} " WEAR

ELSEVIER Wear 216 11998) IhO-17l

Sliding wear behaviour of aluminium-based metal matrix composites

produced by a novel liquid route
P.H. Shipway *, A.R. Kennedy, A.J. Wilkes
D, Tr~rtm,.nt ,q Mul,'ri, d.~"E~z~im','rin.~ ,rod Mawri, d~ l),,.~ign. U/dw, rxily n/'Nnttin~hum. Univerxi(v Perk. Nn/ti,.~hmp~ NG7 2RD, UK
Receivcd 13 I~lay 1997: ac,.'cplcd 30 June I ~,%t7

Abstract

TiC-reinh)rced MMC,,, have been produced in a range of aluminium alh~ys using a novel casting technique which results in spl)ntaneou:~
incorp~ration of the particles into the melt and thus strong bonding between the particles and the matrix. The sliding wear behaviour of the
extruded comlx)sites has been studied as a Iunction of load and particle volume fraction and has been compared with a commercially available
SiC-reinforced coml~).~ite, in all cases, allt~y reinforcement resulted in a reduction in wear r:lte and an increase in the load at which the
transition IYom low r-ate wear to high rate wear ,~curred. In the low rate wear regime, the wear c(~cflicients of all the alloys in both the
reinforced and unreiuforced slates were similar, and since the TiC-reinl~rced A356 alloy was the hardest (due in part to the grain refining
~'tion of TiC ), it exhibited Ihe lowest wear rate (lower than that of the SiC-reinforced campt~site). Wear of the steel c,~untert'ace depended
on the mechanism of wear of the comic)site. An increase in load generally resulted in an increase in wear rate of btJth the composite pin and
c,mntcrface, and the reasons for this are presented. Increasing the voluune fraction of particles in a composite reduces its wear rate but generally
in~rea.,~s the wear rate t)f the counterface, it is suggested that when ~)th counterface and coml~site wear are considered, an optimum wdume
traction of particle.,, exists at which wear is lowest. © 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

