ACI 207.

1R-96

Mass
Concrete Reported by
ACI Committee 207

Gary R. Mass Woodrow L. Burgess*

Chairman Chairman, Task Group

Edward A. Abdun- Robert W. Cannon David Groner Walter H. Ernest K. Schrader*

Nur* Price*†
Fred A. Anderson* Roy W. Carlson Kenneth D. Milos Polivka Roger L.
Hansen Sprouse
Richard A. James L. Cope* Gordon M. Jerome M. Raphael* John H. Stout
Bradshaw, Jr.* Kidd
Edward G. W. Bush James R. Graham* W. Douglas Patricia J. Roberts Carl R.
McEwen Wilder
James E.
Oliverson*

*Members of the task group who prepared this

report. †Deceased

Members of Committee 207 who voted on the 1996

revisions:
Dan A. John M. Scanlon
Bonikowsky John R. Hess
Chairman
Chairman, Task Group
Robert W. Cannon
Ahmed F. Chraibi Michael I.
James L. Cope
Hammons Meng K. Lee Ernest K. Schrader
Luis H. Diaz
Kenneth D. Gary R. Mass Glenn S. Tarbox
Timothy P. Dolen Hansen
Robert F. Oury Stephen B. Tatro
James K.
Hinds
Allen J. cause excessive seepage and shortening of the service life of the
Synopsis Hulshizer structure,
or may be esthetically objectionable. Many of the principles in mass
concrete practice can also be applied to general concrete work whereby
certain
Beton massa adalah "setiap volume beton dengan dimensi yang cukup besar untuk manfaat ekonomi dan lainnya dapat
direalisasikan. memerlukan langkah-langkah yang diambil untuk mengatasi generasi panas dari hidrasi semen dan perubahan
volume petugas untuk meminimalkan retak.
Desain struktur beton massa umumnya didasarkan pada daya tahan, Laporan ini berisi sejarah perkembangan ekonomi praktik beton massa, dan aksi
termal, dengan kekuatan sering menjadi con-dan diskusi sekunder bahan dan proporsi campuran beton, sifat, cern. Karena reaksi semen-air bersifat
eksotermik, metode dan peralatan konstruksi temper-, dan perilaku termal. Ini mencakup kenaikan tradiature dalam massa beton besar, di mana panas tidak
hilang, secarationally ditempatkan dan beton massa konsolidasi, dan tidak menutupi beton rollercompacted. Praktik beton massal sebagian besar
dikembangkan bisa sangat tinggi. Tekanan tarik yang signifikan dapat berkembang dari volume
perubahan yang terkait dengan peningkatan dan penurunan suhu dalam konstruksi bendungan beton, di mana retakan terkait suhu pertama kali diidentifikasi.
Retak terkait suhu juga telah dialami di massa lainnya. Langkah-langkah harus diambil di mana retak karena struktur beton bagian termekumik termal,
termasuk fondasi tikar, topi tumpukan,
ior dapat menyebabkan hilangnya integritas struktural dan tindakan monolitik, atau dapat menjembatani dermaga, dinding
tebal, dan lapisan terowongan.

ACI committee reports, guides, standard practices, design

207.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

buku pegangan udara, dan komentar dimaksudkan

Kata kunci: campuran; gradasi agregat; ukuran agregat; agregat; agregat;
untuk panduan dalam
entrainment; bendungan lengkung; batching; dermaga jembatan; semen; perencanaan tekan, merancang,
mengeksekusi, dan memeriksa konstruksi. kekuatan; konstruksi beton; bendungan beton; pendinginan; retak
(rekahanDokumen ini dimaksudkan untuk penggunaan individu yang sedang ing); merayap; menyembuhkan; diffusivity; daya
tahan; fly ash; formwork (konstruksi); kompeten untuk mengevaluasi signifikansi dan keterbatasan bendungan gravitasinya;
pembangkit panas; panas hidrasi; sejarah; instrumentasi; instrumentasi; konten dan rekomendasi dan siapa yang akan
menerima beton massa responsi; pencampuran proporsi; pencampuran; modulus elastisitas;kebilutan permeuntuk
penerapan materi yang dikandungnya. Kemampuan; menempatkan; Rasio Poisson; pozzolans; properti geser; penyusutan;
American Concrete Institute menolak setiap dan semua tekanan responsi; tekanan; kontrol suhu; kenaikan suhu (dalam beton);
ekspansi termal; gradien termal; sifat termal; getaran; kebilutan volume untuk penerapan prinsip-prinsip yang dinyatakan.
Institut perubahan. tidak akan bertanggung jawab atas kerugian atau kerusakan yang timbul darinya.

Referensi ke dokumen ini tidak akan dibuat dalam kontrak ACI 207.1R-96 menjadi efektif 21 November 1996. Dokumen ini
menggantikan dokumen ACI. Jika item yang ditemukan dalam dokumen ini diinginkan oleh 207.1R-87. Hak cipta  1997,
American Concrete Institute. Arsitek / Insinyur untuk menjadi bagian dari docu kontrak - Semua hak yang dilindungi termasuk
hak reproduksi dan penggunaan dalam bentuk apa pun atau oleh
ments, mereka harus disajikan kembali dalam bahasa wajib untuk sarana, termasuk pembuatan salinan dengan proses foto apa
pun, atau denganperangkat elektronik ataumekanis, dicetak, ditulis, atau lisan, atau perekaman untuk reproduksi suara atau visual-
korporasi oleh Arsitek/Insinyur. tion atau untuk digunakan dalam sistem pengetahuan atau pengambilan atau perangkat
apa pun, kecuali izin diMenulis diperoleh dari pemilik hak cipta.

CONTENTS 3.5—Perubahan volume

3.8—Properti Geser
Bab 1— Pengantar dan 3.9—Daya tahan
perkembangan sejarah, hal. 207.1R-2
1.1—Lingkup Bab 4—Konstruksi, hal. 207.1R-22
1.2—Sejarah 4.1—Batching
1.3—Kontrol suhu 4.2—Pencampuran
1.4—Desain kekuatan jangka panjang 4.3—Menempatkan
4.4—Menyembuhkan
 Bab 2 — Bahan dan proporsi campuran, 4.5—Bentuk
p.
4.6—Tinggi lift dan interval waktu antara lift
207.1R-6
2.1—Umum 4.7—Pendinginan dan kontrol suhu
2.2—Semen 4.8—Sendi kontraksi nat
2.3—Pozzolans dan terak tanah
Bab 5—Perilaku, hal. 207.1R-29
2.4—Campuran kimia
5.1—Tekanan termal dan retak
2.5—Agregat
5.2—Perubahan volume
2.6—Air
5.3—Generasi panas
2.7—Pemilihan proporsi
5.4—Studi disipasi panas
2.8—Kontrol suhu
5.5—Instrumentasi
Bab 3—Properti, p. 207.1R-13
Bab 6—Referensi, hal. 207.1R-38
3.1—Umum
6.1—Referensi yang ditentukan dan
3.2—Kekuatan direkomendasikan
3.3—Sifat elastis 6.2—Referensi yang dikutip
3.4—Merayap 6.3—Referensi tambahan

Lampiran—Contoh metrik, p. 207.1R-40
BAB 1— PENGANTAR DAN SEJARAH
PERKEMBANGAN
1.1 —Lingkup
 1.1.1 — "Beton massa" didefinisikan dalam
ACI 116R sebagai "setiap volume beton
dengan dimensi yang cukup besar untuk
mengharuskan langkah-langkah diambil untuk
mengatasi generasi panas dari hidrasi semen
dan perubahan volume petugas untuk
meminimalkan retak." Desain struktur beton
massa umumnya didasarkan terutama pada
daya tahan, ekonomi, dan aksi termal, dengan
kekuatan sering menjadi sekunder daripada
perhatian utama. Salah satu karakteristik yang
membedakan beton massa dari pekerjaan beton
lainnya adalah perilaku termal. Karena reaksi
semen-air bersifat eksotermik, suhu naik dalam
massa beton besar, di mana panas tidak cepat
hilang, bisa sangat tinggi(lihat 5.1.1). Tekanan
dan ketegangan tarik yang signifikan dapat
berkembang dari perubahan volume yang
terkait dengan peningkatan dan penurunan suhu
dalam massa. Langkah-langkah harus diambil
di mana retak karena perilaku termal dapat
menyebabkan hilangnya integritas struktural
dan tindakan monolitik, atau dapat
menyebabkan rembesan yang berlebihan dan
pemendekan masa pakai struktur, atau mungkin
sangat tidak menyenangkan. Banyak prinsip
dalam praktik beton massal juga dapat
diterapkan pada pekerjaan konkret umum
dimana manfaat ekonomi dan lainnya tertentu
dapat direalisasikan.
Laporan ini berisi sejarah perkembangan
praktik beton massal dan diskusi tentang
bahan dan proporsi campuran beton,
properti, metode dan peralatan konstruksi,
dan perilaku termal. Laporan ini mencakup
beton massa yang ditempatkan secara
tradisional dan dikonsolidasikan, dan tidak
mencakup beton yang dipadatkan roller.
Beton roller-compacted dijelaskan secara
rinci dalam ACI 207.5R.
Praktik konkrret massal dikembangkan
sebagian besar dari konstruksi bendungan
beton, di mana retakan terkait suhu pertama
kali diidentifikasi. Retak terkait suhu juga
telah dialami di struktur beton bagian tebal
lainnya, termasuk fondasi tikar, topi
tumpukan, dermaga jembatan, dinding tebal,
dan lapisan terowongan.
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 3
Kekuatan tekan tinggi biasanya tidak diperlukan
dalam struktur beton massa; Bendungan lengkung
tipis adalah pengecualian. Struktur besar, seperti
bendungan gravitasi, menahan beban berdasarkan
bentuk dan massanya, dan hanya sekunder dengan
kekuatan mereka. Yang lebih penting adalah daya
tahan dan sifat yang terhubung dengan perilaku suhu
dan kecenderungan untuk retak.
Efek dari generasi panas, pengekangan, dan
perubahan volume pada desain dan perilaku elemen
dan struktur besar yang diperkuat dibahas dalam ACI
207.2R. Sistem pendinginan dan isolasi untuk beton
massa ditangani dalam ACI 207.4R. Proporsi
campuran untuk beton massa dibahas dalam ACI
211.1..
1.2 —Sejarah
1.2.1 —Ketika beton pertama kali digunakan di
bendungan, bendungannya kecil dan beton
dicampur dengan tangan. Semen portland biasanya
harus berusia untuk mematuhi tes kesehatan
"mendidih", agregatnya adalah pasir dan kerikil
yang dikelola bank, dan proporsinya adalah dengan
sekop (Davis)
*
luar biasa telah dibuat sejak hari-hari awal, dan
seni dan ilmu bangunan bendungan yang dipraktekkan
saat ini telah mencapai keadaan yang sangat maju.
Pemilihan dan proporsi bahan beton untuk
menghasilkan kekuatan, daya tahan, dan daya tahan
yang sesuai dari produk jadi dapat diprediksi dan
dikendalikan dengan akurasi.
1.2.2— Tercakup di sini adalah langkah-langkah
utama dari awal yang sangat kecil hingga saat ini.
Dalam konstruksi bendungan besar sekarang ada
proporsi yang tepat dan otomatis dan pencampuran
bahan. Beton dalam ember 12-yd 3 (9-m 3)dapat
ditempatkan dengan metode konvensional pada tingkat
10.000 yd 3/ hari (7650 m 3/ hari) pada suhu kurang
dari 50 F (10 C) seperti yang ditempatkan, bahkan
selama cuaca terpanas. Grand Coulee Dam masih
memegang rekor sepanjang masa tingkat penempatan
bulanan 536.250 yd 3 (410.020 m 3)diikuti oleh
pencapaian yang lebih baru di Bendungan Itaipu di
perbatasan Brasil-Paraguay 440.550 yd 3 (336.840 m 3)
(Itaipu Binacional 1981). Campuran ramping sekarang
dibuat bisa digunakan melalui entraining udara dan
campuran kimia lainnya dan penggunaan bahan
pozzolanic yang terbagi halus. Pengurangan air,
peningkatan kekuatan, dan campuran kimia pengendali
set efektif dalam mengurangi kandungan semen yang
diperlukan seminimal mungkin serta dalam
mengendalikan waktu pengaturan. Dengan
meningkatnya perhatian pada beton roller-compacted,
207.1R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
dimensi baru telah diberikan untuk konstruksi
beton massal. Rekor tingkat penempatan
bulanan 328.500 yd 3 (250.200 m 3)untuk beton
roller-compacted dicapai di Bendungan Tarbela
di Pakistan. Menempatkan tarif untuk beton
tanpa kemerosotan, menggunakan peralatan
besar yang bergerak di bumi untuk transportasi
dan rol bergetar besar untuk konsolidasi,
tampaknya hanya dibatasi oleh ukuran proyek
dan kemampuan pabriknya untuk menghasilkan
beton. Mereka yang peduli dengan konstruksi
bendungan beton seharusnya tidak merasa
bahwa yang terbaik telah tercapai, tetapi
mereka dibenarkan dalam merasakan kepuasan
dengan kemajuan yang telah dibuat.
1.2.3 Sebelum tahun 1900 —Sebelum
awal abad ke-20, sebagian besar semen
portland yang digunakan di Amerika
Serikat diimpor dari Eropa. Semua semen
sangat kasar dengan standar saat ini - dan
cukup umum mereka terbakar dan memiliki
kandungan kapur bebas yang tinggi. Untuk
bendungan pada periode itu, pasir dan
kerikil yang dikelola bank digunakan tanpa
manfaat mencuci untuk menghilangkan
kotoran dan denda yang tidak
menyenangkan. Campuran beton sangat
bervariasi dalam kandungan semen dan
dalam rasio agregat pasir / kasar.
Pencampuran biasanya dengan tangan dan
proporsi dengan sekop, gerobak dorong,
kotak, atau gerobak. Efek rasio air-semen
tidak diketahui, dan umumnya tidak ada
upaya yang dilakukan untuk
mengendalikan volume pencampuran air.
Tidak ada ukuran konsistensi kecuali
dengan pengamatan visual dari beton yang
baru dicampur.
Beberapa bendungan adalah batu
cyclopean di mana "plum" (batu besar)
sebagian tertanam dalam beton yang
sangat basah. Ruang antara plum
kemudian diisi dengan beton, juga sangat
basah. Beberapa bendungan awal
dibangun tanpa sendi kontraksi dan tanpa
lift biasa. Namun, ada pengecualian di
mana beton dilemparkan dalam blok;
tinggi lift diatur dan beton dari
*. Lihat 6.2 untuk referensi.
Konsistensi kering ditempatkan di lapisan tipis dan
dikonsolidasikan oleh tamping tangan yang ketat.
Umumnya, beton campuran diangkut ke bentuk
oleh gerobak dorong. Di mana plum digunakan di
batu cyclopean, derricks kaku-kaki yang beroperasi
di dalam area kerja memindahkan beton basah dan
plum. Tingkat penempatan paling banyak beberapa
ratus meter kubik sehari. Umumnya, tidak ada upaya
untuk menyembuhkan lembab.
Pengecualian untuk praktik umum ini adalah
Bendungan Lower Crystal Springs yang selesai pada
tahun 1890. Bendungan ini terletak di dekat San
Mateo, California, sekitar 20 mil selatan San
Francisco. Menurut informasi yang tersedia, itu
adalah bendungan pertama di Amerika Serikat di
mana jumlah maksimum air pencampuran yang
diizinkan ditentukan. Beton untuk struktur tinggi 154
kaki (47 m) ini dilemparkan dalam sistem blok yang
saling terkait dengan bentuk dan dimensi tertentu.
Sebuah foto lama menunjukkan bahwa gangguan
tangan digunakan untuk mengkonsolidasikan beton
kering. Beton segar ditutupi dengan papan sebagai
perlindungan dari matahari dan beton tetap basah
sampai pengerasan terjadi.
Hanya beberapa bendungan beton yang dibangun di
Amerika Serikat sebelum tahun 1900 tetap dapat
diservis saat ini, dan kebanyakan dari mereka kecil.
Dari hampir 3.500 bendungan yang dibangun di
Amerika Serikat hingga saat ini, kurang dari 20
dibangun sebelum tahun 1900. Lebih dari sepertiganya
terletak di negara bagian California dan Arizona di
mana iklimnya ringan. Yang lain bertahan hidup iklim
yang lebih ketat berkat batu mereka menghadap.
1.2.4 Tahun 1900 hingga 1930 —Setelah pergantian
abad, pembangunan semua jenis bendungan beton
sangat dipercepat. Bendungan yang semakin tinggi
untuk irigasi, listrik, dan pasokan air adalah urutan hari
itu. Penempatan beton melalui menara dan parasut
menjadi mode. Di Amerika Serikat, industri semen
portland menjadi mapan, dan semen jarang diimpor
dari Eropa. Spesifikasi ASTM untuk semen portland
mengalami sedikit perubahan selama 30 tahun pertama
abad ini selain dari peningkatan sederhana dalam
persyaratan kehalusan yang ditentukan oleh analisis
saringan. Kecuali untuk batas magnesia dan kerugian
pada pengapian, tidak ada persyaratan kimia. Karakter
dan penilaian agregat diberi lebih banyak perhatian
selama periode ini. Kemajuan yang sangat substansial
dibuat dalam pengembangan metode proporsi beton.
Hubungan kekuatan semen air didirikan oleh Duff
Abrams dan rekan-rekannya dari penyelidikan
sebelum 1918 ketika Portland Cement Association
(PCA) Bulletin 1 muncul. Namun demikian, sedikit

