Air Induction System

The whole purpose of the air induction system is to supply, filter, meter,
and measure intake air flow into the engine. The air enters into the system
through the special holes created in front of the car. The first step is to clean the
air, removing the unwanted airborn particles with the help of an air cleaner. The
amount of air entering the engine is a function of engine load.
The things are pretty simple for an engine equipped with a carburetor,
because here will be the air mixed with the fuel without to many adjustments.
The most advanced part of the system is an Air Temperature Sensor in the air
intake, used to measure the air temperature, in order to command a flap which
allow cool air to enter through a heated pipe, so as to prevent carburator icing.
On the other hand, we have now fuel-injected cars, which is a more advanced
system. Air is drawn in through the air intake, a long plastic tube wich has the
main purpose to guide the air into a fairly steady stream until the air filter
housing. After the filter, the air will go, in order, through an Air Flow Meter,
Throttle Body with an Air Valve, then Air Intake Chamber, Intake Manifold, and
finally will get to the Cylinders.

Air Cleaner

The air cleaner actually contains an air filter which remove solid particles such as
dust, pollen, and mold from air that enters the engine.

Filter paper
Pleated paper filter elements are the most common air cleaners nowadays,
because they are efficient, easy to service, and inexpensive. One drawback can
be the fact that those paper filters sacrifice the air flow, but as long as a pleated
paper is sized appropriately for the airflow volumes needed, this will not be a real
issue until the filter become significantly clogged with dirt.

Foam
Oil-wetted polyurethane foam elements was in the past used in small engines on
power equipments and lawnmowers, but paper filter supplanted oil-wetted foam
in these applications. Nowadays, those are prefered in off-road rallying and other
motorsport competition, because, depending on the grade and thickness of the
foam employed, can offer very high dirt capacity. Also, it can be washable and
reusable.

Cotton
In the past, oiled cotton gauze saw limited use in original-equipment automotive
air filters. Oiled cotton gauze is employed in a small number of aftermarket
automotive air filters nowadays, marketed as high-performance items. Can be,
also, washable and reusable.

Oil Bath
The general principle of an oil bath air cleaner is that incoming air is sucked
through the system towards a bowl containing a pool of oil, and forced to make
an vertical U-turn near the surface of the oil. Larger and heavier airborn particles
cannot make the turn due to their inertia, so they fall onto the pool of oil. The
smaller and lighter particles are retained by the filtration media in the insert,
wetted by oil droplets aspirated by normal airflow. Prior to 1960s, it was the most
common type of air filter used in automotive and small-engine applications, until
the adoption of the pleated, disposable paper filters. Today, such air cleaners are
found in application where very high level of dust are encountered, because oil
bath cleaners can retain a great deal of dirt.

Air Ionisers
An air ionizer is a device that uses high voltage to ionize air molecules. Air
ionisers use fibers or elements with a static electric charge, which attract
airborne dust particles in an effect similar to static electricity.

Air Flow Meter

There are two types of AFM's, a vane type and a hot wire type. The vane type
has a flap that is pushed by the income air. The more air coming in, the more the
flap is pushed backed. There is a potentiometer attached to the flap that sends a
voltage signal to the Powertrain Control Module (PCM). There is also a second
vane behind the main vane that fits into a closed camber that dampens the
movement of the vane giving a more accurate measurement. There is also an Air
Temperature Sensor built into the AFM and works exactly as it did in the
carbureted engine.

The hot wire AFM uses a series of wires strung in the air stream. The resistance
of the wire at normal operating temperature is a known constant and will allow a
set voltage through it. As the air passes the hot wire, it cools. As it cools, the
resistance of the wire decreases allowing more voltage to pass through it. This
voltage signal then goes to the main EFI computer and allows the adjustment of
the fuel mixture. From the AFM it goes to the throttle chamber.

The throttle chamber controls the airflow into the engine. When it's closed, the
car idles. There is a small bypass chamber that allows a small amount of air to
bypass the throttle plate and go into the engine. By adjusting the amount of air
through the bypass, we can adjust the idle speed of the engine. There is also a
Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) mounted on the throttle plate that sends a signal
to the main EFI computer telling it weather it is at idle, midrange cruising or wide
open throttle. From the throttle chamber it goes through the intake manifold and
into the cylinders.