/*,'¢w~vrd.~: TiC; MM('; Slidm~ wear: ('¢mnlerl'ac¢wear; ('=ql]l~)~ilc

1. Introduction variables such as the contact pressure I I - 9 I, sliding velocity

Di.~ontinuously reinforced aluminium matrix composites
( D R A M C s ) have emerged from the need for light weight,
high stiffness materials which are desirable in many appli-
cations such as high speed reciprocating machinery. Rein-
forcement usually comprises particles or whiskers of a
ceramic such as silicon carbide or alumina and signilicant
increa,,~s in stiffness and strength can be conl'crred with even
small n~inforcement volume fractions. Many of the applica-
lions for which D R A M C s are desirable also require enhanced
tribological performance. There exists a large b i l l y o f liter-
alurc concerning the wear Performance of such materials.
much of it showing the composites in a gtx~cl light compared
to the alloys in the unreinforced state.
The wear resistance of composites has receiveu 01ruth
attention in the literature but direcl comparison between
paper~ is often difticult duc to specilic differences in the wear
testing pr(x:edure. Work concerning the unlubricatcd sliding
wear behavit)ur of such materials has e-,umined a rumber of
" ('lJn¢,,plmdin~ aullmr, l;a~,: + 44 i I.~ g51 3741:
IdUdap.,,htpv,a)-(a mAtingh:qlLaC.uk
IJ043. |(~4~19KI$ Jg.IlO i" I~H,J~l~l,,~c;zer .5,..hmce.".;.A.All right,, rc,,qP,¢d.
t°1150043 . ]b4g( 97 )OOl 53- I
17-1 I I. temperature I 12,131. the counterpart type 18,9 I,
particle volume fraction 13-5.7.14,15 i, particle size 12,14-
17 I. matrix type 115 ! and heat treatment 116-10 J. A number
of mech:misms have been prol~)sed to explain the sliding
wear behaviour of these composites, many of which are dis-
cussed in an excellent review o f the subject 120J. Whilst
certain experiments show the converse, it is generally dem-
onstrated that reinforcement o f a l u m i n i u m alloys with panic-
ulate materials does result in reduced sliding wear rates and
increases the critical contact pressure at which transitions
from mild to severe wear ~:cur. However. whilst the wear
rate of the COml~site is reduced, the wear rate o f the coun-
terf~ce a~ainst which the com[x~site is sliding is usually sig-
nificantly increased: thus, the henelit of reinforcement on the
wear rate of the whole system is less clear than when the
comps)site alone is considered 18,12.14. ! 5.17.21.22 I,
The reinforcement type is signilicant in determining the
hehaviour of the counpt)site: work comparing the wear hchav-
iour of con)l'K)sites with silicon carbide or alumina reinforce-
e-mini: ]]tent has geoterally preferred the former, concluding thai
c~mlp~)sites perl~)rm better due to the higher hardness [ 151
 P.H. Shipway el a L I Wear 216 (1~gb~) I¢~J-171
and greater resistance to fracture I 121 of silicon carbide com-
pared to alumina. Some early work on composites [lOI
examined the wear resistance for I 0 wl.C/~ reinforcement with
a wide variety of particle types and concluded that reinforce-
ment with SiC, TiC, Si.~N4 and Al_,O~, amongst others,
resulted in an increa~ in wear resistance over the unr¢infor-
ted alloy and that reinforcement with TiC resulted in slightly
greater improvements in wear resistance than with SiC for
the same particle size and volume fraction. A more detailed
study of the role of panicle type in the sliding wear behaviour
of DRAMCs has been presented by Manish Roy el ai. [ I I.
They produced composites by a powder metallurgy technique
with 20 vol.C/r of silicon carbide, titanium carbide, boron
carbide and titanium diboride as the reinforcements. They
lbund that titanium carbide was the least successful reinforce-
ment. reducing the volumetric wear rate to 3 8 ~ of thai of the
matrix at 2.83 MPa contact pressure (SiC reinforcement
reduced the composite wear rate to 2 3 ~ of that of the matrix )
and to 0.87% of that of the matrix at 5.66 MPa contact pres-
sure ( SiC reinforcement reduced the comps)site wear rate to
0.829~ of that of the matrix ). The poorer performance of TiC
reinforcement compared to SiC reinlorcement resulted from
greater subsurface cracking which was cau.~d by dccohesion
at the particle-matrix interlace resulting from the higher
strength of the TiC-reinforced system. However. it should
also be noted that the TiC particle size was around half thai
of the SiC particles and as such direct compari.~n of wear
rates is difficult. ( A number of workers [ 2,14. ! 5 ] have sug-
gested that smaller reinforcing particle sizes lead to higher
wear rates and thus the data pre.~nted by Manish Roy et al.
[ 1 I need to be considered in light of this. )
The method of manufacture of composites clearly influ-
ences the mechanical properlies of the material [ 23.241 and
thus will have an eft~ct on the tribological performance.
There are several techniques available fiw making particle-
reinforced metal matrix composites ranging from l~)wder
metallurgy methods to casting. One of the most economically
attractive is the cast route which employs near standard foun-
dry practice. There arc. however+ a number of disadvantages
which timit the perlbrmance of cast route composites, the
most important being the segregation of reinforcement to
form inhomogeneous, clustered spatial distributions as a
result of agglomeration, ,,~dimentation or particle pushing
during solidilication processing 125,261. The mechanical
properties of the composite are affected by the I~)nd between
the matrix and the particle: particle engulfment during solid-
ilicalion indicates that the solid metal has an affinity for the
particle and thus ges)d bonding is expected 127]. Strong
bonding between particle and matrix is desirable for wear
resistance as well as other mechanical properties 16,7 I: Car-
acostas et al. [ 281 examined a composite with Ti B2 reinforce-
s e n t which had hecn fi)rmed in silo and concluded that its
desirable wear properties resulted from the strong matrix-
particle bonds. The strong bond meant that particle loss
occurred by altrilive fracture rather than decohesion. The
remaining part of any panicle could still confer wear rests-
161
lance to the composite by bearing the load and debris was
smaller than that produced if decohesion occurred: thus the
.~verity of abrasive wear of the composite by the debris was
reduced.
This work will examine the sliding wear behaviour of a
range of aluminium alloys made by a modified liquid metal-
lurgy technique 129.301 which results in alloys with favour-
able mechanical properties° especially stiffness. The
dispersion o f parlictes throughout tbe matrix is achieved not
by vigourous stirring of the particles into a melt o r parlially
~,~lidificd melt. but by sponlancous incorporation as a result
of promoting wetting of the p',u'Ucles by the liquid alloy. The
method and the choice of particle-matrix combination ensure
uniform distribution of the reinforcement within the alloy and
good interracial bonds between the reinforcement and the
metal. The homogeneous particle distribution and good inter-
facial bonding result from a low particle-solid inlerfacial
energy and thus not all particle types can be ineorpofalcd into
melts by this route: Kennedy et al. [ 29] repro1 that l"iC, TiB2
and B,~C have been successfully incoc[~ated,
2. Experimental procedure
2,/. Materials
Metal matrix comp(~iles were made by the incorporation
of TiC particles into three aluminium alloy types by a process
previously de.~ribed by Kennedy e[ al. 129l. Parliclcs of TiC
with an average particle size of l0 ixm were oblained from
the London and Scandinavian Metallurgical Co. Ltd. Three
alloy typc.~ were chosen to demonstrate the wide applicability
of the addition method and the benefits a s . ~ i a l c d with it,
namely a commercial purity aluminium (CP). a wrought type
alloy. AI--.4 wt.e~Cu ( AI-4Cu ) and a casting type alloy, AI---
7 wt.C~St-0.3 wt.e~ Mg (A356). CoJnposites were made with
l0 vol.~ TiC particles and in the ca.~ of the CP alloy with
20 vol.~ TiC. Throughou! the text. a l l e v i a t i o n s of the fol-
lowing type will be u ~ d ; A356-- IOTiC repre.~nts A356alloy
conlainin~ 10 vol.C~ TiC.
As-cast material was m ' ~ by pouring composite melts
into a cylindrical cast iron mould, ~ mm in diameter and
I00 mm long. The.~ billets were extruded into rods at
400 °C with an extrusion ratio of 13: I through shear faced
dies at a speed of I m m s ~. The homogeneity of the rein-
fi)rcement distribution was checked in all ca.~s by melallo-
graphic examination of hmgitudinal and transver.~ ~ctions
of the extruded rod taken at a number of points along ils
length.
For comparison, a Duralcan material conlaining t5 vol,%
SiC particles with average particle size of 13 Ixm was
~xtruded in the same way as the experimental alloys. The
Duralcan alloy type is c l o ~ to A356 and so its data will be
presented alongside the data for the A356 .~ries of experi-
mental alloys and it will I',c referred to as A356-15SIC.
162 P.H. 5hipway et al. / Wear 216 t 199~0 160-171