perhatian diberikan pada jumlah pencampuran
air. Menempatkan metode menggunakan
menara dan parasut miring datar didominasi,
sehingga penggunaan campuran terlalu basah
selama setidaknya 12 tahun setelah pentingnya
rasio watercement telah ditetapkan.
Umumnya, semen portland digunakan
tanpa campuran. Ada pengecualian seperti
semen pasir yang digunakan oleh Dinas
Reklamasi AS, sekarang Biro Reklamasi
AS, dalam pembangunan Gajah.
Bendungan Butte dan Arrowrock. Pada saat
penyelesaiannya pada tahun 1915, Arrowrock
Dam, bendungan gravitasi-lengkungan, adalah
bendungan tertinggi di dunia pada 350 kaki
(107 m). Bendungan ini dibangun dengan
beton interior ramping dan beton wajah
eksterior yang lebih kaya. Campuran untuk
beton interior mengandung sekitar 376 lb
kombinasi granit-semen campuran dan
dilumatkan per yd 3 (223 kg / m 3). Campuran
semen diproduksi di lokasi dengan
intergrinding sekitar bagian yang sama dari
semen portland dan granit pulverized sehingga
tidak kurang dari 90 persen melewati saringan
mesh 200 (75 µm). Kombinasi interground
jauh lebih halus daripada semen yang
diproduksi pada waktu itu.
Pengecualian lain terjadi di beton
untuk salah satu abutments dari Big
Dalton Dam, bendungan multi-
lengkungan yang dibangun oleh Los
Angeles County Flood Control District
selama akhir 1920-an. Pumicite
(pozzolan) dari Friant, California,
dipekerjakan sebagai pengganti 20 persen
berdasarkan berat untuk semen portland.
Selama periode 1900-1930, beton cyclopean
keluar dari gaya. Untuk bendungan bagian
tebal, ukuran maksimum agregat untuk beton
massa meningkat menjadi sebesar 10 in. (250
mm). Sebagai sarana untuk mengukur
konsistensi, tes kemerosotan telah mulai
digunakan. Pengujian 6 x 12-in. (150 x 300
mm) dan 8 x 16-in. (200 x 400 mm) silinder
pekerjaan menjadi praktik umum di Amerika
Serikat. Negara-negara Eropa umumnya
mengadopsi kubus 8 x 8-in. (200 x 200 mm)
untuk menguji kekuatan pada berbagai usia.
Mixer kapasitas 3-yd 3 (2,3-m 3)digunakan
secara umum menjelang akhir periode ini dan
ada beberapa ) 4-yd 3 (3-m 3). ( Hanya semen
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 5
tipe I (semen portland normal) yang tersedia selama
periode ini. Di daerah di mana kondisi pembekuan dan
pencairan parah, adalah praktik umum untuk
menggunakan campuran beton yang mengandung 564
lb semen per yd 3 (335 kg / m 3)untuk seluruh massa
beton. Praktek konstruksi menggunakan campuran
interior yang mengandung
376 lb / yd 3 (223 kg / m 3) dan campuran wajah
eksterior yang mengandung 564 lb / yd 3 (335 kg /
m 3)dikembangkan selama periode ini untuk
membuat wajah bendungan tahan terhadap iklim
yang parah dan belum meminimalkan keseluruhan
penggunaan semen. Di daerah iklim ringan, satu
kelas beton yang berisi jumlah semen serendah
376 lb / yd 3 (223 kg / m 3)digunakan di beberapa
bendungan.
Pengecualian adalah Theodore Roosevelt Dam
dibangun selama 1905-1911. Ini adalah struktur batu
puing-puing yang dihadapkan dengan blok batu kasar
yang diletakkan di mortir semen portland yang dibuat
dengan semen yang diproduksi di pabrik dekat lokasi
bendungan. Untuk struktur ini, kandungan semen rata-
rata telah dihitung menjadi sekitar 282 lb / yd 3 (167 kg
/ m 3). Untuk bagian dalam massa, batu-batu tambang
kasar tertanam dalam mortir 1: 2,5 yang mengandung
sekitar 846 lb semen per yd 3 (502 kg / m 3). Di setiap
lapisan void antara batu berjarak dekat diisi dengan
beton yang berisi 564 lb semen per yd 3 (335 kg / m 3)
di mana spalls sekop dengan tangan. Kondisi ini
menyumbang kandungan semen rata-rata yang sangat
rendah. Konstruksi sangat lambat, dan Bendungan
Roosevelt mewakili mungkin bendungan besar
terakhir yang dibangun di Amerika Serikat dengan
metode konstruksi ini.
1.2.5 Tahun 1930 hingga 1970 —Ini adalah era
perkembangan pesat dalam konstruksi beton
massal untuk bendungan. Penggunaan menara
dan metode parasut menurun selama periode ini
dan hanya digunakan pada proyek-proyek kecil.
Beton biasanya ditempatkan menggunakan ember
besar dengan crane, cableways, dan / atau sistem
kereta api. Pada proyek konstruksi yang lebih
besar dan lebih terkontrol, agregat diproses
dengan hati-hati, bahan-bahan yang proporsional
dengan berat, dan air pencampuran diukur dengan
volume.
Peningkatan kemampuan kerja disebabkan
oleh pengenalan campuran mineral yang terbagi
halus (pozzolans), entrainment udara, dan
campuran kimia. Kemerosotan serendah 3 in. (76
mm) digunakan tanpa getaran, meskipun
sebagian besar proyek di tahun-tahun berikutnya
207.1R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
dari era ini menggunakan vibrator spud
besar untuk konsolidasi.
Sebuah studi tentang catatan dan
inspeksi aktual dari sejumlah besar
bendungan menunjukkan bahwa ada
perbedaan kondisi yang tidak dapat
dijelaskan. Dari dua struktur yang
tampaknya seperti kualitas yang dikenakan
pada lingkungan yang sama, yang satu
mungkin menunjukkan retak yang
berlebihan sementara yang lain, setelah
periode seperti layanan, akan berada dalam
kondisi yang hampir sempurna. Catatan
sedikit yang tersedia di beberapa
bendungan menunjukkan variasi suhu
internal yang luas karena hidrasi semen.
Tingkat retak dikaitkan dengan kenaikan
suhu.
Komite ACI 207, Mass Concrete,
diselenggarakan pada tahun 1930
(awalnya sebagai Komite 108) untuk
tujuan mengumpulkan informasi tentang
sifat signifikan beton massal di bendungan
dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
properti ini. Bogue (1949) dan rekan-
rekannya di bawah persekutuan PCA di
Biro Standar Nasional telah
mengidentifikasi senyawa utama dalam
semen portland. Kemudian, Hubert Woods
dan rekan-rekannya terlibat dalam
penyelidikan untuk menentukan kontribusi
masing-masing senyawa ini untuk
memanaskan hidrasi dan kekuatan mortir
dan beton.
Pada awal tahun 1930, Hoover Dam
berada di tahap awal perencanaan.
Karena ukuran Bendungan Hoover yang
belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya,
penyelidikan jauh lebih rumit daripada
yang telah dilakukan sebelumnya
dilakukan untuk menentukan efek
komposisi dan kehalusan semen, faktor
semen, suhu kurasi, ukuran agregat
maksimum, dll., Pada panas hidrasi
semen, kekuatan tekan, dan sifat lain
dari mortir dan beton.
Hasil penyelidikan ini menyebabkan
penggunaan semen lowheat di Hoover
Dam. Investigasi juga memberikan
informasi untuk desain sistem pendingin
pipa tertanam yang digunakan untuk
pertama kalinya di Hoover Dam. Semen
lowheat pertama kali digunakan di
Bendungan Morris, dekat Pasadena, California,
yang dimulai setahun sebelum Bendungan
Hoover.
Untuk Hoover Dam, pabrik konstruksi memiliki
kapasitas yang belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya.
Batching dan pencampuran benar-benar otomatis.
Output hari rekor untuk dua pabrik beton, dilengkapi
dengan mixer 4-yd 3 (3-m 3)lebih dari 10.000 yd 3 (7600
m 3). Beton diangkut dalam ember 8-yd 3 (6-m 3)oleh
cableways dan dipadatkan awalnya dengan menabrak
dan menjinakkan. Pada musim semi tahun 1933,
vibrator internal besar diperkenalkan dan digunakan
setelah itu untuk memadatkan sisa beton. Dalam waktu
sekitar dua tahun, 3.200.000 yd 3 (2.440.000 m 3)beton
ditempatkan.
Hoover Dam menandai awal dari era praktik
yang lebih baik dalam konstruksi bendungan
beton besar. Selesai pada tahun 1935 pada
tingkat konstruksi yang belum pernah terjadi
sebelumnya, praktik yang digunakan di sana
dengan beberapa penyempurnaan telah
digunakan pada sebagian besar bendungan beton
besar yang telah digunakan.
Structed di Amerika Serikat dan di banyak negara
lain di seluruh dunia sejak saat itu.
Penggunaan bahan pozzolanic (pumicite) diberi
uji coba di Big Dalton Dam oleh Los Angeles
County Flood Control District. Untuk Bonneville
Dam, yang diselesaikan oleh Corps of Engineers
pada tahun 1938, kombinasi semen-pozzolan
portland digunakan untuk semua pekerjaan. Itu
diproduksi dengan intergrinding klinker semen
dengan pozzolan diproses dengan kalsining bahan
vulkanik diubah pada suhu sekitar 1500 F (820 C).
Proporsi klinker untuk pozzolan adalah 3: 1 berat.
Jenis semen ini dipilih untuk digunakan di
Bonneville berdasarkan hasil tes pada beton yang
menunjukkan ekstensibilitas besar dan kenaikan
suhu rendah. Ini adalah satu-satunya bendungan
beton selesai yang diketahui di Amerika Serikat di
mana semen portland-pozzolan interground telah
digunakan. Penggunaan pozzolan sebagai bahan
penyemenan terpisah untuk ditambahkan pada
mixer, pada tingkat 30 persen, atau lebih, dari total
bahan semen, telah menjadi praktik reguler oleh
Biro Reklamasi, Tennessee Valley Authority,
Corps of Engineers, dan lain-lain.
Kelompok campuran kimia yang berfungsi
untuk mengurangi air dalam campuran beton,
pengaturan kontrol, dan meningkatkan kekuatan
beton, mulai diakui secara serius pada 1950-an
sebagai bahan yang dapat bermanfaat bagi beton
massa. Pada tahun 1960, Wallace dan Ore

menerbitkan laporan mereka tentang
manfaat dari bahan-bahan ini untuk
bersandar beton massa. Sejak saat ini,
campuran kimia telah digunakan di
sebagian besar beton massa.
Ini menjadi praktik standar sekitar tahun
1945 untuk menggunakan udara yang
sengaja entrained untuk beton di sebagian
besar struktur yang terkena kondisi
pelapukan yang parah. Praktik ini diterapkan
pada beton permukaan bendungan yang
terbuka serta trotoar beton dan beton
bertulang pada umumnya. Air-entraining
admixtures diperkenalkan di mixer telah
digunakan untuk kedua beton interior dan
eksterior dari hampir semua bendungan
dibangun sejak tahun 1945.
Penempatan beton massa konvensional
sebagian besar tetap tidak berubah sejak
saat itu. Perkembangan baru utama di
bidang beton massa adalah penggunaan
beton roller-compacted.
1.2.6 1970 untuk menyajikan: beton roller-
compacted -Selama era ini, beton roller-
compacted dikembangkan dan menjadi
metode dominan untuk menempatkan beton
massa. Karena beton roller-compacted
sekarang begitu umum digunakan, laporan
terpisah, ACI 207.5R, adalah referensi utama
untuk subjek ini. Metode beton massa
tradisional terus digunakan untuk banyak
proyek, besar dan kecil, terutama di mana
beton roller-compacted tidak praktis atau sulit
digunakan. Ini sering termasuk bendungan
lengkung, dinding besar, dan beberapa
pekerjaan pondasi, terutama di mana
penguatan diperlukan.
1.2.7 Konten semen —Selama akhir 1920-an
dan awal 1930-an, praktis merupakan undang-
undang tidak tertulis bahwa tidak ada beton
massal untuk bendungan besar yang harus
mengandung kurang dari 376 lb semen per yd 3
(223 kg / m 3). Beberapa otoritas pada periode
itu berpendapat bahwa faktor semen tidak
boleh kurang dari 564 lb / yd 3 (335 kg / m 3).
Faktor semen untuk beton interior Norris Dam
(Tennessee Valley Authority 1939) yang
dibangun oleh Tennessee Valley Authority
pada tahun 1936, adalah 376 lb / yd 3 (223 kg /
m 3). Tingkat retak sangat bagus. Kekuatan
tekan dari 6 x 12-in yang disaring basah.
(150 x 300 mm) silinder pekerjaan pada
usia satu tahun adalah 7000 psi (48,3 MPa).
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 7
Spesimen inti 18 x 36-in. (460 x 910 mm) dibor
dari beton tahap pertama yang mengandung 376 lb
semen per yd 3 (223 kg / m 3) di Grand Coulee Dam
diuji lebih dari 8000 psi (55 MPa) pada usia dua
tahun. Dinilai berdasarkan komposisi, semen itu
dari jenis moderateheat yang sesuai dengan Tipe II
saat ini. Mengingat tekanan yang cukup rendah
dalam dua struktur, jelas bahwa/itu kekuatan tekan
tinggi seperti itu sangat tidak perlu. Pengurangan
kandungan semen pada konstruksi masa depan
yang serupa mungkin diharapkan secara
substansial mengurangi kecenderungan retak.
Untuk Bendungan Hiwassee, yang diselesaikan
oleh TVA pada tahun 1940, penghalang isi semen
376 lb / yd 3 (223 kg / m 3)rusak. Untuk struktur itu
kandungan semen dari beton massa hanya 282 lb /
yd 3 (167 kg / m 3), nilai yang luar biasa rendah untuk
waktu itu. Bendungan Hiwassee bebas dari retakan
termal, dan mulai ada kecenderungan untuk
mengurangi kandungan semen yang masih berlanjut.
Sejak saat ini, kandungan semen Tipe II dari beton
massa interior telah berada pada urutan 235 lb / yd 3
(140 kg / m 3) dan bahkan serendah 212 lb / yd 3 (126
kg / m 3 ). Contoh bendungan gravitasi besar yang
kandungan semen Tipe II untuk beton massa adalah
235 lb / yd 3 (140 kg / m 3) adalah Pine Flat Dam di
California, diselesaikan oleh Corps of Engineers
pada tahun 1954. Di bendungan tinggi dari jenis
lengkungan di mana tekanan cukup tinggi,
kandungan semen dari campuran massa biasanya
dalam kisaran 300 hingga 450 lb / yd 3 (180 hingga
270 kg / m 3),kandungan semen yang lebih tinggi
digunakan di bendungan yang lebih tipis dan lebih
sangat ditekankan dari jenis ini.
Contoh isi semen (termasuk pozzolan) untuk
bendungan yang lebih baru adalah: Bendungan
lengkung
1. 282 lb / yd 3 (167 kg / m 3) semen dan pozzolan
di Glen Canyon Dam, bendungan lengkung
yang relatif tebal di Arizona, selesai pada
tahun 1963.
2. 373 lb / yd 3 (221 kg / m 3)) semen di Morrow
Point Dam di Colorado, selesai pada tahun
1968.
3. 420 lb / yd 3 (249 kg / m 3)semen di Bendungan
El Atazar dekat Madrid, Spanyol, selesai pada
tahun 1972.
4. 303-253 lb / yd 3 (180 sampai 150 kg / m 3)dari
portland-pozzolan Jenis IP semen di
Bendungan El Cajon di Sungai Humuya di
Honduras, selesai pada tahun 1984.
207.1R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Bendungan gravitasi lurus
1. 226 lb / yd 3 (134 kg / m 3)semen Tipe II di
Bendungan Detroit di Oregon, selesai pada
tahun 1952.
2. 194 lb / yd 3 (115 kg / m 3) semen Tipe II dan
fly ash di Bendungan Libby di Montana,
selesai pada tahun 1972.
3. 184 lb / yd 3 (109 kg / m 3)semen Tipe II dan
tanah liat kalsin di Bendungan Ilha Solteira
di Brasil, selesai pada tahun 1973.
1.3—Kontrol suhu
1.3.1— Untuk mencapai suhu
maksimum yang lebih rendah dari beton
massa interior selama periode hidrasi,
praktik precooling bahan beton sebelum
pencampuran dimulai pada awal 1940-an
dan telah banyak digunakan dalam
pembangunan bendungan besar yang
dimulai pada akhir 1940-an.
1.3.2— Upaya serius pertama untuk
precool tampaknya telah terjadi selama
pembangunan Bendungan Norfork pada
19411945 oleh Korps Insinyur.
Rencananya adalah untuk
memperkenalkan es yang hancur ke dalam
air pencampuran selama bulan-bulan
hangat. Dengan demikian, suhu beton
massa yang baru dicampur dapat dikurangi
sekitar 10 F (5,6 C). Pada karya-karya
selanjutnya tidak hanya telah
menghancurkan es yang digunakan dalam
air pencampuran, tetapi agregat kasar telah
dipracokkan baik oleh udara dingin atau air
dingin sebelum batching. Baru-baru ini,
agregat halus dan kasar dalam kondisi
lembab telah diprakokokkan dengan
berbagai cara termasuk saturasi vakum dan
injeksi nitrogen cair. Ini telah menjadi
praktik hampir standar di Amerika Serikat
untuk menggunakan precooling untuk
bendungan besar di daerah di mana suhu
musim panas tinggi, untuk memastikan
bahwa suhu beton seperti yang
ditempatkan dalam pekerjaan tidak
melebihi sekitar 50 F (10 C).
1.3.3— Pada beberapa bendungan besar,
termasuk Hoover (Boulder) Dam,
kombinasi pendinginan precooling dan
postcooling oleh pipa tertanam telah
digunakan (Us Bureau of Reclamation
1949). Contoh yang baik dari praktik ini
adalah Glen Canyon Dam, di mana kadang-
kadang selama bulan-bulan musim panas suhu
lingkungan jauh lebih besar dari 100 F (38 C).
Suhu beton segar precooled tidak melebihi 50 F
(10 C). Baik agregat berpendingin dan es yang
dihancurkan digunakan untuk mencapai suhu
rendah ini. Dengan cara pendinginan pipa
tertanam, suhu maksimum beton pengerasan
disimpan di bawah 75 F (24 C). Postcooling
kadang-kadang diperlukan dalam gravitasi dan di
bendungan lengkung yang mengandung sendi
melintang, sehingga sendi melintang dapat dibuka
untuk nat dengan mendinginkan beton setelah
mengeras. Postcooling juga dilakukan untuk
mengendalikan suhu puncak, untuk mengontrol
retak.
1.4—Desain kekuatan jangka panjang
Perkembangan yang paling signifikan dari tahun
1950-an adalah ditinggalkannya kekuatan 28 hari
sebagai persyaratan desain untuk bendungan. Tekanan
maksimum di bawah beban biasanya tidak
berkembang sampai beton berusia setidaknya satu
tahun. Dalam kondisi penyembuhan massal, dengan
semen dan pozzolans biasanya digunakan, keuntungan
dalam kekuatan konkret antara 28 hari dan satu tahun
umumnya besar. Keuntungan dapat berkisar dari 30
persen hingga lebih dari 200 persen, tergantung pada
jumlah dan proporsi bahan semen dan sifat agregat. Ini
telah menjadi praktik beberapa desainer bendungan
untuk menentukan kekuatan beton massa yang
diinginkan pada usia selanjutnya seperti satu atau dua
tahun. Untuk kontrol kualitas rutin di lapangan, 6 x 12-
in. (150 x 300 mm) silinder biasanya digunakan
dengan agregat lebih besar dari 1 1/2 in. (37,5 mm)
dihapus dengan skrining basah. Persyaratan kekuatan
beton yang disaring basah berkorelasi dengan kekuatan
campuran penuh yang ditentukan dengan tes
laboratorium.
BAB 2 — BAHAN DAN
PROPORSI
CAMPURAN
2.1 —Umum
2.1.1— Seperti halnya dengan beton lainnya, beton
massa terdiri dari semen, agregat, dan air, dan sering
pozzolans dan campuran. Tujuan dari proporsi
campuran beton massa adalah pemilihan kombinasi
bahan yang akan menghasilkan beton untuk
memenuhi persyaratan struktur sehubungan dengan
ekonomi, kemampuan kerja, stabilitas dimensi dan

