released by
acetylcholine postganglionic neurons:
Promotes emptying norepinephrine
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
of bladder

Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and

Sacral
Figure 48.22 of genitalia
Synapse vaginal contractions

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EPSP

IPSP

Temporal summation (time)

Spatial summation (place)

parasympathetic slows heart

sympathetic speeds heart, fight/flight, • Major neurotransmitters

interconnected

Table 48.1

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Acetylcholine

Brain Structures

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Brainstem

46
 Medulla oblongata

Reticular formation

Diencephalons

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Corpus callosum

Schizophrenia = too much dopamine from basal nuclei

Parkinson’s Disease = too little dopamine

Chapter 49: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

Lateral line in fish

Rhodopsin is the pigment in Rods; comes from Vitamin A

Rods

Cones

Glutamate is the neurotransmitter in rods and cones

Many skeletal muscles are antagonistic (biceps and triceps)

Twitch

Summation

Tetanus

Latent period = time between nerve impulse and actual

• A twitch
muscle contraction – Results from a single action potential in a motor neuron
• More rapidly delivered action potentials
– Produce a graded contraction by summation
– Tetanus: Cramp. Sustained contraction.

Tetanus
Tension

Summation of
two twitches
Single
twitch

Action
potential Pair of
action
potentials
Time

Series of action
potentials at
47
high frequency
Figure 49.35
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Ch 50 – 55

Innate behaviors (“genetic”): they do it with no thinking

Fixed action pattern

Kinesis

migration

“learning”

imprinting: age is critical

habituation: loss of behavior because it stops working

altruism

proximate cause of behavior: male attacks red stuff, gets to mate

ultimate cause of behavior: male that does the above is stronger and strengthens gene pool

Chapter 52

Ecology

Biotic vs. abiotic factors

Aquatic: fresh water

Marine: salt water

Photic zone

Benthic zone

Oligotrophic lake = healthy

Eutrophic lake = dying usually due to too many nutrients producing algal blooms. Algae die, rotting consumes
oxygen

48
Biomes: be able to relate the biome to its climate and rainfall

Desert

Savanna

Chaparral

Grassland

Tundra

Tropical forest

Coniferous forest

Forest Gump

Chapter 53

Population

Density of a population

Dispersion of a population

Exponential population growth

Carrying capacity

Denisty-dependent factors of population growth: competition reduces birth rate; increases death rate

Density-independent factors “: natural disasters

Chapter 54

Predation

49
 Cryptic coloration

Aposematic or warning coloration

Batesian mimicry: harmless species evolved to mimic coloration of an untasty or harmful dude

Mullerian mimicry: two bad-tasting dudes resemble each other

Symbiosis

Parasitism

Mutualism

Commensalism

Keystone species: control a community by their vital role

Dominant species: has the highest biomass (sum of the weight of all the members of a population)

Chapter 55

Ecosystem

Primary producers

Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

Primary consumers: eat the plants

Secondary consumers: eat the primary

Primary production

Gross Primary Production GPP

Net primary production: Gross Primary Production – Respiration

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen fixation: Converting N2 to a form useful to plants

50
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes

Ammonification

Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrites

51