2.2. Wear testing
Wear testing was conducted with a pin-on-disc testing
machine, as shown schematically in Fig. I and described in
more detail elsewhere 131 I. Testing was performed in air at
a relative humidity of 45 + 5% against a counterface disc of
carbon-manganese steel ( BS 080A ! 5 ) with Vickers hard-
heSS 159 kg m m - :. The disc. i00 mm in diameter and 6 mm
thick, was ground to a 1200 grit finish prior to testing. The
composite rods were turned to form cylindrical wear testing
pins. 6 mm in diameter and 15 mm long, with the axis of the
pih in the extrusion direction. The wear pin was located so
that its axis was parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc and
normal to its plane; the wear track of the pin on the disc had
a mean diameter of 90 ram. The rate of rotation of the disc
was measured using an optical tachometer, and the mean
sliding velocity between the pin and disc was maintained by
the operator at ! m s ' ( _ 0 . 0 1 m s J). The contact load
between the pin and the disc was produced by dead-weight
loading: a standard test duration was 5000 s unless wear of
the pin exceeded 4 mm when the test was stopped prema-
turely. Throughout the test. vertical deflections of the arm
were measured with a linear variable displacement transducer
(LVDT). The vertical displacement gave a combined meas-
ure of wear of the pin and disc but in these experiments, the
displacement due to pin wear always strongly dominated and
thus the displacement was taken as a measure of pin wear
alone. The wear rate of the pin was calculated fi'om the data
recorded during steady state wear following the initial run-
ning-in period. Wear of the di.~ at the end of the test was
measured by meaw~ of an automated surface profilometer
Following testing, the wear surfaces of the pins were exam-
ined by scanning electron microscopy ( S E M ) . Optical met-
allography was conducted on meridional plane sections of
the cylindrical wear samples, with the plane of the section
lying parallel to the sliding direction. Samples were ground,
polished and etched: where appropriate, samples were ano-
dized in Barker's reagent (2% HBF4 in distilled water) at
24 V to reveal the grain structure.
3. Results
Fig. 2 shows represemi~tive micrographs of the CP alloys
reinforced with titanium carbide. The hardnesses of all the
alloy types are listed in Table I. Figs. 3-5 show the pin and
counterface wear rates for the A356, CP and M-4Cu b a n
alloys and composites respectively (actual values of wear
rate are quoted above the relevant bar on the charts). The
wear tale is related to the material hardness and applied load
by the Archard wear equation"
KW
S---~ (I)
H
.vhere S is the wear rate, W is the applied load, H is the
material hardness and K is the dimensiotdess wearcoefficient.
L

taking .,,;ample .~ans around the circular wear track: a mini- o

mum of four sample areas were measured on each disc. The
wear rate of the disc was taken as the total volume Iossdivided . \ •

by the total distance slid since no information concerning the

P
development of wear during the tests was available. For each '~
t

.~t of conditions, tests were repeated and the wear rates of

both the pin and di.~ calculated: wear rates diffiered by less 0 ~ ,.~,~.,~~ _ ~ _ . , , , , ~ , . ~

than 5 ~ between the two tests and an average value is quoted.

•~ , ~ ~ __ .~,

2.3. Muteritd charucteri=ution

Hardness tests were performed on lx)lished samples using

a Vickers Hardness tester with an indenting force provided
by a mass of !0 kg. Hardness data represent the mean of 10
indentations in each ca.~.

Wear pin
i.VDT /: Pil~ ~

. : ," ~
Applied wear disc

l:ig. 2. Mi~'rograph.~of the e.,tzrudedCP a]lo) ~inforced with (a) IO voLt~

Fig, I- Sehen~tl¢diagl'lm Ofthe ~liding wear leMii|~ rig. TIE'. ~b) 21)~ol.rh TIE.'.
 P.H. Shipway e! a L / Wear 216 ¢ 1 ( ~ ) 1~0-171 163

Table i
Vickers hardness of ba~ alloys and composites ~ I~ 31N kid' I
~ rz~q ~k~ I
Matrix Reinforcement H, ( kg mm " ) • ~ ~ ~ ~m~ I
0,431O.~It
Cp - 32
CP 10 vol.e~ TiC 51

I "o+~
CP 20 vol.C~TiC 62 ,.., 0+1 ':'~':': g- ~" o,om ~ :
AI-4Cu - 59 ! ~,,..-,,%~
.,+,,,., ~ ~
AI-4Cu I0 vol.% TiC 73 ~g:

1
IF
A356 - 51
..~
A356 IO vol.@ TiC 8I .~ 001 :::-+:::
A356 ly W ( Duralcan ) 15 vol+~ SiC 61 .o. ; ;
!:i:i:i
:::::::
v .
:::::::
....
0.001 L
Values of the we,,r coet'licient. K, for the composite pins are (;P OP-I~v~%TI~ CP,28mI~T~
also g i s c n in Figs. 3--5 ahov¢ each bar for each combination Pia ty~
tested.
Fig. 6 ;:~ows SEM micrographs o f pin surfaces following
wear, ~lluslradng th~ general morphologies encountered. 0~ r F-'1 31NImld
Figs. 7 - 9 show composite wear surlhces and suhsu~ace zones ~ ~ ~q~ k ~
for the A356 ~ r i e s o f alloys while F,gs. IO and ! i show
simiiarmicrograph~fortheCPalloyseriesandAl-4Cu~rieSrespectively.
":"E
~ °ml
I o0~o0
i !