kebebasan dari retak, kenaikan suhu rendah,
kekuatan yang memadai, daya tahan, dan -
dalam kasus struktur hidrolik - permeabilitas
rendah. Bab ini akan menggambarkan bahan-
bahan yang telah berhasil digunakan dalam
konstruksi beton massal dan faktor-faktor
yang mempengaruhi pemilihan dan proporsi
mereka. Rekomendasi yang terkandung di sini
mungkin perlu disesuaikan untuk penggunaan
khusus, seperti untuk segmen balok pracetak
besar, untuk penempatan tremie, dan untuk
beton roller-compacted. Panduan dalam
proporsi beton massa juga dapat ditemukan
dalam ACI 211.1, terutama Lampiran 5 yang
merinci modifikasi spesifik dalam prosedur
proporsi beton massal.
2.2 —Semen
2.2.1— ACI 207.2R dan ACI 207.4R
berisi informasi tambahan tentang jenis
semen dan efek pada pembangkitan panas.
Jenis semen hidrolik berikut ini cocok untuk
digunakan dalam konstruksi beton massal:
(a) Semen Portland: Tipe I, II, IV dan V yang
dicakup oleh ASTM C 150.
(b) Semen campuran: Tipe P, IP, S, IS, I (PM),
dan I (SM) yang dicakup oleh ASTM C
595.
Ketika semen portland digunakan dengan
pozzolan atau dengan semen lainnya, bahan
dikumpulkan secara terpisah di pabrik
pencampuran. Ekonomi dan kenaikan suhu
rendah keduanya dicapai dengan membatasi
total kandungan semen hingga sekecil
mungkin.
2.2.2— Semen portland tipe I umumnya
digunakan dalam konstruksi umum. Hal ini
tidak dianjurkan untuk digunakan dengan
sendirinya dalam beton massa tanpa langkah-
langkah lain yang membantu untuk
mengontrol masalah suhu karena panas
substansial lebih tinggi dari hidrasi.
2.2.3— Semen portland tipe II cocok untuk
konstruksi beton massal karena memiliki panas
hidrasi moderat yang penting untuk
mengendalikan retak. Spesifikasi untuk semen
portland Tipe II mengharuskannya
mengandung tidak lebih dari 8 persen
tricalcium aluminate (C 3A), senyawa yang
berkontribusi secara substansial terhadap
perkembangan panas awal di beton. Spesifikasi
opsional untuk semen Tipe II menempatkan
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 9
batas 58 persen atau kurang pada jumlah tricalcium
aluminate dan tricalcium silikat, atau batas pada panas
hidrasi hingga 70 cal / g (290 kJ / kg) pada 7 hari.
Ketika salah satu persyaratan opsional ditentukan,
persyaratan kekuatan 28 hari untuk pasta semen di
bawah ASTM C 150 berkurang karena tingkat
kenaikan kekuatan semen ini yang lebih lambat.
2.2.4— Semen portland tipe IV, juga disebut sebagai
semen "panas rendah", dapat digunakan di tempat
yang diinginkan untuk menghasilkan perkembangan
panas rendah dalam struktur besar. Ini belum
digunakan dalam beberapa tahun terakhir karena sulit
untuk mendapatkan dan,
lebih penting lagi, karena pengalaman telah
menunjukkan bahwa dalam banyak kasus
perkembangan panas dapat dikontrol dengan
memuaskan dengan cara lain. Spesifikasi Tipe IV
membatasi C 3A hingga 7 persen, C 3S hingga 35
persen, dan menempatkan minimal pada C 2S sebesar
40 persen. Pada pilihan pembeli, panas hidrasi
mungkin terbatas pada 60 cal / g (250 kJ / kg) pada 7
hari dan 70 cal / g (290 kJ / kg) pada 28 hari.
Semen portland tahan sulfat tipe V (Canadian
Type 50) tersedia baik di Amerika Serikat dan di
Kanada biasanya dengan harga premium di atas
Tipe I. Biasanya alkali rendah dan panas rendah.
 2.2.5— Jenis IP portland-pozzolan semen
adalah campuran seragam semen portland atau
portland blast-furnace slag cement dan pozzolan
halus. Tipe P serupa tetapi persyaratan kekuatan
awal lebih rendah. Mereka diproduksi baik
dengan intergrinding portland cement clinker dan
pozzolan atau dengan memadukan semen
portland atau semen terak portland blast-furnace
dan pozzolan yang terbagi halus. Konstituen
pozzolan adalah antara 15 dan 40 persen berat
semen portland-pozzolan, dengan Tipe P
memiliki kandungan pozzolan yang umumnya
lebih tinggi.
Semen portland yang dimodifikasi pozzolan tipe
I mengandung kurang dari 15 persen pozzolan dan
sifatnya dekat dengan semen Tipe I. Panas batas
hidrasi 70 cal / g (290kJ / kg) pada 7 hari adalah
persyaratan opsional untuk Tipe IP dan Tipe I
(PM) dengan menambahkan akhiran (MH). Batas
60 cal / g (250 kJ / kg) pada 7 hari adalah opsional
untuk Tipe P dengan menambahkan akhiran (LH).
2.2.6— Jenis semen portland blast-furnace slag
adalah campuran seragam semen portland dan
terak blast-furnace halus. Ini diproduksi baik
dengan intergrinding portland cement clinker dan
granulated blast-furnace slag atau dengan
memadukan semen portland dan terak blast-
207.1R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
furnace granulated yang digiling halus.
Jumlah terak yang digunakan dapat
bervariasi antara 25 dan 70 persen dengan
berat semen terak portland blast-furnace.
Semen ini kadang-kadang digunakan
dengan pozzolan. Semen terak tipe S
adalah bahan yang terbagi halus yang pada
dasarnya terdiri dari campuran seragam
terak blast-furnace granulated dan kapur
terhidrasi di mana konstituen terak
setidaknya 70 persen dari berat semen
terak. Semen terak umumnya digunakan
dalam campuran dengan semen portland
untuk membuat beton.
Semen portland tipe I (SM) yang
dimodifikasi slag mengandung kurang dari
25 persen terak dan sifatnya dekat dengan
semen Tipe I. Panas opsional persyaratan
hidrasi dapat diterapkan pada Tipe IS, dan I
(SM), mirip dengan yang diterapkan pada
Tipe IP, I (PM), dan P.
2.2.7— Semen alkali rendah didefinisikan
oleh ASTM C 150 sebagai semen portland
yang mengandung tidak lebih dari 0,60 persen
alkali dihitung sebagai persentase Na 2 O
ditambah 0,658 kali persentase K 2 O. Semen
ini harus ditentukan ketika semen akan
digunakan dalam beton dengan agregat yang
dapat merusak reaktif. Penggunaan semen
alkali rendah mungkin tidak selalu mengontrol
agregat siliceous noncrystalline yang sangat
reaktif. Mungkin juga disarankan untuk
menggunakan pozzolan yang terbukti untuk
memastikan kontrol reaksi agregat alkali.
2.3 —Pozzolans dan terak tanah
2.3.1— Pozzolan umumnya didefinisikan
sebagai bahan siliceous atau siliceous-and-
aluminous yang dengan sendirinya memiliki
sedikit atau tidak ada nilai semen tetapi akan,
dalam bentuk yang terbagi halus dan di
hadapan kelembaban, secara kimia bereaksi
dengan kalsium hidroksida pada suhu biasa
untuk membentuk senyawa yang memiliki
sifat cementitious. Pozzolans biasanya diatur
dan diklasifikasikan oleh ASTM C 618,
sebagai alami (Kelas N), atau fly ash (Kelas F
atau C). Ada beberapa pozzolans, seperti fly
ash Kelas C, yang mengandung sejumlah
besar senyawa seperti semen portland. Abu
terbang Kelas C juga memiliki sifat semen
sendiri yang dapat berkontribusi signifikan
terhadap kekuatan beton.
Pozzolan bereaksi secara kimia dengan kalsium
hidroksida atau kapur terhidrasi yang dibebaskan
selama hidrasi semen portland untuk membentuk
senyawa cementitious penghasil kekuatan yang stabil.
Untuk aktivitas terbaik, bahan siliceous dari pozzolan
harus dalam keadaan amorf seperti kaca atau opal.
Bahan siliceous kristal, seperti kuarsa, tidak mudah
bergabung dengan kapur pada suhu normal kecuali
mereka digiling menjadi bubuk yang sangat halus.
Penggunaan fly ash dalam beton dibahas dalam ACI
226.3R, dan penggunaan ground granulated blast-
furnace slag dibahas dalam ACI 226.1R.
2.3.2— Bahan pozzolanic alami terjadi dalam
endapan besar di seluruh Amerika Serikat bagian barat
dalam bentuk obsidian, pumicite, abu vulkanik, tuff,
tanah liat, serpih, dan bumi diatomaceous. Pozzolan
alami ini biasanya membutuhkan penggilingan.
Beberapa bahan vulkanik adalah kehalusan yang
sesuai dalam keadaan alami mereka. Tanah liat dan
serpih, selain penggilingan, harus diaktifkan untuk
membentuk keadaan amorf dengan kalsinasi pada suhu
di kisaran 1200 hingga 1800 F (650 hingga 980 C).
 2.3.3— Fly ash adalah debu buang dari tanah yang
terbakar atau bubuk batubara. Fly ash yang cocok
dapat menjadi pozzolan yang sangat baik jika memiliki
kandungan karbon rendah, kehalusan hampir sama
dengan semen portland, dan terjadi dalam bentuk bola
yang sangat halus dan kaca. Karena bentuk dan
teksturnya, kebutuhan air biasanya berkurang ketika
fly ash digunakan dalam beton. Ada indikasi bahwa
dalam banyak kasus aktivitas pozzolanic dari fly ash
dapat ditingkatkan dengan memecahkan bola kaca
dengan cara menggiling. Namun, ini dapat mengurangi
kualitas pelumasnya dan meningkatkan kebutuhan air
beton. Perlu dicatat bahwa abu terbang Kelas F silika
tinggi umumnya adalah pozzolans yang sangat baik.
Namun, beberapa abu lalat Kelas C mungkin
mengandung kandungan CaO yang tinggi sehingga,
sementara memiliki sifat semen yang baik, mereka
mungkin tidak cocok untuk mengendalikan reaksi
agregat alkali atau untuk meningkatkan ketahanan
sulfat beton. Selain itu, fly ash Kelas C akan kurang
membantu dalam menurunkan pembangkitan panas di
beton.
2.3.4— Pozzolans dalam beton massa dapat
digunakan untuk mengurangi faktor semen portland
untuk ekonomi yang lebih baik, untuk menurunkan
pembangkit panas internal, untuk meningkatkan
kemampuan kerja, dan untuk mengurangi potensi
kerusakan dari reaktivitas agregat alkali dan
serangan sulfat. Perlu diakui, bagaimanapun, bahwa
sifat pozzolans yang berbeda dapat sangat bervariasi.
Beberapa pozzolans dapat memperkenalkan masalah
ke dalam beton, seperti peningkatan.

pengeringan penyusutan serta
mengurangi daya tahan dan kekuatan awal
yang rendah. Sebelum pozzolan digunakan,
itu harus diuji dalam kombinasi dengan
semen proyek dan agregat untuk
menetapkan bahwa pozzolan akan
bermanfaat berkontribusi pada kualitas dan
ekonomi beton. Dibandingkan dengan
semen Portland, perkembangan kekuatan
dari aksi pozzolanic lambat pada usia dini
tetapi berlanjut pada tingkat yang lebih
tinggi untuk waktu yang lebih lama.
Kekuatan awal beton semen-pozzolan
portland diperkirakan akan lebih rendah
daripada beton semen portland yang
dirancang untuk kekuatan yang setara pada
usia selanjutnya. Di mana beberapa bagian
dari beton massa diperlukan untuk
mencapai kekuatan pada usia yang lebih
awal daripada yang mungkin dengan
campuran beton massa biasa, peningkatan
panas internal yang dihasilkan oleh beton
kekuatan awal pengganti dapat diakomodasi
dengan cara lain. Di mana pozzolan sedang
digunakan, mungkin perlu sementara untuk
melepaskan penggunaan pozzolan dan
sebaliknya mengakomodasi peningkatan
panas internal yang dihasilkan oleh
penggunaan semen portland lurus. Namun,
jika ada potensi berbahaya dari reaksi
agregat alkali, pozzolan harus digunakan,
sementara peningkatan kekuatan yang
dipercepat dicapai dengan kandungan
semen tambahan.
Pozzolans, terutama jenis alami, telah
ditemukan efektif dalam mengurangi
perluasan beton yang mengandung agregat
reaktif. Jumlah pengurangan ini bervariasi
dengan susunan kimia dan kehalusan
pozzolan dan jumlah yang digunakan.
Untuk beberapa pozzolans, pengurangan
ekspansi dapat melebihi 90 persen.
Pozzolan mengurangi ekspansi dengan
mengkonsumsi alkali dari semen sebelum
mereka dapat masuk ke dalam reaksi
merusak dengan agregat. Di mana agregat
alkali-reaktif digunakan, itu dianggap
praktik yang baik untuk menggunakan
semen alkali rendah dan pozzolan
kemampuan korektif terbukti. Reaksi
agregat alkali dibahas dalam ACI 221R.
Beberapa percobaan yang dilakukan oleh
Corps of Engineers (Mather 1974)
menunjukkan bahwa untuk beton massa
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 11
interior, di mana tekanan cukup rendah, proporsi
pozzolan yang jauh lebih tinggi untuk semen dapat
digunakan ketika ada keuntungan ekonomi dalam
melakukannya dan kekuatan yang diinginkan
diperoleh pada usia lanjut. Sebagai contoh, hasil tes
laboratorium menunjukkan bahwa beton massa yang
terlatih di udara, yang mengandung 94 lb / yd 3 (53 kg /
m 3)semen ditambah fly ash dalam jumlah yang setara
dalam volume hingga 188 lb (112 kg) semen telah
menghasilkan campuran yang sangat bisa diterapkan,
yang kadar airnya kurang dari 100 lb / yd 3 (60 kg / m
3).
Kekuatan tekan satu tahun dari silinder 6 x 12-in.
(150 x 300 mm) satu tahun dari beton ini berada pada
urutan 3000 psi (21 MPa). Untuk campuran seperti itu,
kenaikan suhu massa akan sangat kecil. Untuk
bendungan gravitasi dengan ketinggian sedang, di
mana bahan akan diprakokokkan sedemikian rupa
sehingga beton saat mencapai bentuk akan menjadi
sekitar 15 F (8 C) di bawah suhu tahunan atau batu
rata-rata, ada kemungkinan bahwa tidak diperlukan
sendi kontraksi longitudinal atau melintang. Suhu
maksimum bagian dalam massa karena hidrasi semen
mungkin tidak jauh lebih besar dari suhu tahunan rata-
rata.
Bentuk partikel agregat beton dan pengaruhnya
terhadap kemampuan kerja telah menjadi kurang
penting karena peningkatan kemampuan kerja
yang dapat diperoleh melalui penggunaan
pozzolans, dan pelatihan udara dan campuran
kimia lainnya.
Pengembangan jenis baru pozzolans, seperti abu
lambung beras dan asap silika, dapat menemukan
tempat yang menjanjikan dalam pekerjaan beton
massal di masa depan.
2.3.5— Terak blast-furnace besi granulated yang
ditumbuk halus juga dapat digunakan sebagai bahan
terpisah dengan semen portland sebagai bahan
cementitious dalam beton massal. Persyaratan pada
terak tanah halus untuk digunakan dalam beton
ditentukan dalam ASTM C 989. Jika digunakan
dengan semen portland Tipe I, proporsi setidaknya 70
persen terak tanah halus dari total bahan cementitious
mungkin diperlukan dengan terak aktif untuk
menghasilkan kombinasi semen-terak yang akan
memiliki panas hidrasi kurang dari 60 kal / g (250 kJ /
kg) pada 7 hari. Penambahan terak biasanya akan
mengurangi laju pembangkitan panas karena tingkat
hidrasi yang sedikit lebih lambat. Terak tanah halus
juga menghasilkan banyak sifat menguntungkan dalam
beton yang dicapai dengan pozzolans yang sesuai,
seperti permeabilitas berkurang, kontrol ekspansi dari
agregat reaktif, resistensi sulfat, dan peningkatan
kemampuan kerja. Namun, terak tanah halus biasanya
digunakan dalam persentase yang jauh lebih tinggi
207.1R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
daripada pozzolan untuk mencapai sifat yang
sama.
2.4 —Campuran kimia
2.4.1— Cakupan lengkap campuran
terkandung dalam ACI 212.3 R. Campuran
kimia yang penting untuk beton massa
diklasifikasikan sebagai berikut: (1) entraining
udara; (2) mengurangi air; dan (3) set-
controlling.
2.4.2— Mempercepat campuran tidak
digunakan dalam beton massa karena
kekuatan awal yang tinggi tidak diperlukan
dalam pekerjaan tersebut dan karena
akselerator berkontribusi pada perkembangan
panas yang tidak diinginkan dalam massa
beton.
2.4.3— Campuran kimia dapat memberikan
manfaat penting bagi beton massa dalam
keadaan plastiknya dengan meningkatkan
kemampuan kerja dan / atau mengurangi kadar
air, memperlambat pengaturan awal,
memodifikasi tingkat dan / atau kapasitas untuk
perdarahan, mengurangi segregasi, dan
mengurangi tingkat kehilangan kemerosotan.
2.4.4— Campuran kimia dapat memberikan
manfaat penting bagi beton massa dalam
keadaan mengeras dengan menurunkan
evolusi panas selama pengerasan,
meningkatkan kekuatan, menurunkan
kandungan semen, meningkatkan daya tahan,
mengurangi permeabilitas, dan meningkatkan
ketahanan abrasi / erosi.
2.4.5— Air-entraining admixtures adalah
bahan yang menghasilkan gelembung udara
menit dalam beton selama pencampuran-
dengan hasil peningkatan kemampuan kerja,
berkurangnya segregasi, mengurangi
perdarahan, menurunkan permeabilitas, dan
peningkatan ketahanan terhadap kerusakan dari
pembekuan dan pencairan siklus. Entrainment
udara sangat meningkatkan kemampuan kerja
beton ramping dan memungkinkan penggunaan
agregat yang lebih keras dan lebih buruk dinilai
dan orang-orang dari bentuk yang tidak
diinginkan. Ini memfasilitasi penempatan dan
penanganan beton massa. Setiap satu persen
dari udara entrained memungkinkan
pengurangan pencampuran air dari 2 menjadi 4
persen, dengan beberapa perbaikan dalam
kemampuan kerja dan tanpa kerugian dalam
kemerosotan. Daya tahan, yang diukur dengan
ketahanan beton terhadap kerusakan dari
pembekuan dan pencairan, sangat meningkat jika jarak
sistem gelembung udara sedemikian rupa sehingga
tidak ada titik dalam matriks semen lebih dari 0,008 in.
(0,20 mm) dari gelembung udara.
2.4.6— Udara yang terlatih umumnya akan
mengurangi kekuatan sebagian besar beton. Di mana
kandungan semen tetap konstan dan keuntungan
diambil dari berkurangnya kebutuhan air, entrainment
udara dalam beton massa ramping memiliki efek yang
dapat diabaikan pada kekuatan dan mungkin sedikit
meningkatkannya. Di antara faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi jumlah udara yang terbungkus beton
untuk jumlah agen tertentu adalah: gradasi dan bentuk
partikel agregat, kekayaan campuran, kehadiran
campuran lainnya, pencampuran waktu, kemerosotan
dan suhu beton. Untuk jumlah campuran udara-
entraining tertentu, kadar udara meningkat dengan
peningkatan kemerosotan hingga 6 in. (150 mm) dan
menurun dengan peningkatan jumlah denda, suhu
beton, dan waktu pencampuran. Jika fly ash digunakan
yang mengandung karbon aktif, peningkatan dosis
campuran udara-entraining akan diperlukan. Sebagian
besar spesifikasi untuk beton massa sekarang
mengharuskan jumlah udara yang terlatih,
sebagaimana ditentukan dari sampel beton basah yang
disaring melalui saringan 11/2-in. (37,5 mm), menjadi
sekitar 5 persen, meskipun dalam beberapa kasus
setinggi 8 persen. Persyaratan untuk admixtures
entraining udara terkandung dalam ASTM C 260.
2.4.7— Pengurangan air dan campuran pengendali
set umumnya terdiri dari satu atau lebih senyawa ini:
(1) asam lignosulfonic; (2) asam karboksilat
hidroksitilasi; (3) karbohidrat polimer; atau (4)
naphthalene atau melamin jenis peredam air jarak
tinggi.
Set-controlling admixtures can be used to keep the
concrete plastic longer in massive blocks so that
successive layers can be placed and vibrated before
the underlayer sets. Water-reducing admixtures are
used to reduce the mixing water requirement, to
increase the strength of the concrete or to produce the
same strength with less cement. Admixtures from the
first three families of materials above generally will
reduce the water requirement up to about 10 percent,
will retard initial set at least 1 hr (but not reduce
slump loss), and will increase the strength an
appreciable amount. When a retarder is used, the
strength after 12 hr is generally comparable to that of
concrete containing no admixture. Depending upon
the richness of the concrete, composition of cement,
temperature and other factors, use of chemical
admixtures will usually result in significant increases
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 13