One last component is the Cold Start Valve. It is electrically heated and
performs the same function as the choke on a carburetor. The Cold Start Valve is
a valve with a bi-metallic element that expands as it's heated. When it's cold, it
allows a large quantity of air to bypass the throttle plate thus causing an increase
in idle speed. As the element heats up, it closes the bypass passage and lowers
the idle speed as the engine obtains normal operating temperature.

Because the modern internal combustion engine is in essence a powerful air

pump, like the exhaust system on an engine, the intake must be carefully
engineered and tuned to provide the greatest efficiency and power. An ideal
intake system should increase the velocity of the air until it travels into the
combustion chamber, while minimizing turbulence and restriction of flow.
Early automobile intake systems were simple inlets connected directly to
carburetors.

A modern automobile air intake system has three main parts, an air filter, mass
flow sensor, and throttle body. Some modern intake systems can be highly
complex, and often include specially-designed intake manifolds to optimally
distribute air and air/fuel mixture to each cylinder. Many cars today now include a
silencer to minimize the noise entering the cabin. Silencers impede air flow and
create turbulence which reduce total power, so many performance enthusiasts
often remove them.

All the above is usually accomplished by flow testing on a flow bench in the port
design stage. Cars with turbochargers or superchargers which provide
pressurized air to the engine usually have highly-refined intake systems to
improve performance dramatically.

Production cars have specific-length air intakes to cause the air to vibrate and
buffett at a specific frequency to assist air flow into the combustion chamber.
Aftermarket companies for cars have introduced larger throttle bodies and air
filters to decrease restriction of flow at the cost of changing the harmonics of the
air intake for a small net increase in power or torque.

Porsche in the 1980s designed an intake system for their cars that changed the
length of the intake system by alternating between a longer and shorter set of
tubing using a butterfly valve, creating a small amount of positive pressure which
increased overall performance of the engine. Audi began to use a similar system
in some cars in the 1990s. Alfa Romeo used variable-length intakes in their 2.0
Twin Spark engines powering the model 156

An air flow meter is used for measuring intake air flow amount of an internal combustion engine. High
performance engines require precise measurement of air/fuel ratio to achieve optimum performance and
to meet current emission standards. This function is performed by an air flow meter. In an internal
combustion engine, the intake air flow rate of the internal combustion engine is detected and used as a
parameter for controlling the operation of the internal combustion engine. An internal combustion engine
is equipped with an air flow meter for metering the amount of intake air supplied to the engine with a
view toward attaining exhaust gas purification, economic fuel consumption and so on. The air flow meter
is disposed in a bypass passage within an engine intake pipe. The air flow meter has a flow meter
element and a heat sensing element, and measures the intake air flow mount base on a value of electric
current supplied into the flow meter element. Generally known air flow meters which measure the intake
air flow rate in an internal combustion engine of a car or the like include: an air flowmeter which
measures the intake air flow rate according to heat radiation of a heating element to be controlled, and a
thermal air flow meter which measures the flow rate according to the difference between the upstream
and downstream temperatures of a heating element. The latter is called a temperature difference type
thermal air flowmeter. Many current air flow meter sensors are based on the principle of a heated wire or
film placed in or adjacent to the air flow. A hot wire air flow meter has a heating coil which is formed as
an exothermic resistor that is disposed in an air flow path the flow rate of which is to be measured. The
hot wire air flow meters are known as advantageous in comparison with the conventionally known flap
type air flow meter because of lesser flow resistance against the flow of intake air flowing through an air
induction passage.

Air Flow Meter

An Air Flow Meter is a device that measures the amount of air flowing through a
tube. These devices converts the amount of air drawn by engine into an electrical
signal sended to the Electronic Control Unit. The ECU needs to know intake air
volume to calculate how much fuel to inject into the cylinders in order to provide
optimum combustion and low emissions. There are different types of AFM
sensors. The vane (flap) air flow meter and Kármán vortex are two older styles of
air flow sensors, still in limited use. Nowadays, the AFMs doesn’t measure the
volume anymore, like vane air flow meters does, but the actual speed of air
flowing through the tube, which means the AFMs are simply an application of
mass flow meters for any fluid. The advantage is obvious: less restrictions to the
flow.