. + o+.,..
i t["---1
-
ii
i i
::":
Oi~ "'/~'~.
""""

'+ "+
•
"Z o. •

o.o~'~F-:-4 • ~
h ""
+----
~"

__
r CP "
N
Fig. 4. I a I Sliding wear rates and wear coefticicms (g CP alk~y",rodcom-
"
IO~~:~II"
00"': <' 71 0 ~ / H ~ ~ O" O. ~ .~il.~.(11).l.¢~I~[)II~in
. .,.nI¢If..wr~-~"
ra~. Valui~iO[W~dr.aI~ale
- o.m o.om'oI .[ ...| o.,o~o -.~ quoled ate)re tlm'relevant "lxa"in each case.

O.O01
axs~'++°~nc csa++~s~m*"~ 4./. Compo.~ite m i c ro.~tru¢'ture.s
F~n~
o,uoa'(b) F'-'l 31N load ! The distribution of T i C particles is uuclustcred and near
D0024 ~ e2N Iota homogeneous for addition at I ~ h I0 vol.% and _20 vol.% as
E22) 7 m i n e simwn, for example, in the C P a l l o y s ( Fig, 2). All alloy types
0011i~ T _ ~, demonstrated such distribution as can be observed in the
0
subsurface wear zones in Figs. 8 - I 1. Extrusion o f the alloys
h~s not resulted in formation of reinforcemcn! rich bands as

i 0,00~)3
, °-,.iiiil;il is . ~ [ i m e s observed in such composite materials 132 ] and
all the alloys were virtually pore free in the as-exlmded state.
TiC is a known grain refiner in aluminium alloys 129,30] but

!t+
0.00097 0.0(X)I4 the as-extruded microstmcturc rnad¢ this difficult toquantify.
%%'-'i The microstructurcs o f the A356-typ¢ alloys shown in Figs.
7 - 9 arc o f special Iio1¢; A356 alloys are traditionally casting
alloys and thus the microstructurcs produced by extrusion are
~b~l~dl-
IO~DPbbT~ A,1~4-1~£~P4,SlG
not conventional. Fig. 7 shows that extrusion has broken up
typePm
Fig. 3. (a) Sliding wear vales and wear coefficients .f A356 alloy and the long needles o f eutec(ic silicon usually o.ssociatcd with
¢L,mposilcs: (L)) corrcspLmdingcounicrfac¢ wear rules. Valuc.~of wear ratc~ the interdendritic regions to produce d i ~ r e t ¢ evenly dis-
me quolcd alcove the r¢levam bar in each case. persed particles and as such has the appearance of a panicu-
I~-I P.H. Shilm't,y el ,1. / Wc, r 216 f IVg,~/160-! 71

:(a) in other factors such as particle size and type amongst others
[~'-"] 3iN make direct comparisons difficult. Manish Roy el al. I l l
demonstrated that reinforcement with TiC gave tar higher
0.0990 increases in hardness than similar proportions of SiC as
0.1 iii
observed in this work: it is proposed thai this is again due to
the grain relining nature of TiC particles.
.,.,.

4.2. Compt~.vite n'ear

o
O01

.~_ Data on the steady state wear rates of the composite pins
O.
ix presented in Figs. 3-5. Wear rates of the unreinlbrced alloys
vary considerably, with the wear rates of CP aluminium far
higher than those of the other two alloys. Wear rates of AI-
AJ~ICu Al.-4Cu-10voI%TiC
4Cu are lower than that of A356 at the lower two test loads.
Pin l y p e
as would be expected due to the alloy's higher hardness.
(b) However, when sliding under an applied load of 78 N. the
o.01
wear rate of AI-4Cu is more than twice that of the A356
e2N ~o,~ I alloy; although both alloys wear by severe delamination at
this higher load (see Fig. 7d and Fig. l i b ) . the hard silicon
phase in the A356 alloy acts as reinlbrcement, thus reducing
000119
the wear rate. Paniculate reinforcement of ~,healloys reduces
0001
the wear rate in all eases.
Exz~mination L~fthe wear surlaccs of the pins gives infor-