in 1-, 7-, 28-day, and later strengths. This gain Tabel 2.5.2 — Persentase maksimum zat
in strength cannot be explained by the amount merusak yang diizinkan dalam agregat
of the water reduction or by the degree of halus (dengan
change in the water-cement ratio; the weigh
chemicals have a favorable effect on the t)
Clay lumps and friable particles 3.0
hydration of the cement. Admixtures of the Material finer than No. 200 (75- µm sieve:
carboxylic acid family augment bleeding. The For concrete subject to abrasion 3.0*
highrange water-reducing family of For all other concrete 5.0*
admixtures does not have a well-established Coal and lignite:
record in mass concrete construction, although Where surface appearance of concrete is of
these admixtures were used in some mass importanc 0.5
concrete in Guri Dam in Venezuela, and have All eother concrete 1.0
been used in reinforced mass concrete *In the case of manufactured sand, if the material passing the No. 200
(75- µm) sieve consists of the dust of fracture,
foundations. However, in view of their strong essentially free of clay or shale, these limits may be
plasticizing capability, they may hold a increased to 5 percent for concrete subject to abrasion
and 7 percent for all other concrete.
promising role in adding workability to special
mass concreting applications where
workability is needed. Requirements for
chemical admixtures are contained in ASTM 2.5.3— The grading of fine aggregate strongly
C 494. influences the workability of concrete. A good grading
of sand for mass concrete will be within the limits
2.5—Agregat shown in Table 2.5.3 . Laboratory investigation may
2.5.1— Agregat kasar dan halus serta show other gradings to be satisfactory. This permits a
istilah yang berkaitan dengan agregat rather wide latitude in gradings for fine aggregate.
didefinisikan dalam ASTM C 125. Although the grading requirements themselves
Informasi tambahan tentang agregat may be rather flexible, it is important that once the
terkandung dalam ACI 221R. proportion is established, the grading of the sand be
2.5.2— Agregat halus adalah bahwa fraksi maintained reasonably constant to avoid variations
"hampir seluruhnya" melewati saringan No. 4 in the workability of the concrete.
(4,75 mm). Ini mungkin terdiri dari biji-bijian
alami, biji-bijian yang diproduksi yang
diperoleh dengan menghancurkan partikel Table 2.5.3— Fine aggregate for mass
batuan ukuran yang lebih besar, atau campuran concrete*
keduanya. Agregat halus harus terdiri dari
Percentage
partikel keras, padat, tahan lama, dan tidak
retained,
dilapisi. Agregat halus seharusnya tidak individual by
mengandung jumlah tanah liat, lumpur, debu, Sieve designation weight
mika, bahan organik, atau kotoran lainnya 3
/8 in. (9.5 mm) 0
sedemikian rupa sehingga, baik secara terpisah
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 0-5
atau bersama-sama, mereka membuat tidak
No. 8 (2.36 mm) 5-15
mungkin untuk mencapai sifat beton yang
No. 16 (1.18 mm) 10-25
diperlukan ketika menggunakan proporsi
No. 30 (600 µm) 10-30
normal bahan. Zat yang merusak biasanya
No. 50 (300 µm) 15-35
terbatas pada persentase berdasarkan berat
yang diberikan dalam Tabel 2.5.2. Untuk No. 100 (150 µm) 12-20

dermaga jembatan, bendungan, dan struktur Pan fraction 3-7

*U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981
hidrolik lainnya, persentase maksimum yang
2.5.4— Agregat kasar didefinisikan sebagai kerikil,
diijinkan dari zat yang merusak harus 50 persen
kerikil hancur, atau batu hancur, atau campuran
lebih rendah untuk beton wajah di zona tingkat
nominal ini nominal lebih besar dari No 4 (4,75 mm)
air yang berfluktuasi. Ini bisa 50 persen lebih
dan lebih kecil dari 6 in. (150 mm) ukuran untuk
tinggi untuk beton yang terus-menerus
struktur besar. Struktur beton struktural besar,seperti
direndam dalam air dan untuk beton di
pembangkit tenaga listrik atau unit bertulang berat
pedalaman bendungan besar.
lainnya yang dianggap dalam kategori beton massa,
207.1R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
telah berhasil menggunakan agregat kasar
berukuran lebih kecil, biasanya berukuran
maksimum 3 in. (75 mm) tetapi dengan
beberapa sekecil 11/2 in. (37,5 mm).
Penggunaan agregat yang lebih kecil dapat
ditentukan oleh jarak dekat penguatan atau item
tertanam, atau oleh tidak tersedianya agregat
yang lebih besar. Hal ini menghasilkan
kandungan semen yang lebih tinggi dengan
efek buruk petugas pada pembangkitan panas
internal dan potensi retak yang harus diimbangi
dengan upaya yang lebih besar untuk
mengurangi kebutuhan semen dan suhu
penempatan beton. Ukuran maksimum agregat
kasar tidak boleh melebihi seperuapan dimensi
struktur paling sedikit atau dua pertiga dari
jarak yang paling tidak jelas antara
memperkuat batang dalam tikar horizontal atau
di mana ada lebih dari satu tirai penguat
vertikal di samping bentuk. Jika tidak, aturan
untuk beton massa harus menggunakan ukuran
terbesar agregat kasar yang praktis.
2.5.5— Agregat kasar harus terdiri dari
partikel keras, padat, tahan lama, dan tidak
dilapisi. Batu yang sangat friable atau yang
cenderung terdegradasi selama pemrosesan,
pengangkutan, atau penyimpanan harus
dihindari. Batuan yang memiliki penyerapan
lebih besar dari 3 persen atau gravitasi tertentu
kurang dari 2,5 umumnya tidak dianggap cocok
untuk beton massa yang terbuka yang
mengalami pembekuan dan pencairan. Sulfat
dan sulfida, ditentukan oleh analisis kimia dan
dihitung sebagai SO 3, tidak boleh melebihi 0,5
persen dari berat agregat kasar. Persentase zat
merusak lainnya seperti tanah liat, lumpur, dan
debu halus dalam agregat kasar seperti yang
dikirim ke mixer pada umumnya tidak boleh
melebihi nilai yang diuraikan dalam Tabel
2.5.5.
Gambar 2.5.5 menunjukkan layar cuci
ulang agregat kasar di pabrik batch di mana
debu dan pelapis yang terakumulasi dari
penimbunan dan penanganan dapat dihapus
untuk memastikan kebersihan agregat.
Tabel 2.5.5 — Persentase
maksimum zat merusak
yang diizinkan dalam
agregat kasar (berdasarkan
berat)
Materi yang melewati No. 200
saringan (75
Lightweight material 2.0
Clay lumps 0.5
Other deleterious substances 1.0
2.5.6— Secara teoritis, semakin besar ukuran
agregat maksimum, semakin sedikit semen yang
diperlukan dalam volume beton tertentu untuk
mencapai kualitas yang diinginkan. Teori ini
didasarkan pada fakta bahwa dengan bahan bergradasi
baik ruang hampa antara partikel (dan permukaan
tertentu) menurun karena kisaran ukuran meningkat.
Namun, telah ditunjukkan (Gambar 2.5.6) bahwa
untuk mencapai efisiensi semen terbesar ada ukuran
maksimum optimal untuk setiap tingkat kekuatan
tekan yang akan diperoleh dengan agregat dan semen
tertentu (Higginson, Wallace, dan Ore 1963).
Sementara ukuran maksimum agregat kasar dibatasi
oleh konfigurasi bentuk dan baja penguat, di sebagian
besar struktur beton massa yang tidak dipaksakan
persyaratan ini memungkinkan ukuran agregat
maksimum yang hampir tidak terbatas. Selain
ketersediaan, ukuran maksimum ekonomis ditentukan
oleh kekuatan desain dan masalah dalam pengolahan,
batching, pencampuran, pengangkutan, penempatan,
dan konsolidasi beton. Partikel agregat besar bentuk
tidak teratur cenderung mempromosikan retak di
sekitar partikel yang lebih besar karena perubahan
volume diferensial. Mereka juga menyebabkan
kekosongan terbentuk di bawahnya karena air berdarah
dan udara terakumulasi selama penempatan beton.
Meskipun ukuran yang lebih besar telah digunakan
pada kesempatan, ukuran agregat 6 in. (150 mm)
biasanya telah diadopsi sebagai ukuran praktis
maksimum.
2.5.7— The particle shape of aggregates has
some effect on workability and consequently, on
water requirement. Rounded particles, such as
those which occur in deposits of stream-worn
sand and gravel, provide best workability.
However, modern crushing and grinding
0.5 equipment is capable of producing both fine and
coarse aggregate of entirely adequate particle
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 15

shape from quarried rock. Thus, in spite of yield a satisfactory particle shape. One procedure
the slightly lower water requirement of to control particle shape is to specify that the flat
natural rounded aggregates, it is seldom and elongated particles cannot exceed 20 percent
economical to import natural aggregates in each size group. A flat particle is defined as one
when a source of high quality crushed having a ratio of width to thickness greater than
aggregate is available near the site of the three, while an elongated particle is defined as one
work. It is necessary to determine that the having a ratio of length to width greater than
crushing equipment and procedures will three.
Fig. 2.5.5—Coarse aggregate rewashing
2.5.8— The proportioning of aggregates in the concrete mixture will strongly influence concrete workability and this
is one factor that can readily be adjusted during construction. To facilitate this, aggregates are processed into and
batched from convenient size groups. In United States practice it is customary, for large-aggregate mass concrete, to
divide coarse aggregate into the fractional sizes listed in Table 2.5.8 (Tuthill 1980).
Ukuran dinilai memuaskan ketika sepertiga hingga setengah dari agregat dalam layar pembatas dipertahankan pada
layar ukuran tengah. Juga, telah ditemukan bahwa mempertahankan persentase melewati 3/8- in. (9,5 mm) saringan
kurang dari 30 persen dalam 3/4in. ke No 4 (19 sampai 4,75 mm) ukuran fraksi (sebaiknya mendekati nol jika hancur)
akan sangat meningkatkan kemampuan kerja beton massa dan respon terhadap getaran.
 2.5.9— Pengalaman telah menunjukkan bahwa berbagai persentase material yang agak luas di setiap kelompok
ukuran dapat digunakan seperti yang tercantum dalam Tabel 2.5.9. Kemampuan kerja sering ditingkatkan dengan
mengurangi proporsi cobbles yang diminta oleh teori.
Each point represents an average of two 18 x
36-in. (450 x 900-mm) and two 24 x 48-in. (600 x
aggrega
1200-mm) concrete cylinders tested 1 yr for both te Percent by weight passing designated test sieve
Grand Coulee and Clear Creek aggregates.
Test sieve Fine
Maximum Size Aggregate, mm Coarse Medium 3
/4 - No. 4 in.
size, Cobbles 1 1 3
sq. mesh, 6-3 in. 3-1 /2 in. 1 /2 - /4 in. (19 - 4.75
in. (mm) (150 - 75 ) 7 - 37.5 mm ) 37.5 - 19 ) m
7 (175) mm
10 5 mm m)
6 (150) 0
90-100
4 (100) 20-45 10
3 (75) 0-15 0
90-100
2 (50) 0-5 20-55 10
1
1 /2 (37.5) 0-10 0
90-100
1 (25) 0-5 20-45 10
3
/4 (19) 1-10 0
90-100
3
/8 (9.5) 0-5 30-55
No. 4 (4.75) 0-5

Table 2.5.9— Ranges in each size fraction

of coarse aggregate that have produced

Percentage of cleanly separated coarse aggregate fractions

Coarse Medium Fine
Maximum Cobbles 6- 3-1 1/2 in. 1 1/2-3/4 in. 3 3 3
size in 3 in. (75-37.5 /4- /8 /8-No. 4
(37.5-19
concrete, (150-75 mm) mm) (19-9.5 (9.5-4.75
Maximum Size Aggregate, in. in. (mm) mm) mm) mm)
6 (150) 20-30 20-32 20-30 12-20 8-15
Fig. 2.5.6—Effect of aggregate size and cement
3 (75) 20-40 20-40 15-25 0-15
content on compressive strength at one year
1
(adapted from Higginson,
1 1/2 (37.5) 40-55 30-35 15-25
Wallace, and Ore 1963) 3 30-70 20-45
/4 (19)
Tabel 2.5.8— Persyaratan penilaian
untuk kasar workable concrete*
207.1R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

*U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981. 2.6 —Water

gradings. Ketika kerikil alami digunakan, 2.6.1— Water used for mixing concrete should be
secara ekonomi diinginkan untuk berangkat dari free of materials that significantly affect the hydration
penilaian teoritis untuk mendekati sedekat reactions of portland cement (Steinour 1960). Water
kemampuan kerja memungkinkan penilaian that is fit to drink may generally be regarded as
rata-rata bahan dalam deposit. Di mana ada acceptable for use in mixing concrete. Potability will
ekses ekstrim atau kekurangan dalam ukuran preclude any objectionable content of chlorides.
tertentu, lebih baik untuk membuang sebagian However, chloride content tests should be made on
dari bahan daripada menghasilkan beton yang any questionable water if embedded metals are
tidak dapat dikerjakan. Masalah limbah
present. Limits on total chloride for various
biasanya tidak terjadi ketika agregat adalah batu
constructions are contained in ACI 201.2R. When it is
hancur. Dengan menghancurkan dua dan tiga
desirable to determine whether a water contains
tahap modern biasanya mungkin untuk
materials that significantly affect the strength
menyesuaikan operasi sehingga penilaian yang
development of cement, comparative strength tests
bisa dilakukan diperoleh. Kecuali skrining
should be made on mortars made with water from the
selesai digunakan, adalah baik untuk
proposed source and with distilled water. If the
mengurangi jumlah ukuran terbaik dari agregat
average of the results of these tests on specimens
kasar karena itu adalah ukuran akumulasi
containing the water being evaluated is less than 90
ukuran yang lebih besar. Namun, skrining akhir
percent of that obtained with specimens containing
di pabrik batching, pada layar bergetar
distilled water, the water represented by the sample
horizontal dan tanpa penyimpanan menengah,
should not be used for mixing concrete. If a potential
sangat dianjurkan untuk agregat kasar beton
massa. Dengan skrining selesai ada sedikit water source lacking a service record contains
kesulitan dalam membatasi berukuran kecil amounts of impurities as large as 5000 ppm or more,
hingga 4 persen dari cobbles, 3 persen dari then, to insure durable concrete, tests for strength and
ukuran menengah, dan 2 persen dari agregat volume stability ( length change) may also be
kasar halus. Undersize didefinisikan sebagai advisable.
bahwa melewati layar uji memiliki bukaan lima
perenam dari ukuran minimum nominal dari
fraksi agregat. Undersize lebih besar dari fraksi
lima-peren ini tidak memiliki efek terukur pada
beton (Tuthill 1943).
2.5.10— In some parts of the world “gap”
gradings are used in mass concrete. These
are gradings in which the material in one or
more sieve sizes is missing. In United States
practice, continuous gradings are normally
used. Gap gradings can be used
economically where the material occurs
naturally gapgraded. But comparisons which
can be made between concretes containing
gap-graded aggregate and continuously
graded aggregate indicate there is no
advantage in purposely producing gap
gradings. Continuous gradings produce more
workable mass concrete with somewhat
lower slump, less water, and less cement.
Continuous gradings can always be produced
from crushing operations. Most natural
aggregate deposits in the United States
contain material from which acceptable
continuous gradings can be economically
prepared.