Types of air flow meters:

Mass Air Flow (MAF): Hot Wire Type

The primary components of the MAF sensors are a platinum hot wire (or a hot
film, the same principle) and an electronic control circuit. This hot wire acts like a
resistor. Placed in the engine’s air stream, and connected to an electronic control
circuit, the tendency will be to maintain the wire at a constant temperature. An
increase in air flow will cause the hot wire to lose heat faster, the resistance will
drop, and this will be compensate by sending more current through the wire. So,
the air flow mass will be converted into this variation of the electrical current,
and the ECU will do the rest.

Mass Air Flow (MAF): Cold Wire Type

The cold wire MAF sensor uses thin metal strips that vibrate as the air passes by.
This vibration changes the inductance of a tiny sensor which is part of an
oscillator circuit. In that way, the frequency is related to the amount of air
passing over. This oscillating electrical signal is then sent to the engine’s ECU.

Vane Air Flow Meter

A Vane Air Flow Meter (or sensor) monitors the volume of air entering the engine
by means of a spring-loaded mechanical flap. Vane Air Flow Meters consist of the
following components:
- Measuring Plate
- Compensation Plate
- Return Spring
- Potentiometer
- Bypass Air Passage
- Idle Mixture Screw
- Switch for Fuel Pump
- Intake Air Temperature Sensor
The flap is pushed open proportional with the volume of air entering the engine.
The more air coming in, the more the flap is pushed backed against the return
spring. There is a potentiometer attached to the flap, connected to an
electronically circuit, that sends a voltage signal to the ECU. The Vane Air Flow
Meter contains a safety switch for the electric fuel pump relay. When the engine
stops, the air flow stops, the flap will activate the switch and the pump should
stop. The Air Temperature Sensor works exactly as it did in the carbureted
engine. The Idle Mixture Screw controls the amount of air that bypasses the flap,
in order to rich or lean the air/fuel ratio.

Kármán Vortex Air Flow Meter

This air flow meter provides the same type of information (intake air volume) as
the Vane Air Flow Meter. It consist of the following components:
- Vortex Generator
- Mirror
- Photo Coupler
- Intake Air Temperature Sensor

The principle is based on a swirling effect to the air downstream created by he

vortex generator. This vortex is sensed by a photo coupler and a mirror. The
resulting signal is converted into a voltage signal which is interpreted by the ECU.

in use on automotive engines. These are the vane meter and the hot wire. Neither design
employs technology that measures air mass directly. However, with an additional sensor or
two, the engine's air mass flow rate can be accurately determined.

Both approaches are used almost exclusively on electronic fuel injection (EFI)
engines. Both sensor designs output a 0.0- 5.0 volt or a pulse-width modulation
(PWM) signal that is proportional to the air mass flow rate, and both sensors have
an intake air temperature (IAT) sensor incorporated into their housings.

When a MAF is used in conjunction with an oxygen sensor, the engine's air/fuel
ratio can be controlled very accurately. The MAF sensor provides the open-loop
predicted air flow information (the measured air flow) to the ECU, and the oxygen
sensor provides closed-loop feedback in order to make minor corrections to the
predicted air mass. Also see MAP sensor.

[edit] Vane meter sensor

A vane, or paddle, projects into the engine’s intake air stream on a spring-loaded
arm. The vane moves in proportion to the airflow, and a voltage is generated in
proportion to the distance the vane moves, or the movement of the vane directly
regulates the amount of fuel injected, as in the K-Jetronic system.

The vane moves because of the drag force of the air flow against it, it does not
measure volume or mass directly. The drag force depends on air density, velocity
and the shape of the vane, see drag equation.

The vane meter approach has some drawbacks:

it restricts airflow which limits engine output

its moving electrical or mechanical contacts can wear
finding a suitable mounting location within a confined engine compartment is
problematic
the vane has to be oriented with respect to gravity.
[edit] Hot wire sensor (MAF)
A hot wire mass airflow sensor determines the mass of air flowing into the
engine’s air intake system. The theory of operation of the hot wire mass airflow
sensor is similar to that of the hot wire anemometer (which determines air
velocity). The General Motors division (GM) was the first car company to use the
hot wire sensor.[citation needed] This is achieved by heating a wire with an
electric current that is suspended in the engine’s air stream, like a toaster wire.
The wire's electrical resistance increases as the wire’s temperature increases,
which limits electrical current flowing through the circuit. When air flows past the
wire, the wire cools, decreasing its resistance, which in turn allows more current
to flow through the circuit. As more current flows, the wire’s temperature
increases until the resistance reaches equilibrium again. The amount of current
required to maintain the wire’s temperature is directly proportional to the mass
of air flowing past the wire. The integrated electronic circuit converts the
measurement of current into a voltage signal which is sent to the ECU.