8
¢=
g ( Fig. 6a arid Fig. 6b where as rough .~urfaces are associated
t.)
0 0001
~Id~Cu
Pin t~/p¢
[:ig..~. ( a l SlY:ling w e a r raiL',,, a n d wc.ir c~¢llic~oil', ,~| AI 4 ( ' u ~dh~y ,rod
m'c q u ~ ¢ d al'm~,¢ ll~" r~K*valll b a r Ill c-m.'h c~5¢.
lale-reinfiwced composite itself. A356-type alloys reinl :m.'ed
with I () vol.r/, TiC and 15 wd.~ SiC ( Figs. 8 and 9 re,pet-
lively ) show again the finely dispersed eutectic silicon ;~long
with zhc coarm:r reJnfi)rcing parlicles; the added particles
again show a homogeneous distribution within the material.
Large intermetallics of titanium aluminides and s ilicidcs are
also ob.,~'rved in A356-10 vol/,~ TiC ~Re. 8b and Fig. 8it ).
Reinfi~rcement of the alloys results in increases in hardn ..'s,,,
Table i J as expected. The hardness increment on addition
of TiC" dclxntds I'~lh on the alh)y type and the parlicUkLtC
volume fraction since hardness increases result lh)l~ boltl the
reinfi~rcing nature of the add.~d parlicle.,, and als,) their effect
of grain relining the allo~,. Although the base alloy of A356-
15SIC ~x not identical to the A356 alloy, its hardness i n c r e
men! Oue to patlicle addition is likely to he s;nal|cr than thin
~bscrved afler TiC addit,m since SiC dca.-s not grain reline
1291. The decreasing increment o1"hardness with successive
addilions ~.ffTiC to ~lheCP alloy occurs since tile lirst addilion
~ff 1"iC has a far greater cfl'ect on grain size th.'m further
~ddifions.
The hardness, increment,, ~.~r,,'cd were in line wilh those
relxmed in other works [ 1.3.4.12.]4]. although diltercnces
!!!!!:!:!!i!1,
mation on the type of wear occurring. Relatively 10w wear
rates are a~sociated with smtx~lh or slightly grtmved surfaces
w.ilh high wear rates (Fig. 64:).
~4Gu. 1~o1%'1"-~ 4.2. i. W e a r o f A 3 5 6 alloy trod ctmtpo.vites
The ",,,ear tale of the A356 alloy increases with applied
load ( Fig. 3 ~. Fig 7 shaws that at dow loads the w e a r s u r f a c e
is relatively sml~lh with at few delamination cracks visi!,le.
Fig. 7b sh~Jws a crack t)f the type seen in Fig. 7a extending
below the surfilcc o f the material which is likely to lead to
det:lchment o f a wear particle. Large strains in the subsurface
rime can al~o I ~ ~,bser~.,ed. Fig. 7c and Fig. 7d show a very
different wear morphology from thai observed in Fig. 7a and
Fig. 7b asst~iated wilh a 6~5 times increase in wear rate under
the higher ~lidi.qg load: the surface m)w shows coarse and
regular delamination with the thickness oi" the.~ delamina-
tians anmnd 40 p.m ( Fig. 7d ). The Ixmd b~tween the delam-
inured layer aJ~d Ihe hulk appears to he weak ( contrast Fig. 7d
with Fig. 7h) and the degree of subsurface deformation is
h~w.
The wear c~cfticient of A356 increases with applied load
as the n~cchanism changes ih)m infrequent delaminat,m with
a well attached transl~r layer to severe delaminazion. The
~,~ear cocflicient at the two lowest loads is similar indicating
that nt) lransili~m in wear het~aviour has ~ccurred; severe
dclamm~tion at 711 N results in a signilicantly higher wear
c o e f f i c i e n t whilst at the h~ghest sliding load of 94 N the wear
coe(ficicnt is an order of magnitude larger again.
Rein(orceme,)l of the A356 alloy wilh IO wd.'7c,TiC
tcduces the wear rate with respect to the unreinforced alloy.
The wear coefficients of A356-10TiC arc, however, very
similm- to those fiw ttle unreinforced alloy excep! when sliding