207.1R- 12
2.6.2— Air yang mengandung hingga beberapa
bagian per juta asam mineral biasa, seperti asam
klorida atau asam sulfat, dapat ditoleransi sejauh
menyangkut pengembangan kekuatan. Air yang
mengandung bahkan sejumlah kecil berbagai gula atau
turunan gula tidak boleh digunakan sebagai waktu
pengaturan mungkin tidak dapat diprediksi. Bahaya air
tersebut dapat diungkapkan dalam tes kekuatan
komparatif.
2.7—Pemilihan proporsi
2.7.1— Tujuan utama dari studi proporsi untuk beton
massa adalah untuk membangun campuran ekonomis
kekuatan yang tepat, daya tahan, dan kedap dengan
kombinasi terbaik dari bahan yang tersedia yang akan
memberikan kemampuan kerja yang memadai untuk
penempatan dan kenaikan suhu yang paling praktis
setelah penempatan. Metode campuran percobaan
umumnya digunakan mengikuti prosedur dalam ACI
211.1, Lampiran 5.
2.7.2— Pemilihan rasio air-semen atau rasio bahan
semen air akan membangun kekuatan, daya tahan, dan
permeabilitas beton. Juga harus ada bahan halus yang
cukup untuk memberikan tempat yang tepat.
Pengalaman telah menunjukkan bahwa dengan agregat
berbentuk terbaik dari ukuran maksimum 6 in . (150
mm), jumlah bahan ukuran semen yang diperlukan
untuk kemampuan kerja adalah sekitar 10 persen lebih
sedikit daripada untuk beton yang mengandung agregat
sudut. Uji coba campuran menggunakan rasio bahan
semen air yang diperlukan dan kebutuhan air yang
diamati untuk bahan pekerjaan akan menunjukkan
kandungan bahan semen yang dapat digunakan dengan
aman untuk memberikan kemampuan kerja yang
diperlukan (Portland Cement Association 1979;
Ginzburg, Zinchenko, dan Skuortsova 1966).
2.7.3— Langkah pertama dalam mencapai bobot batch
yang sebenarnya adalah memilih ukuran agregat maksimum
untuk setiap bagian dari pekerjaan. Kriteria untuk pilihan ini
diberikan dalam Bagian 2.5. Langkah selanjutnya adalah
mengasumsikan atau menentukan total kadar air yang
dibutuhkan untuk memberikan kemerosotan yang diperlukan
yang mungkin serendah 1-1/2 in. (38 mm) hingga 2 in. (50
mm). Dalam tes untuk kemerosotan, agregat lebih besar dari
11/2 in. (38 mm) harus dihapus dengan segera menyaring
beton basah. Untuk agregat maksimum 6-in. (150 mm), isi
air untuk beton air-entrained, minimumslump dapat
bervariasi dari sekitar 120 hingga 150 lb / yd 3 (71 hingga 89
kg / m 3)untuk agregat alami, dan dari 140 hingga 190 lb / yd
3
(83 hingga 113 kg / m 3)untuk agregat yang hancur.
Persyaratan air yang sesuai untuk agregat ukuran maksimum
3 in. (76 mm) sekitar 20 persen lebih tinggi. Namun, untuk
kekuatan di atas 4000 psi (28 MPa) pada 1 tahun agregat
ukuran maksimum 3-in. (75 mm) mungkin lebih efisien.
(Lihat Gambar 2.5.6 ).
2.7.4— Berat batch semen ditentukan dengan
membagi berat total air pencampuran dengan rasio
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 17
watercement atau, ketika kemampuan kerja
mengatur, itu adalah berat minimum semen yang
diperlukan untuk memuaskan menempatkan beton
(lihat 2.7.2). Dengan berat batch semen dan air
ditentukan dan dengan kandungan udara
diasumsikan 3 sampai 5 persen, sisa bahan adalah
agregat. Satu-satunya keputusan yang tersisa
adalah memilih proporsi relatif agregat halus dan
kasar. Proporsi optimal tergantung pada gradasi
agregat dan bentuk partikel, dan mereka akhirnya
dapat ditentukan hanya di lapangan. Untuk beton
agregat 6-in. (150 mm) yang mengandung pasir
alami dan kerikil, rasio agregat halus terhadap total
agregat dengan volume absolut mungkin serendah
21 persen. Dengan agregat yang hancur, rasionya
mungkin berada di kisaran 25 hingga 27 persen.
 2.7.5— Ketika pozzolan dimasukkan dalam beton
sebagai bagian dari bahan semen, prosedur proporsi
campuran tidak berubah. Perhatian harus diberikan pada
hal-hal berikut: (a) kebutuhan air dapat berubah, (b)
kekuatan usia dini dapat menjadi kritis, dan (c) untuk
ekonomi maksimum usia di mana kekuatan desain
dicapai harus lebih besar. Beton yang mengandung
sebagian besar pozzolans mendapatkan kekuatan agak
lebih lambat daripada beton yang dibuat hanya dengan
semen portland. Namun, beban pada beton massa
umumnya tidak diterapkan sampai beton relatif tua.
Oleh karena itu, beton massa yang mengandung
pozzolan biasanya dirancang berdasarkan kekuatan 90
hari hingga satu tahun. Sementara beton massa tidak
memerlukan kekuatan pada usia dini untuk melakukan
fungsi desainnya, sebagian besar sistem konstruksi
mengharuskan bentuk untuk setiap lift berlabuh ke lift
bawah berikutnya. Oleh karena itu, kekuatan awal harus
cukup besar untuk mencegah penarikan jangkar bentuk.
Jangkar bentuk yang dirancang khusus mungkin
diperlukan untuk memungkinkan waktu perputaran
cepat yang aman untuk formulir, terutama ketika
sejumlah besar pozzolan digunakan atau ketika beton
ramping dan matang.
2.8 —Kontrol suhu
2.8.1— The four elements of an effective temperature
control program, any or all of which may be used for a
particular mass concrete project, are: (1) cementitious
material content control, where the choice of type and
amount of cementitious materials can lessen the heat-
generating potential of the concrete; (2) precooling,
where cooling of ingredients achieves a lower concrete
temperature as placed in the structure; (3) postcooling,
where removing heat from the concrete with embedded
cooling coils limits the temperature rise in the structure;
and (4) construction management, where efforts are
made to protect the structure from excessive
temperature differentials by knowledgeable
employment of concrete handling, construction
scheduling, and construction procedures. The
temperature control for a small structure may be no
more than a single measure, such as restricting placing
operations to cool periods at night or during cool
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
weather. On the other extreme, some projects can be large
enough to justify a wide variety of separate but
complementary control measures that additionally can
include the prudent selection of a low-heat-generating
cement system including pozzolans; the careful production
control of aggregate gradings and the use of large-size
aggregates in efficient mixes with low cement contents; the
precooling of aggregates and mixing water (or the batching
of ice in place of mixing water) to make possible a low
concrete temperature as placed; the use of air-entraining and
other chemical admixtures to improve both the fresh and
hardened properties of the concrete; using appropriate block
dimensions for placement; coordinating construction
schedules with seasonal changes to establish lift heights and
placing frequencies; the use of special mixing and placing
equipment to quickly place cooled concrete with minimum
absorption of ambient heat; evaporative cooling of surfaces
through water curing; dissipating heat from the hardened
concrete by circulating cold water through embedded piping;
and insulating surfaces to minimize thermal differentials
between the interior and the exterior of the concrete.
It is practical to cool coarse aggregate, somewhat more
difficult to cool fine aggregate, and practical to batch a
portion or all of the added mixing water in the form of ice.
As a result, placing temperatures of 50 F (10 C) and lower
are practicable and sometimes specified. Lower
temperatures are obtainable with more difficulty. Injection
of liquid nitrogen into mix water has also been effectively
used to lower concrete temperature for mass concrete work.
In most cases a placing temperature of less than 65 F (18
C) can be achieved with liquid nitrogen injection. Cooled
concrete is advantageous in mixture proportioning since
water requirement decreases as temperature drops.
Specified placing temperatures should be established by
temperature studies to determine what is required to satisfy
the design. Guidance in cooling systems for mass concrete
can be found in ACI 207.4R.
2. 8.2— The chief means for limiting temperature
rise is controlling the type and amount of cementitious
materials. The goal of concrete proportioning studies is to
reach a cementitious material content no greater than is
necessary for the design strength. The limiting factor in
reaching this low cementitious material level is usually the
need to use some minimum amount of cement-sized
particles solely to provide workability in the concrete.
Without the use of supplemental workability agents—such
as pozzolans, air-entraining, or other chemical admixtures
—a mass concrete project can experience a continuing
struggle to maintain workability while holding to the low
cementitious material content that best protects against
cracking. The ASTM specification for Type II portland
cement contains an option which makes it possible to limit
the heat of hydration to 70 cal/g (290 kJ/kg) at 7 days. Use
of a pozzolan as a replacement further delays and reduces
heat generation. This delay is an advantage—except that
when cooling coils are used, the period of postcooling may
be extended. If the mixture is proportioned so that the
cementitious materials content is limited to not more than
235 lb/yd 3 (139 kg/m 3 ), the temperature rise for most
concretes will not exceed 35 F (19 C). A complete
discussion of temperature control is given in Chapter 5
.
CHAPTER 3—PROPERTIES
3.1—General
3. 1.1— The design and construction of massive
concrete structures, especially dams, is influenced by
site topography, foundation characteristics, and the
availability of suitable materials of construction.
Economy, second only to safety requirements, is the
most important single parameter to consider. Economy
may dictate the choice of type of structure for a given
site. Proportioning of the concrete is in turn governed
by the requirements of the type of structure and such
properties as the strength, durability, and thermal
properties. For large structures extensive
investigations of aggregates, admixtures, and
pozzolans are justified. Concrete mixture
investigations are necessary to determine the most
economical proportions of selected ingredients to
produce the desired properties of the concrete. Within
recent years an increasing utilization has been made of
finite element computer programs for thermal analysis
(Polivka and Wilson 1976; U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1994). Determination of tensile strain
capacity has also lead to a better understanding of the
potential for cracking under rapid and slow loading
conditions (Houghton 1976).
3.1.2— The specific properties of concrete which
should be known are compressive strength, tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, tensile
strain capacity, creep, volume change during drying,
adiabatic temperature rise, thermal coefficient of
expansion, specific heat, thermal conductivity and
diffusivity, permeability, and durability. Approximate
values of these properties based on computations or
past experience are often used in preliminary
evaluations. Useful as such approximations may be, the
complex heterogeneous nature of concrete and the
physical and chemical interactions of aggregate and
paste are still not sufficiently known to permit
estimation of reliable values. For this reason, it is again
emphasized that extensive laboratory and field
investigations must be conducted to assure a safe
structure at lowest cost. In addition, the moisture
condition of the specimens and structure, and the
loading rate required, must be known, as these factors
may dramatically affect some concrete properties.
Specimen size and orientation effects on mass concrete
test properties can also be significant.
3.1.3— A compilation of concrete proportion
data on representative dams is given in Table 3.1.3
(Price and Higginson 1963; Ginzburg, Zinchenko,
and Skuortsova 1966 ; ICOLD 1964; Harboe 1961;
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 19
1958 ; Houghton and Hall 1972; Houghton 1970;
Houghton 1969) . Reference will be made to concrete
mixes described in Table 3.1.3 in discussions of properties
reported in Tables
3.2.1, 3.3.2, 3.4.2, 3.5.1, 3.7.1 , and 3.8.1 .

3.2 —Strength
3.2.1— The water-cementitious material ratio to a large
extent governs the quality of the hardened portland cement
binder. Strength, impermeability, and most other desirable
properties of concrete are improved by lowering the
watercementitious material ratio. A study of compressive
strength data given in Table 3.2.1 shows a considerable
variation from the direct relationship between water-
cementitious material ratio and strength. Factors, totally or
partially independent of the water-cementitious material
ratio, which affect the strength are: (1) composition and
fineness of cement, (2) amount and type of pozzolan, (3)
surface texture and shape of the aggregate, (4) the
mineralogic makeup and strength of the aggregate, (5)
aggregate grading, and (6) the improvement of strength by
admixtures above that attributable to a reduction in water-
cementitious material ratio.
3.2.2— High strengths are usually not required in mass
concretes except in thin arch dams. Concrete
proportioning should determine the minimum cement
content for adequate strength to give greatest economy
and minimum temperature rise. Cement requirements for
adequate workability and durability rather than strength
frequently govern the portland cement content.
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 21
207.1R-14 207.1R- 16
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Table 3.2.1 —Cement/water requirements and maximum size. It is using companion
strengths of concrete in various dams important that specimens of the same
correlation tests be concrete. Although the
Cement or made well in advance indicator may have
Predominant of construction to dubious relationship to
cement-
pozzolan, Water,
3 3 3 3 aggregate compare the strength the actual future
Dam Country lb/yd (kg/m ) lb/yd (kg/m ) type of wet-screened strength in the
La Palisse France 506 (300) 250 (148) Granite
concrete tested at the concrete structure, it
Chastang France 379 (225) 169 (100) Granite
control age with can be helpful during
L’Aigle France 379 (225) 211 (125) Granite
Pieve di Cadore Italy 337 (200) 213 (126) Dolomite
appropriate-size test construction.
Forte Baso Italy 404 (240) 238 (141) Porphyry specimens containing
the full mass concrete 3.2.5— The factors
Cabril Portugal 370 (220) 195 (116) Granite
tested at the design involved in relating
Salamonde Portugal 420 (249) 225 (133) Granite
Castelo Bode Portugal 370 (220) 180 (107) Quartzite test age. The strength results of strength
Rossens Switz. 420 (249) 225 (133) Glacial mix of large test tests on small samples
Mauvoisin Switz. 319 (189) 162 (96) Gneiss specimens will to the probable
Zervreila Switz. 336 (199) 212 (126) Gneiss usually be only 80 to strength of mass
Hungry Horse USA 188-90 (111- 130 (77) Sandstone 90 percent of the concrete structures are
53) several and complex
Glen Canyon USA 188-94 (111- 153 (91) Limestone strength of 6 x 12-in.
(150 x 300-mm) and still essentially
56)
Lower Granite USA 145-49 (86- 138 (82) Basalt cylinders tested at the unresolved. Because
29) same age. Accounting of these complexities,
Libby USA 148-49 (88- 133 (79) Quartzite concrete strength
29)
for the continued
Dworshak USA 211-71 (125- 164 (97) Granite strength development requirements are
42) beyond 28 days, usually several times
Dworshak USA 198-67 (117- 164 (97) Gneiss particularly where the calculated
40)
pozzolans are maximum design
Dworshak USA 168-72 (100- 166 (98) Gneiss
employed, the stresses for mass
43)
Dworshak USA 174-46 (130- 165 (98) Gneiss correlation factors at concrete structures.
27) one year may range For example, design
Granite criteria for gravity
Pueblo USA
226-75 (134-
168 (100) limestone
from 1.15 to 3.0 times
44) dams commonly used
dolomite the strength of the
Crystal USA 390 (231) 183 (109) Shist and wetscreened control by the U.S. Bureau of
altered specimens tested at 28 Reclamation and the
volanics
days. U.S. Army Corps of
Flaming Gorge USA 188-94 (111- 149 (88) Limestone
Engineers set the
56) and 3.2.4—
sandstone maximum allowable
Accelerated curing
Krasnoiarsk USSR 388 (230) 213 (126) Granite compressive stress for
procedures set forth
Ilha Solteira Brazil 138-46 (82- 138 (82) Quartzite usual loading
in ASTM
27) gravel, combinations at one-
crushed basalt C 684 yield
third of the specified
Itaipu Brazil 182-22 (108 143 (85) Crushed compression test
13) basalt concrete strength. The
Theo. Roosevelt results in 24 to 48 hr selection of allowable
USA 270 (160) 144 (85) Granite that can provide an
Modification stresses and factors of
* Strength at 180 days years. Job control indication of potential safety depend on the
† Strength at one yr
cylinders must of concrete strength. structure type, loading
necessity be tested at an However, the use of conditions being
earlier age if they are to these procedures analyzed, and the
3.2.3— Mass
be useful in exercising should be limited to structure location
concrete is seldom
control and maintaining detecting variations in (U.S. Bureau of
required to withstand
consistency during the concrete quality and Reclamation 1976;
substantial stress at early
progress of the judging the U.S. Army Corps of
age. Therefore, to take
construction. For the effectiveness of job Engineers 1990).
full advantage of the
sake of convenience, job control measures. The
strength properties of the
control test specimens accelerated strength
cementing materials, the
are usually 6 x 12-in. indicator is helpful
design strength is
(150 x 300-mm) where satisfactory
usually based on the
cylinders containing correlation has been
strength at ages from 90
concrete wet screened to established with
days to one year; and 1
1 /2 in. (37.5 mm) longer-term values
sometimes up to two
Table 3.3.2— Compressive strength and elastic properties of mass concrete
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 23
Compressive Elastic properties
strength
psi Modulus of elasticity, E x 10 6 psi
(MPa) 4
(E x 10 MPa) Poisson’s ratio
Age, days Age, days Age, days
N
o Dam 28 90 180 365 28 90 180 365 28 90 180 365

3030 3300 4290 5.5 6.2 6.8

1 Hoover (20.9) (22.8 — (29.6 (3.8) (4.3) — (4.7) 0.18 0.20 — 0.21
) )
4780 5160 5990 4.7 6.1 6.0
2 Grand Coulee (33.0) (35.6 — (41.3 (3.2) (4.2) — (4.1) 0.17 0.20 — 0.23
) )
2550 3810 3950 5.4 5.8
3 Glen Canyon (17.6) (26.3 (27.2 — (3.7) — (4.0) — 0.11 — 0.14 —
) )
3500 4900 6560 6820 5.3 6.3 6.7
3
Glen Canyon* (24.1) (33.8 (45.2 (47.0 (3.7) (4.3) (4.6) — 0.15 0.15 0.19 —
a
) ) )
2950 3500 3870 4680 3.5 4.3 4.6
4 Flaming Gorge (20.3) (24.1 (26.7 (32.3 (2.4) (3.0) (3.2) — 0.13 0.25 0.20 —
) ) )
4580 5420 5640 6.1 5.4 6.2
5 Yellowtail — (31.6 (37.4 (38.9 — (4.2) (3.7) (4.3) — 0.24 0.26 0.27
) ) )
4770 5960 6430 6680 4.4 4.9 5.3 4.6
6 Morrow Point* (32.9) (41.1 (44.3 (46.1 (3.0) (3.4) (3.7) (3.2) 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.20
) ) )
1270 2070 2420 2730 2.8 3.9 3.8 3.9
7 Lower Granite* (8.8) (14.3 (16.7 (18.8 (1.9) (2.7) (2.6) (2.7) 0.19 0.20 — —
) ) )
1450 2460 3190 3.2 4.0 5.5
8 Libby (10.0) (17.0 — (22.0 (2.2) (2.8) — (3.8) 0.14 0.18 — —
) )
1200 2030 3110 3.7 3.8
9 Dworshak* (8.3) (14.0 — (21.4 — (2.6) — (2.6) — — — —
) )
2320 2755 3045 3190 5.1 5.9
1
Ilha Solteira (16.0) (19.0 (21.0 (22.0 (3.5) (4.1) — — 0.15 0.16 — —
0
) ) )
1885 2610 2610 2755 5.5 6.2 6.2 6.5
1
Itaipu (13.0) (18.0 (18.0 (19.0 (3.8) (4.3) (4.3) (4.5) 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.20
1
) ) )
3060 3939 4506 4666
1
Peace Site* 1 (21.1) (27.2 (31.1 (32.2 — — — — — — —
2
) ) )
Theodore 2400 4500 5430 5800 4.5 5.4 6.2
1
Roosevelt (16.5) (31.0 (37.4 (40.0 (3.1) (3.7) — (4.3) 0.20 0.21 — 0.21
3
Modification ) ) )
*Water-reducing agent used.
with compressive t
strength. An
expression that relates =
tensile strength, ft, to
3.2.6— Concrete that compressive strength,
0
is strong in compression fc, is for ft and fc in psi ft .
is also strong in tension = 1.7 fc2/3
3
but this strength t and fc 2
relationship is not linear. i
Tensile strength can be n f
measured by several c
tests, primarily direct 2
M
tensile, splitting tensile, /
P
and modulus of rupture 3
a
(flexural) tests. Each of
these tests has a Raphael (1984)
different relationship f discussed these and
 207.1R- 18