If air density increases due to pressure increase or temperature drop, but the air
volume remains constant, the denser air will remove more heat from the wire
indicating a higher mass airflow. Unlike the vane meter's paddle sensing
element, the hot wire responds directly to air density. This sensor's capabilities
are well suited to support the gasoline combustion process which fundamentally
responds to air mass, not air volume. (See stoichiometry.)

Some of the benefits of a hot-wire MAF compared to the older style vane meter
are:

responds very quickly to changes in air flow

low airflow restriction
smaller overall package
less sensitive to mounting location and orientation
no moving parts improve its durability
less expensive
separate temperature and pressure sensors are not required (to determine air
mass)
There are some drawbacks:

dirt and oil can contaminate the hot-wire deteriorating its accuracy
installation requires a laminar flow across the hot-wire

"Coldwire" sensor

The GM LS engine series (as well as others) use a "coldwire" MAF system
(produced by AC Delco) where the inductance of a tiny sensor changes with the
air mass flow over that sensor. The sensor is part of an oscillator circuit whose
oscillation frequency changes with sensor inductance; hence the frequency is
related to the amount of air (cubic feet per minute) passing over the unit. This
oscillating electrical signal is then fed to the car's ECU. These MAF units (such as
the one pictured) have 3 pins, denoted +, - and F. F carries the square-wave
frequency between - and F. They are powered by +5 VDC from the ECU's
regulated power supply.

The mesh on the MAF is used to smooth out airflow to ensure the sensors have
the best chance of a steady reading. It is not used for measuring the air flow per
se. In situations where owners use oiled-gauze air filters, it is possible for excess
oil to coat the MAF sensor and skew its readings. Indeed, General Motors has
issued a Technical Service Bulletin, indicating problems from rough idle all the
way to possible transmission damage resulting from the contaminated sensors.
To clean the delicate MAF sensor components, a specific MAF or Electronics
Cleaner should be used, not carburetor or brake cleaner. These are alcohol or
CFC-based solvents, rather than the harsh petroleum distillates used in the other
cleaners... The sensors should be gently sprayed from a careful distance to avoid
physically damaging them. Manufacturers claim that a simple but extremely
reliable test to ensure correct functionality is to tap the unit with the back of a
screwdriver while the car is running, and if this causes any changes in the output
frequency then the unit should be discarded and an OEM replacement installed.

Kármán vortex sensor

A Kármán vortex sensor works by setting up a laminar air stream. The air stream
is disrupted by a vertical bow in the sensor. This causes a wake in the air stream
and subsequently the wake will collapse repeatedly and cause Kármán vortexes.
The frequency of the resulting air pressure oscillation is proportional to the air
velocity.

These vortexes can either be read directly as a pressure pulse against a sensor,
or they can be made to collide with a mirror which will then interrupt or transmit
a reflected light beam to generate the pulses in response to the vortexes. The
first type can only be used in pull thru air (prior to a turbo- or supercharger),
while the second type could theoretically be used push or pull thru air (before or
after a forced induction application like the previously mentioned super- or
turbocharger). Instead of outputting a constant voltage modified by a resistance
factor, this type of MAF outputs a frequency which must then be interpreted by
the ECU. This type of MAF can be found on Mitsubishi Lancers/EVOs, all DSMs
(Mitsubishi Eclipse, Eagle Talon, Plymouth Laser) and some models from Toyota
and Lexus.

More information can be found here:[1]

Membrane sensor
An emerging technology utilizes a very thin electronic membrane placed in the
air stream. The membrane has a thin film temperature sensor printed on the
upstream side, and one on the downstream side. A heater is integrated in the
center of the membrane which maintains a constant temperature similar to the
hot-wire approach. Without any airflow, the temperature profile across the
membrane is uniform. When air flows across the membrane, the upstream side
cools differently from the downstream side. The difference between the upstream
and downstream temperature indicates the mass airflow. The thermal membrane
sensor is also capable of measuring flow in both directions, which sometimes
occur in pulsating situations. Technological progress allows this kind of sensor to
be manufactured on the microscopic scale as microsensors using
Microelectromechanical systems technology. Such a microsensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic
approaches. See also MEMS sensor generations.