•~:i:,=:::; ,::::,::..
Fig. 6. Overview,' micr,)gruphs of coml'~)site wear pins tbllowing .~tiding wear, (a) A356--15SIC. 31 N I(md: (h) ('P-2OTiC. 78 N load: 4c) A356--15SIC'
( Duralcan 1. tt4 N load.
under a load of 94 N. Although there is a significant increase
in wear coefficient fi)r A 3 5 6 - 1 0 T i C when the sliding load is
increased from 78 N to 94 N, the increase is not as large as
for the unreinforced alloy indicating that the reinforcement
has restricted the severity of the transition in the wear mech-
anism. The similarity of the wear coefficients lor the two
malcrial~ indicate that at the lower loads, the decrease in wear
rate of the alloy can be directly attributed Io lhc incrca.,,ed
hardne,+s of the reinforced alloy since m ) c h a n g e in mecha-
nism has occurred. Sliding of A356--IOTiC under a 20 N load
restdls in a smooth surface m()rphology ( Fig. 8a ): numerous
microcracks are visible on the surface indicating that it is a
compacted transfer layer. The subsurface wear zone shows a
thin layer where material is broken up into stringers: no
delamination ( as was observed in the case olthc unrcinfi)rccd
alloy ) is observed. Sliding under the 78 N load results in a
surface thai exhibits regular delamination: the trausfizr layer
(Fig. 8d) i~ thick (c.f. Fig. 7d) and ctmsists of mechanically
deformed alloy and fractured particles of both the hard Si
phase and TiC. The bond between the translL-r layer and the
substrate is not always good (note the lack of bonding in
Fig. 8d) which will re.,,ult in layer breakdown and pn)duction
of wear particles. The surface of Ihe transfer layer His()exhib-
its saw-t(u)th marks, indicating that gross material remo,,'al is
occurring from the transfer layer itself. This transfer layer
(associated with high wear rate.'.;) is thick and un.,aable to
P.H. Shilm'ay el aL / Wear 216119~8) If#)-171 165
.
either total del~mding or delamination within the layer and
is in contrast to the thin. highly compacted transfer layers
.~cn when sliding occurs under the lower loads ( Fig, 8b). At
the higher loads, larger wear particles are formed and thus
the transfer layer builds up quickly wherea~ under the lower
loads the transfer layer is made up of very small panicles and
is thus hard and stable.
Rcinfi)rcemcnt of the A356-type alloy with 15 vol.%SiC
( Durulcan I results in a similar surface and subsurface defor-
mation zone (Fig. Oa and Fig. 9b) as observed with TiC
remfi)rccment when sliding under the 3 ! N load. The surface
is again generally sm(x)th ( Fig. g a l . with a thin transfer layer
(Fig. Oh). allhough in some regions lhe transfer layer has
heen removed by fracture. Sliding of A 3 5 6 - t 5 S i C under a
()4 N h)ad results in gross delamination within Ihe alloy
( Fig. 9c ) and no transfer layer formation ( Fig. 9(1). The wear
rate under this load is greater than in the unreinforced alloy
as the SiC particles act as discontinuities in lhc Sll'llclure.
aiding material detachment, and the wear particle.~conlaining
SiC will bc more :|brasive than the debris lYom tim unrein-
forced alloy. The wear coefficients for A356--15SIC are .~im-
ilar to those fi)r A356 and A356-10TiC for the two lower
loads. However. the same low wear coefficient is ob.~rved
when ~diding under a 78 N load for the SiC-reinfiwccd alloy
whereas it increases signiticantly for the unreinfi)rced and
166 P,H. Ship~.ay el oL / Wear 216 (1998~ 160-171
Fig. 7. Weardamage 08"A356 following sliding wear. {a) Surface,31N Io,'Kl:(b) subsurface~¢lion, 31 N load: (c) surface. 78 N load: (d) subsurface~ction.
78N load.
TiC-reinforced alloys. With SiC reinforcement, the transition
to ~ v c r c wear has occurred when sliding under a 94 N load.
At the low loads, the wear coefficients of the A356-, A356--
10TIC- and A356-15SiC-reinforced alloys are similar; how-
ever. the TiC-reinforced alloy is harder than the others and
thus exhibits the lowest wear rate. 15 vol.~ SiC delays the
transition to .severe wear to higher loads than the I0 vol.%
TiC reinforcement, but at even higher loads where the SiC-
reinforct,'d alloy is also wearing by a severe delamination
mechanism, the TiC-reinforced alloy again exhibits the low-
est wear raters. It must also b¢ noted that there is 15 vol,~
SiC in the composite as o p p o ~ d to i0 vol.% TiC ( A 3 5 6 -
15TIC could no~ be extruded due to press limitations) and
higher volume fractions of reinforcement do result in more
favourable properlies ( ~ e Section 4.2.2 ). Thus, the positive
performance of the TiC-reinforced alloy is even more
significant.
4.2.2. Wear o f CP alloy and ('omposiles
Fig. 4 shows that the CP alloy material wears rapidly under
all the loads examined, with wear rates increasing with
increasing applied load. The wear coefficients of the alloy at
all Io',als arc signilicantly higher than those observed with the
A356 alloy at the same loads. Addition of 10 vol.C~. TiC to
the CP alloys resulted in lower wear rates, t h e ~ being
between around live times to sixteen times less than those of
.... ;:: ......... :: :::, ........... : .........
the unreinforced alloy. The wear coefficient of CP-IOTiC
sliding under the lowest load was in the same region as t h o ~
of the A356 alloys in both their reinforced or unreinforced
states. The reinforcement was not able to prevent the large
increase in wear coefficient of CP-IOTiC as the loads were
increased, Examination of the wear surface and subsurface
deformation zones after sliding under 78 N (Fig. 10a and
Fig. I 0b) shows that surface delamination has occurred along
with formation of a transfer layer which contains broken TiC
particles. Cracking ( Fig. 10b) indicates that this layer is rel-
atively brittle: the crack has penetrated the transfer layer and
been stopped by the ductile body of the composite.
Increasing the volume fraction of TiC reinforcement in the
CP alloy to 20 vol.% has reduced the material wear rate again
and has ensured that the wear coefficient has remained low
under all sliding loads examined, and of comparable value to