Table 3.4.2— Elastic properties ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

of mass concrete
Instantaneous and sustained modulus of elasticity,* psi x 10 6 4)
(MPa
x 10
Grand Shasta Hungry Dworsha Libby
Age at Coulee Horse k
time of E1 E1
loading E E1 E2 E E2 E E1 E2 E E1 E2 E E2
1.7 0.83 0.76 1.4 0.54 0.49 2.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 0.75 0.70 1.6 1.0 0.9
(1.2) (0.57) (0.52) (0.97) (0.37) (0.34) (1.9) (1.0) (0.97) (0.97 (0.52) (0.48) (1.1) (0.69) (0.62)
2 days )
2.3 1.1 1.0 2.1 1.0 0.96 4.2 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.0 0.90 3.2 1.6 1.3
7 days (1.6) (0.76) (0.69) (1.4) (0.69) (0.66) (2.9) (1.3) (1.2) (1.4) (0.69) (0.62) (2.2) (1.1) (0.90)
3.5 1.8 1.6 3.5 1.8 1.6 4.5 2.6 2.4 2.8 1.4 1.3 4.1 2.2 2.0
20 days (2.4) (1.2) (1.1) (2.4) (1.2) (1.1) (3.1) (1.8) (1.7) (1.9) (0.97) (0.90) (2.8) (1.5) (1.4)
4.1 2.5 2.3 4.4 2.7 2.5 5.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 2.2 2.0 5.2 2.9 2.7
90 days (2.0) (1.7) (1.6) (3.0) (1.9) (1.7) (3.6) (2.2) (2.1) (2.6) (1.5) (1.4) (3.6) (2.0) (1.9)
5.0 2.5 2.3 4.4 2.7 2.5 5.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 2.2 2.0 5.2 2.9 2.7
1 yr (3.4) (1.7) (1.6) (3.0) (1.9) (1.7) (3.6) (2.2) (2.1) (2.6) (1.5) (1.4) (3.6) (2.0) (1.9)
5.3 3.6 3.4 5.9 4.0 3.8 4.9 3.0 2.9 6.4 4.3 4.1
5 yr (3.7) (2.5) (2.3) (4.1) (2.8) (2.6) (3.4) (2.1) (2.0) (4.4) (3.0) (2.8)
5.6 4.3 4.1
71/4 yr (3.9) (3.0) (2.8)
1
*All concretes mass mixed, wet screened to 1 /2 in. (37.5 mm) maximum-size aggregate.
E = instantaneous modulus of elasticity at time of loading.
E 1 = sustained modulus after 365 days under load.
E 2 = sustained modulus after 1000 days under load.
Note: The instantaneous modulus of elasticity refers to the “static” or normal load rate (1 to 5 min duration) modulus, not a tr uly instantaneous modulus
other tensile- measured from “dynamic” or
30 percent and tensile 10 6 psi (1.9 to 3.8 x rapid load rate testing.
compressive strength strength may be 10 4 MPa) at 28 days
relationships, and their increased up to 50 and from 3.8 to 6.8 x
use in design. percent, when 10 6 psi (2.6 to 4.7 x
Relationships of these compared to values 10 4 MPa) at one year. containing large-
types for specific obtained at standard Usually, concretes size aggregate.
materials can vary rates of loading having higher Modern
significantly from the ( Saucier 1977; strengths have higher electronic
formulas above, based Graham 1978; Raphael values of elastic devices such as
on aggregate quality 1984). modulus and show a the linear
and many other factors. general correlation of variable
Where feasible and increase in modulus
3.3 —Elastic differential
necessary, testing properties with strength, transformer
should be conducted to although modulus of
3.3.1— Concrete is (LVDT) can
confirm these elasticity is not
not a truly elastic measure small
relationships. directly proportional
material, and the length changes
3.2.7— The strength to strength, since it is with great
graphic stress-strain
of concrete is also influenced by the accuracy.
relationship for
influenced by the modulus of elasticity Tensile modulus
continuously
speed of loading. of the aggregate. In of elasticity is
increasing load is
Values usually the past, data from generally
generally in the form
reported are for static concrete modulus of assumed to be
of a curved line.
loads that take elasticity tests showed identical to the
However, the modulus
appreciable time to relatively high compressive
of elasticity is for
develop, e.g. dead load coefficient of modulus of
practical purposes
or water load. During variation resulting elasticity.
considered a constant
earthquakes, however, from attempts to
within the range of 3.3.3— Poisson’s
stresses may be fully measure small strains
stresses to which mass ratio data given in
developed in a small on a heterogeneous
concrete is usually Table 3.3.2 tend to
fraction of a second. It mixture
subjected. range between the
has been found that
3.3.2— The moduli values of 0.16 and
when loaded at this
of elasticity of concrete 0.20 with generally
speed, compressive
representative of various small increases with
strength of a concrete
dams are given in Table increasing time of
for moist specimens
3.3.2 . These values cure. Extreme values
may be increased up to
range from 2.8 to 5.5 x may vary from 0.11 to
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 25
0.27. Poisson’s ratio, (Hess 1992) . discusses the approximately one-
like modulus of Poisson’s ratio can prediction of half that of the
elasticity, is influenced be considered the creep, shrinkage, instantaneous
by the aggregate, the same for normal or and temperature modulus when load is
cement paste, and dynamic rates of effects in concrete applied at early ages
relative proportions of loading (Hess 1992). structures. and is a slightly
the two. higher percentage of
the instantaneous
modulus when the
loading age is 90 days
or greater. Creep of
concrete appears to be
approximately directly
proportional to the
applied stress/strength
ratio up to about 40
percent of the ultimate
strength of the
concrete.

3.4.2— One method

3.3.4— The 3.4—Creep of expressing the
growth of internal 3.4.1— Creep of effect of creep is as
microcracks in concrete is partially- the sustained modulus
concrete under load recoverable plastic of elasticity of the
commences at deformation that concrete in which the
compressive occurs while stress is divided by
stresses equal to concrete is under the total deformation
about 35 to 50 sustained stress. for the time under the
percent of the Creep appears to be load. The
nominal mainly related to the instantaneous and
compressive modulus of elasticity sustained modulus of
strength under short of the concrete. elasticity values
term loading. Concretes having obtained on 6-in.
Above this stress, high values of (150-mm) diameter 3.5 —Volume
the overall modulus of elasticity cylinders made with change
volumetric strain generally have low mass-mixed concrete
reflects the volume 3.5.1— Volume
values of creep wet screened to 1 1 /2
taken up by these changes are caused
deformation. The in. (37.5 mm)
internal fissures, by changes in
cement paste is maximum size, are
and Poisson’s ratio moisture content of
primarily recorded in Table
and the elastic the concrete,
responsible for 3.4.2 . The
moduli are no changes in
concrete creep. With instantaneous
longer constant. temperature,
concretes containing modulus is measured chemical reactions,
3.3.5— The results the same type of immediately after the and stresses from
of several aggregate, the concrete is subjected applied loads.
investigations magnitude of creep to load. The sustained Excessive volume
indicate that the is closely related to modulus represents change is
modulus of elasticity the paste content values after 365 and detrimental to
appears to be (Polivka, Pirtz, and 1000 days under load. concrete. Cracks are
relatively unchanged Adams 1963) and From Table 3.4.2 it formed in restrained
whether tested at the water- can be seen that the concrete as a result
normal or dynamic cementitious sustained values for of shrinkage or
rates of loading material ratio of the modulus are contraction and
concrete. ACI 209R
Table 3.5.1— Volume change and permeability of mass concrete
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Autogenous volume change Drying Permeability,
shrinkage K ft/s/ft*
90 days, 1 yr, 1 yr, hydraulic head
Structure millionths millionths millionths m/s/m*
Hoover — — - 270 1.97 x 10 -12 1.83 x 10 -13

Grand Coulee — — - 420 — —

Hungry Horse - 44 - 52 - 520 5.87 x 10 -12 5.45 x 10 -13

Canyon Ferry +6 - 37 - 397 6.12 x 10 -12 5.69 x 10 -13

Monticello - 15 - 38 - 998 2.60 x 10 -11 2.42 x 10 -12

Clen Canyon - 32 - 61 - 459 5.74 x 10 -12 5.33 x 10 -13

Flaming Gorge — — - 496 3.52 x 10 -11 3.27 x 10 -12

Yellowtail - 12 - 38 - 345 6.25 x 10 -12 5.81 x 10 -13

Dworshak +10 -8 - 510 6.02 x 10 -12 5.59 x 10 -13

Libby +3 +12 - 480 1.49 x 10 -11 1.38 x 10 -12

Lower Granite +4 +4 —
Volume change specimens for Hoover and Grand Coulee Dams were 4 x 4 x 40-in. (100 x 100 x 1000-mm) prisms; for Dworshak, Libby,
and Lower Granite Dams volume change was determined on 9 x 18-in. (230 x 460-mm) sealed cylinders. Specimens for the other
dams tabulated were 4 x 4 x 30-in. (100 x 100 x 760-mm) prisms.
Specimens for permeability for Dworshak, Libby, and Lower Granite Dams were 6 x 6-in. (150 x 150-mm) cylinders. Specimens for pe rmeability for the
other dams tabulated were 18 x 18 in. (460 x 460 mm).
*ft/s/ft = ft3/ft2-s/ft of hydraulic head; m/s/m = m 3
/m 2-s/m of hydraulic head; millionths = in. x 10 -6
/in. (mm x 10 -6 /mm), measured in lin-
insufficient tensile constituents. by the
occasioned temperature is 224R and Carlson,
strength or strain drying and shrinking
Sometimes coefficientof attained. When Houghton, and
capacity. Cracking is a theexpansion
of cement geltestswhich areis cooling begins, the Polivka (1979). They
weakening factor that formed by on
conducted hydration
concreteof concrete is gaining include reducing the
may affect the ability portland
that has cement.
been wet The strength and stiffness maximum internal
1
of the concrete to main factors
screened to 1affecting
/2 in. rapidly. If there is temperature which
withstand its design dryingmm)
(37.5 shrinkage
maximum are any restraint against the concrete attains;
loads and may also the unit
size in order
watertocontent
work free contraction reducing the rate at
detract from durability and
with smaller-size
aggregate during cooling, which the concrete
and appearance. mineralogy However,
specimens. and tensile strain and cools; and increasing
Volume change data content.
the disproportionately
Other factors stress develop. The the tensile strength
for some mass influence amount drying
larger of tensile stresses of the concrete.
concretes are given in shrinkagepaste,
cement principally
which developed during the Concrete resistance
Table 3.5.1 . Various as they ainfluence
has higher the cooling stage are to cracking can be
factors influencing total amountresults
coefficient, of water in determined by five equated to tensile
cracking of mass in
values mixtures.
higher than that The quantities: (1) strain ca-
concrete are discussed addition
of the massof pozzolans
concrete. thermal differential
in Carlson, Houghton, generally coefficients
Concrete increases and rate of
and Polivka (1979). drying
of thermal expansion
shrinkage temperature change,
ear length change. except
are bestwhere
determined
the water on (2) coefficient of
requirement containingis
specimens thermal expansion,
significantly
the full concrete reduced,
mix. (3) modulus of
such astowith
Refer values
fly ash.in elasticity, (4) creep
3.5.2— Drying Some 3.7.1 .aggregates,
Table or relaxation, and (5)
shrinkage ranges from notably graywacke and the degree of
less than 0.02 percent 3.5.5— The
sandstone, haveportland
been restraint. If the
(or 200 millionths) for cement in concrete
known to contribute to tensile stress
low-slump lean liberates
extremelyheat highwhen drying it developed exceeds
concrete with good hydrates and
shrinkage. ACI 224R the the tensile strength
quality aggregates to internal temperature
and Houghton (1972) of of the concrete,
over 0.10 percent (or the concrete
discuss the factors rises cracking will occur
200 millionths) for rich during
involved this period
in drying (Houghton 1972;
mortars or some (Dusinberre
characteristics 1945;
of Houghton 1976;
concretes containing Wilson
concrete. 1968) . The Dusinberre 1945).
poor quality aggregates concrete is relatively Principal methods
and an excessive elastic during this early utilized to reduce the
amount of water. The stage, and it can be potential for
principal drying assumed to be at or thermally induced
shrinkage of hardened near zero stress when cracking in concrete
concrete is usually the maximum are outlined in ACI
 I nch pound units S I uni ts
C oeffi ci ent of C oeffic ient of
ex pansion,* expansi on,*
m il li onths/F mil l ionths/C
T hermal T hermal D i ffus iv i ty, **
conductiv ity,† S peci fic hea t, Di ffus iv i ty, ** conduc ti vi ty, † 2
T emperature , 11/2 in. 41/2 in. B tu B tu D ensi ty , l b ft2 T emperature, kJ S pecific heat kJ D ensi ty, k g m----- x 10 3
F m ax max ft x hr x F lb x F C 37.5 mm max 114 mm max hr
ft3 hr m x hr x C kg x C m3
50 1.70 0. 212 0. 051 10 10. 6 0.887 4.7
100 5. 3 4.8 1.67 0. 225 156.0 0. 047 38 9.5 8.6 10. 4 0.941 2500 4.4
150 1.65 0. 251 0. 042 66 10. 3 1.050 3.9
50 1.08 0. 219 0. 031 10 6.74 0.916 2.9
100 4. 4 4.6 1.08 0. 231 158.1 0. 029 38 7.9 8.3 6.74 0.967 2534 2.7
150 1.09 0. 257 0. 027 66 6.78 1.075 2.5
50 1.23 0. 216 0. 037 10 7.66 0.904 3.4
100 — — 1.23 0. 230 153.8 0. 035 38 — — 7.66 0.962 2465 3.2
150 1.24 0. 243 0. 033 66 7.70 1.017 3.1
50 1.32 0. 219 0. 039 10 8.20 0.916 3.6
100 — 4.8 1.31 0. 233 156.6 0. 036 38 — 8.6 8.16 0.975 2510 3.3
150 1.31 0. 247 0. 034 66 8.16 1.033 3.2
50 1.49 0. 221 0. 045 10 9.29 0.925 4.2
100 4. 0 — 1.48 0. 237 151.2 0. 041 38 7.2 — 9.20 0.992 2423 3.8
150 1.46 0. 252 0. 038 66 9.08 1.054 3.5
50 1.61 0. 208 0. 050 10 10. 0 0.870 4.6
100 5. 2 4.5 1.60 0. 221 151.8 0. 047 38 9.4 8.1 9.96 0.925 2433 4.4
150 1.59 0. 234 0. 044 66 9.87 0.979 4.1
50 1.72 0. 217 0. 053 10 10. 1 0.895 4.6
100 6. 2 5.7 1.71 0. 232 150.1 0. 049 38 9.7 9.4 10. 0 0.937 2425 4.4
150 1.69 0. 247 0. 046 66 9.87 0.983 4.2
50 1.57 0. 225 0. 046 10 9.79 0.941 4.3
100 5. 2 — 1.55 0. 237 151.3 0. 043 38 9.4 — 9.67 0.992 2454 4.0
150 1.53 0. 250 0. 040 66 9.54 1.046 3.7
50 1.14 0. 227 0. 034 10 7.11 0.950 3.2
100 5. 6 4.5 1.14 0. 242 149.0 0. 032 38 10. 1 8.1 7.11 1.013 2388 3.0
150 1.15 0. 258 0. 030 66 7.15 1.079 2.8
50 2.13 0. 217 0. 065 10 13. 3 0.908 6.0
100 — — 2.05 0. 232 150.2 0. 059 38 — — 12. 8 0.971 2407 5.5
150 1.97 0. 247 0. 053 66 12. 3 1.033 4.9
50 1.78 0. 221 0. 054 10 11. 1 0.925 5.0
100 — — 1.75 0. 234 150.4 0. 050 38 — — 10. 9 0.979 2411 4.6
150 1.73 0. 248 0. 046 66 10. 8 1.038 4.3
50 1.55 0. 226 0. 045 10 9.67 0.946 4.2
100 — 4.3 1.52 0. 239 152.5 0. 042 38 — 7.7 9.46 1.000 2444 3.9
150 1.48 0. 252 0. 039 66 9.20 1.054 3.6
100 6. 5 6.0 2.24 0. 220 152 0. 067 36 11. 7 10. 8 13. 9 0.920 2435 6.2

100 — 5.5 1.35 0. 220 154 0. 040 36 — 9.9 8.41 0.920 2467 3.9

100 — 6.9 1.73 0. 220 159 0. 049 36 — 12. 5 10. 8 0.920 2552 4.6

100 — 4.3 1.06 0. 233 158 0. 029 36 — 7.8 6.61 0.975 2537 2.7
50 1.71 0. 234 0. 049 10 10. 7 0.979 4.6
100 4. 3 — 1.73 0. 248 148.7 0. 047 38 7.7 — 10. 9 1.037 2380 4.4
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 27

150 1.70 0. 260 0. 044 66 10. 6 1.088 4.1

207.1R-28 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

A ndesite, lati te

L i mestone, chert
L i mestone and

L i mestone and

L i mestone and

N atura l quartz
ag gr egate ty pe

ite and rhy ol i te

G ranite gnei ss
and sandstone
Quartzi te gra n

metasi l tstone

Q uartz i te and
A ndesi te and

g abbros and
L i mestone

S andstone

S andstone

l imestone

sandstone
quartzi te
rhy oli te

andesi te
G ranite

G ranite
C oars e

g ranite

quartz
B asa lt

B asa lt
basalt
grav el
sl ate

and

M odi fi cation
H ung ry H orse

I lha S ol teira

R oosev elt
Monti cel lo
A ngostura

D wor shak
Y el l owtai l
S tructur e

T heodore
C a ny on
Hoover

A nchor
C oul ee

F l ami ng
S hasta

G org e
K ortes
G rand

I ta ipu
F riant

L i bby
Gl en
Table 3.7.1—Thermal properties of concrete

pacity rather than to strength. When this is done, the 3.6—Permeability

average modulus of elasticity (sustained E ) can be
3.6.1— Concrete has inherently low
omitted from the testing and computation
permeability to water. With properly proportioned
requirements (ACI 207.2R;
mixtures that are compacted by vibration,
Houghton 1976). Tensile strain capacity may be permeability is not a serious problem. Permeability
predicted using compressive strength and the of concrete increases with increasing water-
modulus of elasticity (Liu and McDonald 1978). cementitious material ratios (U.S. Bureau of
Thermal tensile strain capacity of the concrete is Reclamation 1981). Therefore, low water-
measured directly in tests on concrete made during cementitious material ratio and good consolidation
the design stages of the project. Thermal tensile and curing are the most important factors in
strain developed in mass concrete increases with producing concrete with low permeability. Air-
the magnitude of the thermal coefficient of entraining and other chemical admixtures permit
expansion, thermal differential and rate of the same workability with reduced water content
temperature change, and degree of restraint (ACI and therefore contribute to reduced permeability.
207.2R). Pozzolans usually reduce the permeability of the
3.5.6— Volume changes can also result from concrete. Permeability coefficients for some mass
chemical reactions, which can be potentially concretes are given in Table 3.5.1 .
disruptive. These reactions are discussed in 3.9.4
. 3.7—Thermal properties
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 29