Auto repair technician observation

The MAF sensor senses the incoming air into the engine. This sensor does not
regulate the incoming air, this is done by the engine throttle plates. The MAF
merely senses incoming air and relates a signal to the ECM. Air flow sensors
come in three types. The Vane Air Flow sensor, Hot Wire MAF sensor and Hot Film
MAF sensor. They all perform the same function but their operation is quite
different.

The VAF sensor measures the air flow into the engine with a spring-loaded air
flap/door attached to a variable resistor (potentiometer). The drag force of the
incoming air pushes against the spring force of the air flap on the VAF sensor,
which also moves the variable resistor’s sensing arm (wiper arm). As air flows
into the engine the mechanical air flap rotates further, changing the voltage
signal output.

The VAF sensor has an air-fuel adjustment screw, which opens or closes a small
air passage on the side of the VAF sensor. This screw controls the air-fuel mixture
by letting a metered amount of air flow past the air flap, thereby, leaning or
richening the mixture. By turning the screw clockwise the mixture is enriched and
counterclockwise the mixture is leaned. In addition to the regular air flow
measuring function, some VAF sensors also employ an air temperature sensor
(IAT sensor) and a fuel pump switch.

The IAT sensor is found inside the VAF casing and has the same electrical
characteristics as a regular air temperature sensor. The VAF sensor flap also
closes a set of contacts that activate the fuel pump relay coil (circuit opening
relay). The contacts are actually closed as soon as the smallest amount of air
pushes on the air flow flap. Once this happens the fuel pump starts running and
the engine starts.

One of the main drawbacks of the VAF sensor is that it measures volume of air
and not weight. As air temperature changes so does its weight. There are more
air molecules present when the air is colder than when it is hotter. As air
temperature decreases, more air is absorbed by the engine, so there are drastic
changes needed in the air fuel ratio (depending on the temperature of the air).
The air temperature sensor inside the VAF somewhat compensates by signaling
the ECM of any changes in air temperature.

The hot wire MAF sensor is a fully electronic unit. It senses the amount of air flow
into the engine by measuring the amount of current needed to maintain a
constant temperature through a very thin (70 micrometers) platinum hot wire.
Hence the name hot wire MAF sensor. It also measures air by weight, since it
takes into consideration the air temperature as well.

This sensor works as follows. As the air enters the intake manifold through the
hot wire MAF sensor it cools down the platinum wire, which is heated at a very
precise temperature. When the MAF circuitry senses the platinum wire cooling
down it increases the amount of current flow through the hot wire trying to
maintain a specific temperature. This varying current flow is then converted to a
voltage output signal by the MAF electronic circuitry and is used as an air flow
indicator by the ECM. Hot wire MAF sensors have a signal that is directly
proportional to air flow. So as air flow increases so does its voltage signal output.

This sensor sometimes employs a mixture screw, but this screw is fully electronic
and uses a variable resistor (potentiometer) instead of an air bypass screw. The
screw needs more turns to achieve the desired results. A hot wire burn-off
cleaning circuit is employed on some of these sensors. A burn-off relay applies a
high current through the platinum hot wire after the vehicle is turned off for a
second or so, thereby burning or vaporizing any contaminants that have stuck to
the platinum hot wire element.

The hot film MAF sensor works somewhat similar to the hot wire MAF sensor, but
instead it usually outputs a frequency signal. This sensor uses a hot film-grid
instead of a hot wire. It is commonly found in late 80’s early 90’s fuel injected
vehicles. The output frequency is directly proportional to the amount of air
entering the engine. So as air flow increases so does frequency. These sensors
tend to cause intermittent problems due to internal electrical failures. The use of
an oscilloscope is strongly recommended to check the output frequency of these
sensors. Frequency distortion is also common when the sensor starts to fail.
Many technicians in the field use a tap test with very conclusive results. Not all
HFM systems output a frequency. In some cases, this sensor works by outputting
a regular varying voltage signal.