that observed in other low wear rate situations. Fig. 10c and
Fig. loci show that there is no severe surface delamination
and that a packed, but thin, transfer layer has formed. Thus,
increasing the volume fraction of reinforcement has delayed
the transition from low wear coefficients to high wear coef-
ficients to higher applied loads. The increase in hardness of
the alloy as the volume traction of reinforcement increa~s
also has the effect of decreasing the wear rate even when the
wear coefficients are similar.
 PH, Shilm'ayel al. / Wear216 ~1998) 160-171
Fig. 8. Wear damage of A356--I0TiC following sliding wear. ( a ) Surface. 31 N load; ~t~) subsurface ~ection,3 t N load; (c) mffac©,78 N load: f d) .qdzmffac¢
.~ciion, 78 N load.
4.2.3. Wear a f AI--4Cu alloy and composite.~
The unreinforced Ai--4Cu alloy is a much harder alloy than
the CP material and behaves in a similar manner to A356.
The wear rates and coefficients under the 31 N and 62 N
sliding loads are low and comparable to t h o ~ observed in
other low wear rate situations. However, as in the A356 alloy.
there is a transition in wear behaviour as the load is increased
from 62 N to 78 N. The wear surface following sliding under
the 31 N load (Fig. I l a ) is relatively sm~mth indicating a
thin, stable transfer layer. Fig. I I b shows that thick, unstable
transfer layers form at the higher loads, and is similar to the
behaviour shown in Fig. 7d. Reinforcement of the alloy with
IO vol.%TiC results in a decrea~se in the wear rates and ,;light
decrea.~s in the wear coefficient when sliding under loads of
31 N and 62 N. However, as in the comparable A356 com-
posite, the reinforcement has again been unable to prevent
the transition in wear mechanism on incrca.~ o f the applied
load from 62 N to 78 N. The wear mechanisms o f A I - 4 C u -
10TIC sliding under the 78 N load are gross delamination
(Fig. I Ic) and ~ v e r e surface cracking with no build u p o f a
transfer layer ( Fig. I I d ).
4.2.4. Comparisons between tile alloy s3wwms
The wear behaviour of the alloys may be characterised by
a regime of low wear rate, which is generally favoured by
tbrmation of a thin transfer layer and u smta)th sliding surlace
167
showing only infrequent or no cracking, in this regime, alloys
exhibit remarkably similar wear coefficients between
0.7X 10- s and 1.6X I0- s. A s t h e wear mechanism changes
to one of regular delamination, formation o f a thick transfer
layer is observed: this transfer layer is generally unstable and
wears by delamination, either within itself ( as evidenced by
saw-tooth marking on the surface) or delamination at the
interface between the transfer layer and the bulk material. As
the applied load increa.~s, the wear rate increases as does the
wear coefficient, and wear now occurs by delaminatiem with-
out the formation o f a transfer layer at all: this regime is
associated with very high wear coefficients.
Particle reinforcement of the alloys is generally .seen to
rai.~ the load at which the transitions in wear mechanism
occur and the wear coefficient begins to r i ~ . in general,
reinforcement o f the alloys did not significantly reduce the
wear ctmfficients o f the materials hut the wear rates were
reduced since reinforcement increamd the hardness of the
alloys.
4.3. Counle.rface wear
Full consideration of a sliding Iriboh)#cal system requires
an analysis of the wear of tbe countcfface us well that of the
test material. The unreinforccd a!uminium alloys exhibit two
distinct types of behaviour with respect to their effect on the
168 Poll. Shipway er aL i Weur 216 ~1998i 160-171
Fig, 9. Wear damage of A356--15SIC (Duralcan) fldlowing sliding wear. (a) Surface. 31 N load: (b) subsurface section, 31 N load: I c) surface. 94 N load:
( d ; ~,uh,,urface~cU-n. 94 N load.
counterface: the AI-4Cu and CP materials do not cause any
wear of the countefface at any of the applied loads but only
delx~Sil themselves onto the counlerfi~ce. The A356 alloy
however, containing the hard silicon phase, dt~zs cause abra-
sive wear o f the countedace. In this case. the wear rate of the
counterface is generally up to an order o f magnitude lower
than [hal of the pin and counterface wear increase~ as pin
wear increa,,.es ( Fig. 3 ).
4.3. I. I':Jfi'ct ,:f hind a n d c.nq~..~ite ,'e~u" . n cmmtel'[uce
w(,ar
Addition o f particles to the CP and A I - 4 C u alloys results
in counterface wear as the hard panicles act as abrasives ill
the sliding pr~ess. Wear of the coml~)sile pin is always
greater than thai of the counlerface for Ihe CP composites.
but the conver,.e is true fiwlhe AI--.4Cu and A356 ccmlposites.
The counlerface wear rale~ increase with increasing sliding
load for all the I0 red.cA TiC-reinfiwced matrices ( Fig,,. 3 -
5).
The morphology of counterthce wear ( ploughing and cut-
ting in the direction of sliding) indicaled Illat cnunlerface
wear is cau.~d predominantly by the abrasive action of the
hard panicles: normal sliding wear of the counterface will
a l ~ i~:cur but this is not the dominant mechanism in these
ca~s. i,ow ccm~p-.,.ile wear rules arc" observed when a slable
trunsfi.-r layer is built up on ihe pin. ~ince the trausfi:r layer
contains small IYagmenls of the reinfi)rcing phase, it may
cause abrasive wear of the counlerlhce: however, it also pro-
tects the counlerface from new. unfraclured, hard reinlbrcing
particles and ensures a relatively low cOUnlerface wear rate.
As Ihe wear rate of the composite increases due to increased
load. the wear of the countert;ace will also increase for a
numl',cr of reasons. Firstly. the transfer layer will be more
shnrt lived and its ability to protect the counlerface from the
hard particles in the composite reduced. Secondly. as the
composite pin wear rate increases, the rule at which new,
angular and thus highly abrasive panicles in the composite
are pre,,,ented to the counterface surfiice also increases result-
ing in higher wear rates. Thirdly. the fi)rce on any particle