3.7.1— Thermal properties of concrete are Y = C + X tan φ

significant in connection with keeping differential
volume change at a minimum in mass concrete, in which C (unit cohesive strength or cohesion) is
extracting excess heat from the concrete, and defined as the shear strength at zero normal stress.
dealing with similar operations involving heat
Tan φ, which is the slope of the line, represents the
transfer. These properties are specific heat,
coefficient of internal fric-
conductivity, and diffusivity. The main factor
affecting the thermal properties of a concrete is the
mineralogic composition of the aggregate ( Rhodes
1978). Since the selection of the aggregate to be Table 3.8.1— Shear properties of
used is based on other considerations, little or no concrete**
control can be exercised over the thermal
Compressive
properties of the concrete. Tests for thermal strength Cohesion
properties are conducted only for providing Ss/S
Age, psi MP psi MP Tan
constants to be used in behavior studies as Dam days W/C a a ø c§
described in
28 0.52. 525 36.2 117 8.1 0.9 0.22
Chapter 5 . Specification requirements for cement, 0 0 0 3
28 0.58 31.2 7.0
pozzolan, percent sand, and water content are 453 102 0.8 0.22
28 0.64 26.3 5.7
modifying factors but with negligible effect on these 0 0 9 5
90 0.58 32.8 7.0
properties. Entrained air is an insulator and reduces 381 830 0.9 0.21
112 0.58 0 33.9 6.4 2 8
thermal conductivity, but other considerations which Grand 101
Coulee 365 0.58 475 58.6 0 13. 0.9 0.21
govern the use of entrained air outweigh the
0 0 7 3
significance of its effect on thermal properties. Some 930
492 188 1.0 0.18
rock types, such as granite, can have a rather wide 0 5 9
0
range of thermal properties depending upon their 850 0.9 0.22
source. Quartz aggregate is particularly noted for its 0 1 1
high value of thermal conductivity. Thermal property 104 0.55 225 15.5 500 3.4 0.9 0.22
values for some mass concretes are given in Table 144
* 0
21.0 680 4.7
0 2
3.7.1 . Thermal coefficient of expansion is discussed Hungry 622 0.55 304 12.1 400 2.8 0.8 0.22
in Section 3.5.4 . Horse * 0 9 4
0.60 175 0.8 0.22
3.8 —Shear properties * 0 6 9
3.8.1— Although the triaxial shear strength may
Monticell 28 0.62 280 19.3 610 4.2 0.9 0.21
be determined as one of the basic design parameters, * 0 3 8
o 40 28.4 950 6.6
the designer usually is required to use an empirical
0.92 412 0.8 0.23
relationship between the shear and compressive * 0 5 1
strength of concrete. Shear properties for some
28 0.50 574 39.6 114 7.9 1.0 0.19
concretes containing 1 1/2in. (37.5 mm) maximum- 0 0 5 9
28 0.60 33.9 7.3
size aggregates are listed in Table 3.8.1 . These 492 106 0.9 0.21
90 0.50 37.6 7.5
include compressive strength, cohesion, and 0 0 5 5
90 0.50 45.4 9.4
coefficient of internal friction, which are related 545 109 1.0 0.20
linear functions determined from results of triaxial 90 0.60 0 34.5 0 7.2 5 0
Shasta
tests. Linear analysis of triaxial results gives a shear 245 0.50 659 42.2 136 8.5 1.0 0.20
0 0 1 6
strength slightly above the value obtained from
500 104 1.0 0.20
standard push-off tests. Past criteria have stated that 0 0 0 8
the coefficient of internal friction can be taken as 1.0 612 123 1.0 0.20
and cohesion as 10 percent of the compressive 0 0 4 1
strength (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1976). More
Dworsha 180 0.59 415 28.6 149 10. 0.4 0.35
recent investigation has concluded that assuming this k † * 0 0 3 4 9
22.2
level of cohesion may be unconservative (McLean & 180 0.63 322 108 7.4 0.4 0.33
16.7
Pierce 1988). † * 0 0
6.6
6 5
20.1
3.8.2— The shear strength relationships reported 180 0.70 242 950 5.0 0.4 0.39
† * 0 720 3 3
can be linearly analyzed using the Mohr envelope
200 0.59 292 0.8 0.24
equation
207.1R-30 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
‡ * 0 4
*W/C+P.
All test specimens 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) with dry, 1 1/2 in.
(37.5 mm) maximum-size aggregate except † designates 3
x 6 in. (75 x
150 mm) test specimens sealed to prevent drying with
3
/4 in. (19 mm) maximum-size aggregate and ‡ designates
18 x 36 in. (450 x
900 mm) test specimens sealed to prevent drying,
with 6 in. (150 mm) maximum-size aggregate.
§Cohesion divided by compressive strength.
**Triaxial tests.
tion. X and Y are normal and shear stresses,
respectively. In many cases, the shear strengths in
Table 3.8.1 were higher for specimens of greater age;
however, no definite trend is in evidence. The ratio
of triaxial shear strength to compressive strength
varies from 0.19 to 0.39 for the various concretes
shown. When shear strength is used for design, the
test confining pressures used should reflect
anticipated conditions in the structure. Whenever
possible, direct shear tests on both parent concrete
and on jointed concrete should be conducted to
determine valid cohesion and coefficient of internal
friction values for design.
3.8.3— Bonded horizontal construction joints
may have shear strength comparable to that of the
parent concrete. Unbonded joints typically have
lower cohesion, but the same coefficient of internal
friction, when compared to the parent concrete. If
no tests are conducted, the coefficient of internal
friction can be taken at 1.0 and the cohesion as 0,
for unbonded joints. For bonded joints, the
coefficient of internal friction can be taken as 1.0,
while the cohesion may approach that of the parent
concrete (McLean & Pierce 1988).
3.9—Durability
3.9.1— A durable concrete is one which will
withstand the effects of service conditions to which
it will be subjected, such as weathering, chemical
action, alkali-aggregate reactions, and wear (U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation 1981). Laboratory tests can
indicate relative durabilities of concretes, but it is
not generally possible to directly predict durability
in field service from laboratory durability studies.
3.9.2— Disintegration of concrete by
weathering is caused mainly by the disruptive
action of freezing and thawing and by expansion
and contraction under restraint, resulting from
temperature variations and alternate wetting and
drying. Entrained air improves the resistance of
concrete to damage from frost action and should
be specified for all concrete subject to cycles of
freezing and thawing while critically saturated.
Selection of good materials, use of entrained air,
7 low water-cementitious material ratio, proper
proportioning, placement to provide a watertight
structure, and good water curing usually provide
a concrete that has excellent resistance to
weathering action.
3.9.3— Chemical attack occurs from (1)
exposure to acid waters, (2) exposure to sulfate-
bearing waters, and (3) leaching by mineral-free
waters as explained in ACI 201.2R.
No type of portland cement concrete is very
resistant to attack by acids. Should this type of
exposure occur the concrete is best protected by
surface coatings.
Sulfate attack can be rapid and severe. The
sulfates react chemically with the hydrated lime
and hydrated tricalcium aluminate in cement
paste to form calcium sulfate and calcium sulfo-
aluminates. These reactions are accompanied by
considerable expansion and disruption of the
concrete. Concrete containing cement low in
tricalcium aluminate (ASTM Types II, IV and V)
is more resistant to attack by sulfates.
Hydrated lime is one of the products formed
when cement and water combine in concrete.
This lime is readily dissolved in pure or slightly
acid water, which may occur in high mountain
streams. Pozzolans, which react with lime
liberated by cement hydration, can prevent the
tendency of lime to leach from concrete.
Surfaces of tunnel linings, retaining walls, piers,
and other structures are often disfigured by lime
deposits from water seeping through cracks,
joints, and interconnected voids. With dense,
low-permeability concrete, leaching is seldom
severe enough to impair the serviceability of the
structure.

3.9.4— Alkali-aggregate reaction is the chemical
reaction between alkalies (sodium and potassium)
from portland cement or other sources and certain
constituents of some aggregates, which under
certain conditions produces deleterious expansion of
the concrete. These reactions include alkali-silica
reaction and alkali-carbonate rock reaction,
discussed in an Engineer Manual (U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers 1994). Where it is necessary to use an
aggregate containing reactive constituents, low-
alkali cement should be specified. Also, as further
insurance against alkali-aggregate reaction, a
suitable pozzolan should be specified in sufficient
quantity to control deleterious reaction. Fly ash is
generally considered less effective in controlling
alkali-silica reaction and expansion than are Class N
pozzolans.
3. 9.5— The principal causes of erosion of
concrete surfaces are cavitation and the movement of
abrasive material by flowing water. Use of concrete
of increased strength and wear resistance offers some
relief but the best solution lies in the prevention,
elimination, or reduction of the causes by proper
design, construction, and operation of the concrete
structure (ACI 210R). The use of aeration in high
velocity flows is an effective way to prevent
cavitation.
CHAPTER 4—CONSTRUCTION
4.1 —Batching
4. 1.1— Proper batching of mass concrete
requires little that is different from the accurate,
consistent, reliable batching that is essential for other
classes of concrete. ACI 221R covers the processing,
handling, and quality control of aggregate. ACI 304R
discusses the measuring, mixing, transporting, and
placing of concrete.
4.1.2— The desirability of restricting the
temperature rise of mass concrete by limiting the
cement content of the mix creates a continuing
construction problem to maintain workability in the
plastic concrete. Efficient mixes for mass concrete
contain unusually low portions of cementing
materials, sand, and water. Thus the workability of
these mixes for conventional placement is more than
normally sensitive to variations in batching. This
problem can be lessened by the use of efficient
construction methods and modern equipment.
Usually the production of large quantities of mass
concrete is like an assembly-line operation,
particularly in dam construction, where the
performance of repetitive functions makes it
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 31
economically prudent to employ specialty equipment
and efficient construction methods. Consistency in
the batching is improved by: (1) finish screening of
coarse aggregate at the batching plant, preferably on
horizontal vibrating screens without intermediate
storage, (2) refinements in batching equipment, such
as full-scale springless dials which register all stages
of the weighing operation, (3) automatic weighing
and cutoff features, (4) interlocks to prevent
recharging when some material remains in a scale
hopper, (5) a device for instant reading of
approximate moisture content of sand, (6) graphic or
digital recording of the various weighing and mixing
operations, and (7) equipment capable of instant
automatic selection and setting of at least 11
different batch ingredients in as many different mix
proportions. In large central plant mixers, the large
batches commonly used for mass concrete also tend
to minimize the effect of variations.
4.1.3— Since greater use is made in mass
concrete of such special-purpose ingredients as
ice, air-entraining, water-reducing and set-
controlling admixtures, and fly ash or other
pozzolans, the dependable, accurate batching of
these materials has become a very important
aspect of the concrete plant.
For most efficient use of ice, its temperature
must be less than 32 F (0 C) and it must be
brittle-hard, dry, and finely broken. For
maximum efficiency ice should be batched by
weighing from a well-insulated storage bin,
with quick discharge into the mixer along with
the other ingredients. Pozzolan and ground iron
blast-furnace slag are batched the same as
cement.
4.1.4— Liquid admixtures are generally
batched by volume, although weighing
equipment has also been used successfully.
Reliable admixture batching equipment is
available from some admixture or batch plant
manufacturers. Means should be provided for
making a visual accuracy check. Provisions
should be made for preventing batching of
admixture while the discharge valve is open.
Interlocks should also be provided that will
prevent inadvertent overbatching of the
admixture. Particularly with air-entraining and
water-reducing admixtures, any irregularities in
batching can cause troublesome variation in
slump and/or air content. When several liquid
admixtures are to be used, they should be
batched separately into the mixer. The use of
comparatively dilute solutions reduces
207.1R-32 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

gumming in the equipment. For continuing Admixtures

good operation, equipment must be maintained (by volume ± 3* Not ± 3* Not
or weight), recommended recommended
and kept clean. Timed-flow systems should not
percent
be used. Also, it is important to provide winter *or ± 1 fl oz (30 mL), whichever is greater.
protection for storage tanks and related delivery
lines where necessary.
4.1.5— Batching tolerances frequently used are
shown in Table 4.1.5 . batching makes it possible to reduce the mixing
period. Some of the mixing water and coarser
4.2 —Mixing aggregate should lead other materials into the
4.2.1— Mixers for mass concrete must be capable mixer to prevent sticking and clogging. Mixing
of discharging low-slump concrete quickly and with times should be lengthened or shortened depending
consistent distribution of large aggregate throughout upon the results of mixer performance tests.
the batch. This is best accomplished with large tilting Criteria for these tests are found in ASTM C 94,
mixers in stationary central plants. The most Annex, Table A1.1. Mixing time is best controlled
common capacity of the mixer drum is 4 yd 3 (3 m 3) by a timing device which prevents release of the
but good results have been achieved with mixers as discharge mechanism until the mixing time has
small as 2 yd 3 (1.5 m 3) and as large as 12 yd 3 (9 m 3 elapsed.
). Truck mixers are not suited to the mixing and
4.2.3— During mixing, the batch must be closely
discharging of lowslump, large-aggregate concrete. observed to assure the desired slump. The operator
Turbine-type mixers may be used for mass concrete and inspector must be alert and attentive. Tuthill
containing 3-in. (75-mm) aggregate. (1950) has discussed effective inspection procedures
4.2.2— Specifications for mixing time range and facilities. Preferably the operator should be
from a minimum of 1 min for the first cubic yard stationed in the plant where he can see the batch in
plus 15 sec for each additional cubic yard (80 sec the mixer and be able to judge whether its slump is
for first m 3 plus 20 sec for each additional m 3) of correct. If the slump is low, perhaps due to suddenly
mixer capacity (ACI 304R and ASTM C 94) to 1 1/2 drier aggregate, he can immediately compensate with
min for the first 2 yards plus 30 sec for each a little more water and maintain the desired slump.
additional yard (1 1/2 min for the first 1 1/2 m 3 plus Lacking this arrangement to see into the mixer, he
40 sec for each additional m 3 ) of capacity (U.S. should be able to see the batch as it is discharged.
Bureau of Reclamation 1981). Blending the From this he can note any change from former
materials by ribbon feeding during batches and make subsequent water adjustments
Table 4.1.5— Typical batching tolerances accordingly. A sand moisture meter will assist in
arriving at the appropriate quantitative adjustment.
Batch weights
greater than 30 percent of less than 30 percent of 4.2.4— Continuous batching and mixing
scale capacity scale capacity (pugmill) has been used successfully in roller-
Batch ing compacted concrete for years, and has also been
Ingredient
Individual Cumulative Individual Cumulative used for traditional mass concrete with satisfactory
Cement and ± 1 percent of specified not less than r equired performance. Generally the maximum aggregate
other weight, or ± 1 percent of weight nor more than 4 size for this method is limited to 3 in. (75 mm) or
cementitious scale capacity , whichever percent over required possibly 4 in. (100 mm). ACI 207.5R and ACI
materials is greater weigh t
304R discuss continuous batching and mixing in
Water (by
more detail.
volume or ±1 Not ±1 Not
weight), recommended recommended 4.3—Placing
percent
± 3 percent of 4.3.1— Placing includes preparation of horizontal
scale capacity construction joints, transportation, handling,
or ± 3 percent placement, and consolidation of the concrete (ACI
Aggregates, of required SP-6 1963; ACI 304R; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
±2 ±1 ±2
percent cumulative
weight,
1981; Tuthill 1950; Tuthill 1953).
whichever is
less

4.3.2— Efficient and best preparation of horizontal
joint surfaces begins with the activities of topping
out the lift. The surface should be left free from
protruding rock, deep footprints, vibrator holes, and
other surface irregularities. In general, the surface
should be relatively even with a gentle slope for
drainage. This slope makes the cleanup easier. As
late as is feasible but prior to placement of the next
lift, surface film and contamination should be
removed to expose a fresh, clean mortar and
aggregate surface. Overcutting to deeply expose
aggregate is unnecessary and wasteful of good
material. Strength of bond is accomplished by
cement grains, not by protruding coarse aggregate.
Joint shear strength is determined both by this bond
and by interface friction. The friction contribution is
affected by confining pressure and coarse aggregate
interlock. Usually removal of only about 0.1 in. (a
few millimeters) of inferior material will reveal a
satisfactory surface.
the joint area and all rock clusters at batch-dump
perimeters are carefully scattered.
4.3.5— Selection of equipment for transporting
and placing of mass concrete is strongly influenced
by the maximum size of the aggregate. Concrete for
mass placements such as in dams often contains
cobbles, which are defined as coarse aggregate
particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm) and smaller than
12 in. (300 mm). The tendency of cobbles to
segregate from the mix as a result of their greater
4.3.3— The best methods of obtaining such a clean
surface are by means of sandblasting (preferably wet
sandblasting to avoid dust hazard) or high-pressure water
jet of at least 6000 psi (41.4 MPa). Operators must be on
guard to avoid harm to other personnel, to wooden
surfaces, etc., from water-blasted pieces of surface
material, which may be hurled forward with great force
and velocity. Sandblasting has the advantage that it will do
the job at any age the concrete may be, but requires
handling of sandblast sand and equipment and its removal
after use. The water-jet method leaves relatively little
debris for cleanup and removal, but may not work as
efficiently after the concrete is more than one week old.
Before and after horizontal construction joint cleanup with
sandblasting and highpressure water blasting are
illustrated in Fig. 4.3.3(a) and 4.3.3(b) , respectively.
Clean joints are essential to good bond and watertightness.
“Green cutting,” which is the early removal of the surface
mortar with an air-water jet about the time the concrete
approaches final set, is also used. However, it may not be
possible to preserve the initially clean surface until
concrete is placed upon it. The initially acceptable surface
may become dull with lime coatings or can become
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 33
inertia when in motion may dictate the use of large, 2
to 12-yd 3 (1.5 to 9-m 3) capacity buckets. Railcars,
trucks, cableways, or cranes, or some combination of
these, may be used to deliver the buckets to the point
of placement. For concrete containing coarse
aggregate 3 in. (75 mm) and larger, a bucket size of 4
to 8 yd 3 (3 to 6 m 3) is preferable, since smaller
buckets do not discharge as readily, and each
delivery is too small to work well with a high-
production placement scheme. On the other hand, the
12-yd 3 (9-m 3) bucket puts such a large pile in one
place that much of the crew's time is devoted to
vibrating for spreading instead of for consolidation.
To preclude these piles being larger than 4 yd 3 (3 m
3
) , one agency requires controllable discharge gates
in buckets carry-
contaminated to such an extent that it may be
necessary to use sandblasting or high-pressure
water jets to reclean it.
4.3.4— The clean concrete surface should
be approaching dryness and be free from
surface moisture at the time new concrete is
placed on it (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1959, 1963 , and 1966). Testing has shown
superior strength and watertightness of joints
that are dry and clean when the overlying
concrete is placed; then no water is present to
dilute and weaken the cement paste of the
plastic concrete at the construction joint. Tests
have also shown that the practice of placing
mortar on the joint ahead of the concrete is not
necessary for either strength or impermeability
of the joint (Houghton and Hall 1972). The
mortar coat, although widely used in the past,
is no longer commonly used in mass concrete
work. Equivalent results can be obtained
without the mortar if the first layer of the
207.1R-34 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

slump in layers 18 to 20 in. (460 to 510 mm) thick

placed with 4 to 8yd 3 (3 to 6-m 3 ) buckets.
Smaller diameter vibrators will produce
plastic concrete is thoroughly vibrated over ( a) satisfactory results with 3 to 4-in. (75 to 100-mm)
Sandblast treatment NMSA and less than 2-in. (50-mm) slump placed
in 12 to 15in. (300 to 380-mm) layers with smaller
( b) High-pressure water-blast treatment buckets. Shallower layers, rather than deeper
layers, give better assurance of satisfactory
Fig. 4.3.3(a) and (b)—Before and after horizontal consolidation and freedom from rock pockets at
construction joint cleanup joint lines, corners, and other form faces, as well
ing more than 4 yd 3 (3 m 3). Extra care must be taken to as within the block itself.
assure ample vibration deep in the center of these piles 4.3.9— The layer thickness should be an even
and at points of contact with concrete previously placed. fraction of the lift height or of the depth of the
Mass concrete of proper mixture proportions and low block. The layers are carried forward in a stair-
slump does not separate by settlement during such step fashion in the block by means of successive
transportation over the short distances usually involved. discharges so there will be a setback of about 5 ft
However, care must be taken to prevent segregation at (1.5 m) between the forward edges of successive
each transfer point. layers. Placement of the steps is organized so as to
4.3.6— Mass concrete may also be transported in expose a minimum of surface and to lessen
dumping rail cars and trucks and placed by use of warming of the concrete in warm weather and
conveyors. Placing mass concrete with conveyors has reduce the area affected by rain in wet weather. A
been most successful and economical when the setback greater than 5 ft (1.5 m) unnecessarily
aggregate size is 4 in. (100 mm) or less. The point of exposes cold concrete to heat gain in warm
discharge from conveyors must be managed so that weather and, in rainy weather, increases the
concrete is discharged onto fresh concrete and danger of water damage; a narrower setback will
immediately vibrated to prevent “stacking.” Placement cause concrete above it to sag when the step is
of mass concrete by conveyor is shown in Fig. 4.3.7 . vibrated to make it monolithic with the concrete
Additional information on placing concrete with placed later against that step. This stepped front
conveyors is contained in ACI 304.4R. progresses forward from one end of the block to
4.3.7— Large building foundations and other very large the other until the form is filled and the lift
monolithic concrete structures are mass concrete. placement is completed.
Availability and job conditions may preclude the use of
preferable aggregates larger than 1 1/2 in. (37.5 mm) or
specialized placement equipment. Concrete in such
structures may be placed with more conventional
equipment such as smaller crane buckets, concrete pumps,
or conveyors. The selection of placing equipment should
be predicated upon its ability to successfully place
concrete which has been proportioned for mass concrete
considerations as defined in Section 2.7 , which
emphasizes the reduction of heat evolution. It is important
that placing capacity be great enough to avoid cold joints
and undesirable exposure to extremes of heat and cold at
lift surfaces. This is usually accomplished by utilizing
many pieces of placing equipment. Additional information
on pumping of concrete is contained in ACI 304.2R.
4.3.8— Mass concrete is best placed in successive
layers. The maximum thickness of the layer depends
upon the ability of the vibrators to properly consolidate
the concrete.
Six-in. (150-mm) diameter vibrators produce satisfactory
results with 4 to 6-in. (100 to 150-mm) nominal maximum
size aggregate (NMSA) and less than 1 1/2 in. (40-mm)