[edit] Conditions that affect operation

VAF sensors are mechanical in nature. Their measuring element (wiper contact,
pivot bushings and sensor resistors) get worn out over time. A binding air flap
door is also a major problem with these sensors. The air flap mechanism is
extremely precise and does not tolerate any misalignments. Always make sure
that the air flap can travel freely all the way to its full open position. A broken air
duct pipe will also render the VAF useless, since most of the air will be bypassed
and enter though the broken duct hole. A thorough air duct check is always a
good idea. The resistors also tend to wear out over time, sending the wrong
voltage signal to the ECM. This will certainly throw off the air-fuel ratio.

The air temperature sensor and the fuel pump switch are the other reasons for
VAF failures. This fuel pump switch activates the fuel pump relay and its contacts
also wear down over time, causing a no start-no no-fuel pressure condition. A
simple continuity test will quickly reveal a bad fuel pump switch. The air
temperature sensor also follows the same electrical characteristics of a normal
IAT sensor and the same ohms to temperature tables could be used for
diagnostics.

Hot Wire MAF sensors are very prone to sensing wire element contamination. A
condition referred to by many technicians as “growing hairs” happens when
debris, dirt from cheap air filters and outside air stick to the sensing wire
element, shielding it from the incoming air. This shielding effect prevents the
MAF sensor from correctly measuring the air flow and mass causing severe air-
fuel ratio control problems. An ECM not in control while at pre-load is a strong
indication of a dirty MAF.

In any fully electronic device, the electrical connections and circuitry fails after a
certain lifespan of operation. An output signal voltage test will surely reveal a bad
MAF sensor.

Hot Film MAF sensors tend to get electrical damage more often that the other
type of sensors. The tap test ,as mentioned before, is a useful and simple
procedure that usually reveals a bad hot film MAF sensor. Contamination or a
broken air duct is also a problem for this type of sensor.

[edit] Laminar flow elements

Laminar flow elements measure the mass flow of gases directly. They operate on
the principle that, given laminar flow, the pressure difference across a pipe is
linear to the flow rate. Laminar flow conditions are present in a gas when the
Reynolds number of the gas is below the critical figure. The viscosity of the fluid
must be compensated for in the result. Laminar flow elements are usual
constructed form a large number of parallel pipes to achieve the required flow
rating.

An air flow meter, commonly abbreviated to AFM, also known as an air

consumption meter,[dubious – discuss] is a device that measures how much air is
flowing through a tube. It does not measure the volume of the air passing
through the tube, it measures the actual speed of the air flowing through the
device in a defined time segment. Thus air flow meters are simply an application
of mass flow meters for a special medium. Typically, mass air flow measurements
are expressed in the units of kilograms per hour (kg/h).
Types of air flow meters
[edit] In automobiles
An air flow meter is used in some automobiles to measure the quantity of air
going into the internal combustion engine. All modern electronically controlled
diesel engines use air flow meter,[citation needed] as it is the only possible
means of determining the air intake for them. In the case of a petrol engine, the
electronic control unit (ECU) then calculates how much fuel is needed to inject
into the cylinder ports. In the diesel engine, the ECU meters the fuel through the
injectors into the engines cylinders during the compression stroke.

The vane (flap) type air flow meters (Bosch L-Jetronic and early Motronic EFI
systems or Hitachi) actually measure air volume, whereas the later "hot wire"
and "hot film" air mass meters measure speed of air flow.

The flap type meter includes a spring which returns the internal flap to the initial
position. Sometimes if the spring is tensioned too tight, it can cause restrict the
incoming air and it would cause the intake air speed to increase when not opened
fully.

Differential pressure is also used for air flow measurement purposes.

[edit] Failures
Air flow meters may fail or wear out. When this happens, engine performance will
often decrease significantly, engine emissions will be greatly increased, and
usually the Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) will illuminate. In most countries in
Europe, and in places in the United States where emissions inspections are
obligatory, a lit MIL is cause for a vehicle to fail the inspection. Some engines do
not idle with an air flow meter failure.

[edit] Air flow meter for R&D of cars

In the development process of internal combustion engines with engine test
stands, an air flow meter/air flow measuring unit is used for measuring the
continuous gravimetric air consumption of combustion engines.