causing abrasion of the counlerface will increase as the over-
all contact fnrce is increased, resulting in more severe wear.
4.3.2. Efl'i'('t r!f pulvi('h" v.hum..lracti~m . u c.unn'rl~we w e a r
Under ,',imilar conditions, the wear raze of the CP-2OTiC
composite pin is always less than that of the C P - I O T i C pin
( Fig. 4). For the two lighter h);,ds tested (31 N and 62 N ).
file reduclion in composite wear rate (m increasing the rein-
fiwcement volume I'raclion from !0 vol.% to 20 w~l.% is
acc(m~panied ;~), a correspo,ding il)crc;.ise in counted'ace
wear rail,; in facl, Ihe increase in wear rule o|" the coumerface
is proporlionately greater tha. the decrease in the composite
wear rate. and ihu.,, tbr the lower loads we may conclude that
 P.H. Shilm'ay er aL ! Wear 216 ( 1991q~160-171
Fig. I0. Wear damage of CP ha.~edcomposites followingsliding wear under a 78 N load. ( a ! CP- t0'tiC. surface: (, :.CP-10TKL .~m~ace ruction: (c i CP-
20TIC, surface; (d) CP-2OTiC,suhsurfa~.e.~ctitm.
the increased reinforcement content o f the alloy is detrimental
to the overall wear hehaviour o f the couple. However, when
sliding under a toad of 78 N, the increase in reinforcement
content from 10 vol.% to 20 vol.% results in a decrease in
both composite and counted'ace wear.
The composite pin is protected by the increased fraction
of reinforcement particles its they bear more load and are able
to stabilise the transfer layer. However. the counterface cor,-
tinues to wear by a mixture of abrasive wear and sliding wear.
in a true abrasive wear scenario, the number of particles
within the contact zone at any time should not affect the wear
rate since a larger number of particles results in a lower load
on each particle and thus the overall wear rate stays approx-
imately the same (opportunity vs. severity type argument
1331). Thus, according to the argument presented in Sec-
tion 4.3. I, the reduction in wear rate of the pin by increasing
the volume fraction of reinforcement should lead t~ a lower
wear rate o f the counterface; this is clearly not the case lk~r
the lower loads (Fig. 4). Composite wear results in fresh
(and therefore highly abrasive ) particles being presented to
the counterface. Composite wear is significantly reduced by
the increase in volume fraction of reinf~wcement and, even
though the volume fraction of particles in the composite is
higher, the number of fresh reinforcement particles presented
tu the counterface stays around the same or decreases, The
load on each particle in the contact zone decreases as the
169
volume fraction of particles increa.,es am] thus each par~.icle
wilt e, main ,~harp and highly abrasive for a longer period and
thus result in a higher countert'ace wear rate, However, when
sliding under an applied load of 78 N. the I0 vol.%TiC-
reinforced alloy exhibits such a high wear rate that the effect
of the new particles premnted to the counterface dominates.
resulting in a high counterface wear rate.
4.3.3. Role q[ reinfiu'~'ement pani~'le type hs ~'oume.r[ace
wear
Fig. 3 shows that the counterface wear rate c a u ~ d by slid-
ing o f the TiC-reinfm'ced alloy is an order of magnitude larger
than that caused by sliding of the SiC-reinforced alloy. This
behaviour is surprising given the greater angularity o f the SiC
particles, but may result from the low fracture toughness of
SiC ( 4.6 MPa m ' ~ ) compared to that of TiC ( 5.2 MPa m °~ )
134]. It is proposed that the relatively brittle SiC fractures
and thus does n,~t cause severe ploughing of the ctmnterface
whereas the tougher TiC is able to abrade the counterface
effectively.
5. C o n c l u s k m s
Aluminium matrix composites with TiC reinforcement
have been produced by a novel liquid route resulting in uni-
170 P,tt. Shqm'ayel a L I
Fig. I I. Wear damage o f AI--4Cu alloy and comir~silcs fifllowing sliding wear. ! a ) AI--4Cu. surface. 31 N load; (b i AI-4Cu, subsurface ,~ction, 78 N load:
I c ~ AI--..IC.'u- I I)TiC, ~,url~.tce. 78 N hind; ( d ~ AI---~('u- I IITiC, suhsurface section. 78 N hind.
f l ) r m panicle distributions. Panicle additions have reduced
the wear rates of the composites and have delayed the lran-
sition with load from low wear coefficients to higher wear
coefficients, l.ow wear rates were characmrised by thin. stable
transfer layers and an almost uniform wear coefficient
(anmnd I.I × I0 ~) regardless ol'the alloy type. The A356
alloy reinh~rced with 10 vol.r;~ TiC had the highest hardness
of all the materials examined and thus had the lowest wear
rates in the low wear regime, outperlbrnung the 15 vol.~7,
SiC-reinli~rccd material. However. SiC reinforcement was
able to delay the increase in wear coeflicienl to higher loads.
An increase in the TiC panicle fraction to 2(1 vol.rTt resulted
in further decrease.`` in wear rate and further retardation of the
load at which the wear coefficient increases.
Particulate reinforcement of the aluminium alloy resulted
in wear of the .,,leel counterface, it was genendly found that
at a given volume fraction o f reinl;t)rcement, an increase in
load resulted in an increase in composite wear rate and coun-
ledace wear rate. However. no such simple relationship was
observed on altering the volume fraction of particles or par-
t i c l e l y p e . The wear rate.`` of the composites and counterl'accs
have been rationalised in terms of the composite microstruc-
lures and t~perating wear mechani:,~ns. When bolh composite
and counterface wear is considered, reinlorcement reduces
the overall wear rate of the system; however, high volume
fractions may cau.~e more severe wear of the counterface than
Wear 216 f t998J 160--171
lower volume |factions and evidence has been presented that
indicates that an optimum volume fraction lot low system
wear exists.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the
London and Scandinavian Metallurgical Co l.td. Rotherham
in Ibis programme . f research, and of Alex Karantzalis lot
metal Iogkaphy.
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