4.3.10— Vibration is the key to the successful
placement of mass concrete, particularly when the
concrete is low slump and contains large aggregate
(Tuthill 1953). Ineffectual equipment is more costly to the
builder because of a slower placing rate and the hazard of
poor consolidation. Vibration must be systematic and
should thoroughly cover and deeply penetrate each layer.
Fig. 4.3.7—Placement of mass concrete by conveyor belt
Particular attention must be paid to ensure full vibration
where the perimeters of two discharges join, since the
outer edge of the first batch is not vibrated until the next
batch is placed against it. The two discharges can then be
vibrated monolithically together without causing either
edge to flow downward. Proper vibration of large
aggregate mass concrete is shown in Fig. 4.3.10 . To
insure proper consolidation, the vibrators should penetrate
the lower layer for several inches (50 to 100 mm) and be
held in a vertical position and should remain in a vertical
position at each penetration during vibration. To prevent
imperfections along lift lines and layer lines at form faces,
these areas should be systematically deeply revibrated as
each layer advances from the starting form, along each of
the side forms, to the other end form. Any visible clusters
of separated coarse aggregate should be scattered on the
new concrete before covering with additional concrete.
Vibration is unlikely to fill and solidify unseparated
aggregate clusters with mortar. During consolidation the
vibrators should remain at each penetration point until
large air bubbles have ceased to rise and escape from the
concrete. The average time for one vibrator to fully
consolidate a cubic yard ( 3/4 m 3) of concrete may be as
much as one minute (80 sec for 1 m 3). Over-vibration of
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 35
low slump mass concrete is unlikely. To simplify
cleanup operations, the top of the uppermost layer
should be leveled and made reasonably even by
means of vibration. Holes from previous vibrator
insertions should be closed. Large aggregate
should be almost completely embedded and
boards should be laid on the surface in sufficient
number to prevent deep footprints. Ample and
effective vibration equipment must be available
and in use during the placement of mass concrete.
Anything less should not be tolerated. Specific
recommendations for mass concrete vibration are
contained in ACI 309R.
4.4 —Curing
4.4.1— Mass concrete is best cured with
water, which provides additional cooling
benefit in warm weather. In cold weather,
little curing is needed beyond the moisture
provided to prevent the concrete from drying
during its initial protection from freezing.
However, the concrete should not be
saturated when it is exposed to freezing. In
above-freezing weather when moisture is
likely to be lost from the concrete surfaces,
mass concrete should be water cured for at
least 14 days or up to twice this time if
pozzolan is used as one of the cementitious
materials. Except when insulation is required
in cold weather, surfaces of horizontal
207.1R-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
construction joints should be kept moist until the
wetting will no longer provide beneficial cooling.
Curing should be stopped long enough to assure that
the joint surface is free of water but still damp before
new concrete is placed. The use of a liquid-
membrane curing compound is not the best method
of curing mass concrete, but in some instances it is
the most practical. If used on construction joints, it
must be completely removed by sandblasting or
waterblasting to prevent reduction or loss of bond.
4.5—Forms
4.5.1— Forms for mass concrete have the same basic
requirement for strength, mortar-tightness, accuracy of
posiFig. 4.3.10—Consolidation of low slump mass
concrete placed by bucket tion, and generally good surface
condition as those described in Hurd (1989). Formwork
for mass concrete may differ somewhat from other
formwork because of the comparatively low height
normally required for each lift. There may be some
increase of form pressures due to the use of low
temperature concrete and the impact of dumping large
buckets of concrete near the forms, despite the relieving
effect of the generally low slump of mass concrete. Form
pressures depend upon the methods used and the care
exercised in placing concrete adjacent to the form. For this
reason, it is recommended that 100 percent of equivalent
hydrostatic pressure plus 25 percent for impact be used for
design of mass concrete forms.
4.5.2— Form ties connected to standard anchors in the
previous lift and braces have long been used. Many large
jobs are now equipped with forms supported by
cantilevered strongbacks anchored firmly into the lift
below. Additional support of cantilevered forms may be
provided by form ties, particularly when the concrete is
low in early strength. Cantilevered forms are raised by
hydraulic, air, or electric jacking systems. Care is
necessary to avoid spalling concrete around the
anchor bolts in the low-early-strength concrete of
the lift being stripped of forms, since these bolts
will be used to provide horizontal restraint in the
next form setup. High-lift, mass concrete
formwork is comparable to that used for standard
structural concrete work except that ties may be 20
to 40 ft (6 to 12 m) long across the lift rather than
20 to 40 in. (0.5 to 1.0 m). To facilitate placement
by bucket, widely spaced largediameter, high-
tensile-strength ties are required to permit passage
of the concrete buckets.
4.5.3— Beveled grade strips and 1-in. (25-
mm)-or-larger triangular toe fillets can be used to
mask offsets that sometimes occur at horizontal
joint lines. This will generally dress up and
improve appearance of formed surfaces. When
used at the top and bottom of the forms, this can
create an effective and pleasing groove. A 1-in.
(25-mm)-or-larger chamfer should also be used in
the corners of the forms at the upstream and
downstream ends of construction joints for the
sake of appearance and to prevent chipping of the
edges. Sharp corners of the block otherwise are
often damaged and cannot be effectively repaired.
Such chamfers also prevent pinching and spalling
of joint edges caused by high surface
temperatures.
4.5.4— Sloping forms, when used, often extend
over the construction joint to the extent that it is
difficult to position buckets close enough to place
and adequately consolidate the concrete. Such
forms may be hinged so the top half can be held in
a vertical position until concrete is placed up to the
hinged elevation. The top half is then lowered into
position and concrete placement continued.
Sloping forms are subject to less outward pressure,
but uplift should be considered in their anchorage.
4.5.5— A common forming problem for
spillway sections of gravity dams is
encountered in the sloping and the curved
portions of the crest and the bucket. These are
the slopes that range from horizontal to about
1.5 to 1.0 vertical at the transition where regular
fixed forms can be used. The curved or sloped
surfaces are effectively shaped and the concrete
thoroughly consolidated by means of temporary
holding forms, rather than using screed guides
and strikeoff. With no strikeoff involved, the
regular mass concrete face mix is as readily
used as one with small aggregate, unless a
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 37

different concrete mix is required on the spillway face multiple lifts just above foundations to 5 ft (1.5 m)
for durability reasons. The desired shape is achieved and 7 1/2 ft (2.3 m) in many gravity dams; and to
with strong, solidly anchored ribs between which rows 10 ft (3 m) or more in thin arch dams, piers, and
of form panels are placed row-on-row upward as the lift abutments.
space is filled, and removed starting row-on-row at the
bottom when the concrete will no longer bulge out of 4.6.3— High-lift mass concrete construction
shape but is still responsive to finishing operations was adopted by some authorities, particularly in
(Tuthill 1967). Considerable time and labor are saved Canada during the 1950 s and 1960s, in an
by this method and it enables the concrete to be well attempt to reduce potential leak paths and
consolidated by vibration and very accurately shaped minimize cracking in dams built in cold and even
and finished. subzero weather. The procedure is no longer in
common usage. In its extreme form, the method
provides for continuous placing of lifts up to 50
4.6—Height of lifts and time intervals between ft (15 m) high using wood or insulated forms
lifts with housings and steam heat. Under these
4.6.1— From the standpoint of construction, the higher placing conditions the adiabatic temperature rise
the lift the fewer the construction joints; with 7.5-ft (2.3- of the concrete and the maximum temperature
m) lifts there are only two-thirds as many joints as when drop to low stable temperatures are
5-ft (1.5-m) lifts are used. With regard to hardened approximately equal. For control of cracking
concrete temperature histories in cold weather, the most design criteria restrict this maximum drop
shallower the lift the higher the percentage of the total to 25 to 35 F (14 to 19 C). Design requirements
heat of hydration that will escape before the next lift is can be met under these conditions by controlling,
placed. In hot weather with lean mixes and precooling, through mixture proportioning, the adiabatic rise
the opposite may be true. When lift thickness is increased to these levels (Klein, Pirtz, and Adams 1963).
above 10 ft (3 m), heat losses from the upper surface With precooled 50 F (10 C) mass concrete of low
become a decreasing percentage of the total heat cement content in a warm climate, ambient heat
generated within the full depth of the lift. Hence, with removes the advantage of shallower lifts and is
very deep lifts, the internal temperature reached by the the reason 7 1/ 2- ft (2.3-m) or even 10-ft (3-m)
concrete is not significantly influenced by the length of lifts have been permitted by specifications on
time interval between lifts. In such extreme cases, several dam projects in recent years.
continuous placing in high lifts may be preferable,
especially as a means of minimizing joint cleanup, to
prevent cracking, or to permit the use of slipforms, e.g., 4.7 —Cooling and temperature control
for massive piers.
In large blocks, such as in dam construction, the loss of
heat from a lift surface in cold weather does not justify
extended exposure. A long exposure of lift surfaces to
changes in ambient temperature may initiate cracking.
This can defeat an otherwise successful crack-prevention
program. Where thermal-control crack-prevention
procedures are being used, the best construction schedule
consists of regular placement on each block, at the shortest
time interval, with the least practical height differential
between adjacent blocks. This is further discussed in
Chapter 5 .
4.6.2— Control of temperature rise is a design function.
Therefore lift heights and placing frequency should be
shown on drawings and in specifications. (Refer to
Chapter 5) . Influencing factors are size and type of
massive structure, concrete properties and cement content,
prevailing climate during construction and in service,
construction schedule and other specified temperature
controls. Heights of lifts range from 2 1/2 ft (0.75 m) for
207.1R-38 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

4.7.1— Currently it is common practice to

precool mass concrete before placement.
Efficient equipment is now available to produce
such concrete at temperatures less than 45 F (7
C) in practically any summer weather. The
simple expedient of using finely chipped ice
instead of mixing water and shading damp (but
not wet) aggregate will reduce the concrete
placing temperature to a value approaching 50 F
(10 C) in moderately warm weather. To permit
maximum use of ice in place of mixing water,
fine aggregate should be drained to a water
content of not more than 5 percent. Steel
aggregate storage bins and aggregate piles should

Fig. 4.7.1(a)—Metal cover over drained fine aggregate stock pile to reduce heat absorption
be shaded as illustrated in Fig. 4.7.1(a) .
Aggregates can be cooled by evaporation through
vacuum, by inundation in cold water, by cold air
circulation (Roberts 1951; ACI 305R), or by
liquid nitrogen. Fig. 4.7.1(b) shows the cooling
of coarse aggregate by spraying and inundation
with chilled water immediately prior to placing in
the batch plant bins.
To obtain full advantage of the low placing
temperature, the concrete should be protected from
higher ambient temperature conditions during the
first few weeks after placement to reduce
temperature rise in the concrete and to reduce the
thermal differential tending to crack the surface
later when much colder ambient conditions may
occur. During placement in warm weather,

absorption of heat by cold concrete can be minimized by
placing at night, by managing placement so that minimum
areas are exposed, and, if placement must be done in the
sun, by fog spraying the work area. Much can be done
during the curing period to prevent heating and to remove
heat from the hardening concrete, including use of steel
forms, shading, and water curing.
Embedded pipe cooling can be used to control the rise
in concrete temperature in restrained zones near
foundations when maximum temperatures cannot be
limited by other, less expensive cooling measures.
Embedded pipe cooling is also normally required to
assure at least the minimum opening of contraction joints
needed when in dams grouting of joints is necessary.
Aggregate and concrete precooling, insulation,
protection from high ambient temperature, and
postcooling considerations and recommendations are
provided in ACI 207.4R.
4.8—Grouting contraction joints
4.8.1— With increasingly effective use of cold concrete
as placed, and especially when narrow shrinkage slots are
left and later filled with cold concrete, some may question
whether contraction joint grouting serves much purpose
for high thin-arch dams, since a little downstream
cantilever moveFig. 4.7.1(b)—Cooling coarse aggregate
by chilled water spray and inundation
ment will bring the joints into tight contact. Nevertheless,
grouting relieves later arch and cantilever stresses by
distributing them more evenly and it remains general
practice to grout contraction joints in such dams.
4.8.2— In recent decades the transverse contraction
joints in most gravity dams have not been grouted. It was
considered that an upstream waterstop backed up by a
vertical drain would prevent visible leakage; that grout
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 39
filling was unnecessary because there was no
transverse stress; and that money would be saved.
However, in recent years the appearance of some
transverse cracks, generally parallel to the
contraction joints, has prompted reconsideration of
the grouting of contraction joints in gravity dams.
It has been suggested that intermediate cracks can
start on the upstream face and be propagated
farther into the dam, and sometimes through it,
due to the cold temperature and high pressure of
deep reservoir water. Its coldness cools the interior
concrete at the crack and further opens it.
Transverse cracks should be repaired prior to
reservoir filling if at all possible. It has been
further suggested that if the transverse joints are
filled with grout, a surface crack opening
somewhere on the upstream face would have
effective resistance against propagation and
further opening.
4. 8.3— Where there is reason to grout
contraction joints, the program of precooling
and postcooling should be arranged to
provide a joint opening of at least 0.04 in. (1
mm) to assure complete filling with grout
even though, under special test conditions,
grout may penetrate much narrower
openings. The grouting system can be
designed in such a way as to allow either just
one or two grouting operations (when the
width of the opening is near its maximum), or
several operations, when the first joint filling
has to be performed before the maximum
opening is reached and there is no provision
for postcooling. The U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation (1976) Sections 8-9 and 810 has
described the grouting systems and grouting
operations it uses. Silveira, Carvalho,
Paterno, and Kuperman (1982) have
described a grouting system which employs
packers to permit reuse of the piping system.
The use of embedded instrumentation
across the joint is the only way to
determine with precision the magnitude of
the joint opening (Carlson 1979; Silveira,
Carvalho, Paterno, and Kuperman 1982).
CHAPTER 5—BEHAVIOR
5.1—Thermal stresses and cracking *
5. 1.1— A most important
characteristic of mass concrete that
differentiates its behavior from that of
structural concrete is its thermal behavior.
207.1R-40 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
The generally large size of mass-concrete structures
creates the potential for significant temperature
differentials between the interior and the outside
surface of the structure. The accompanying volume-
change differentials and restraint result in tensile
strains and stresses that may cause cracking
detrimental to the structural design. Because concrete
has a low thermal conductivity, heat generated within
a massive structure can escape only very slowly
unless aided artificially. Heat escapes from a body
inversely as the square of its least dimension. In
ordinary structural construction most of the heat
generated by the hydrating cement is rapidly
dissipated and only slight temperature differences
develop. For example, a concrete wall 6 in. (150 mm)
thick can become thermally stable in about 1 1/2 hr. A
5-ft (1.5-m) thick wall would require a week to reach
a comparable condition. A 50-ft (15-m) thick wall,
which could represent the thickness of an arch dam,
would require two years. A 500-ft (152-m) thick
dam, such as Hoover, Shasta, or Grand Coulee,
would take some 200 years to achieve the same
degree of thermal stability. Temperature
*.For additional information see Klein, Pirtz, and Adams 1963;
Rawhouser 1945; Waugh and Rhodes 1959; U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation 1949; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981; and Ross and
Bray 1949.
differentials never become large in thin structures and,
therefore, thin structures are relatively free from thermal
cracking. In contrast, as thickness increases, the
uncontrolled interior temperature rise in mass concrete
becomes almost adiabatic and this creates the potential
for large temperature differentials which, if not
accommodated, can impair structural integrity.
5.1.2— In mass concrete, thermal strains and stresses
are developed in two ways: from the dissipation of the
heat of cement hydration and from periodic cycles of
ambient temperature. Since all cements, as they hydrate,
cause concrete to heat up to some degree, it is fortunate
that the strength and the corresponding cement
requirements for mass concrete are usually much less than
those for general concrete work; hence, temperature rise is
also less. Some reduction in temperature rise can be
achieved by (1) the use of minimal cement contents, (2)
the partial substitution of pozzolans for cement, and (3)
the use of special types of cement with lower or delayed
heats of hydration. When the potential temperature rise of
a concrete mixture has been reduced to its practical
minimum, the temperature drop that causes tensile stress
and cracking can be reduced to zero if the initial
temperature of the concrete is set below the final stable
temperature of the structure by the amount of the potential
temperature rise. Theoretically this is possible;
however, it is not generally practical except in hot
climates. Economy in construction can be gained
if the initial temperature is set slightly above this
value so that a slight temperature drop is allowed,
such that the tensile stresses built up during this
temperature drop are less than the tensile strength
of the concrete at that time ( or such that the
tensile strains are less than the tensile strain
capacity of the concrete at that time).
5.1.3— Previous chapters describe methods
for reducing the initial temperature of concrete,
and the benefits of placing cold concrete. It can
be seen that if the maximum temperature of the
concrete is appreciably above that of the final
stable temperature of the mass, volume changes
in massive structures will take place
continuously for centuries. Since this is
intolerable in some structures that depend on
fast construction for economy, this excess heat
must be removed artificially. The usual method
is by circulating a cooling medium in embedded
pipes ( see 4.7.1 ).
5.1.4— The behavior of exposed surfaces of
concrete is greatly affected by daily and annual
cycles of ambient temperature (ACI 305R). At
the surface the temperature of concrete responds
almost completely to daily variations in air
temperature, while at a depth of 2 ft (0.6 m)
from the surface, the concrete is affected by only
10 percent of the daily surface temperature
variation. The annual ambient temperature cycle
affects the concrete at much greater depths. Ten
percent of the annual variation in temperature is
effective 25 ft (7.6 m) from the surface. It can
be seen that the surface is subjected to rather
severe tensile strains and stresses caused by
temperature changes. Since the interior reacts so
much more slowly than the surface, it is as
though the surface were completely restrained
by the interior concrete. Thus in a location
where the surface temperature varies annually
by 100 F (59 C) and the concrete is assumed to
have a modulus of elasticity of 3.0 x 10 6 psi (2.1
x 10 4 MPa) before cracking, the surfaces could
be subjected to stresses about 1000 psi (7 MPa)
above and below the average. While concrete
can quite easily sustain 1000 psi (7 MPa) in
compression, its tensile strength is much lower,
and cracking would be inevitable. However,
because of the rapid deterioration of the
temperature differential with distance from the
surface, the variation in stress is likewise

dissipated rapidly, with the result that surface cracking
due to ambient temperature changes originates in and
usually is confined to a relatively shallow region at and
near the surface. In a massive structure such as a dam,
where a regular and orderly construction schedule is
being followed, the surface concrete, although
superficially cracked by ambient temperature cycles, can
protect the structural integrity of the concrete below it.
Where there is an interruption to the orderly
construction schedule and time intervals between lifts
become overly extended, lift surface cracking may
become deep and require treatment to prevent
propagation into subsequent placements.
5.1.5— The above statements about the effect of
variations in surface temperature on cracking explain
why form stripping at times of extreme contrast
between internal and ambient temperatures will
inevitably result in surface cracking. This
phenomenon has been termed “thermal shock” and
occurs when forms that act as insulators are removed
on an extremely cold day. Modern steel forms that
allow the surface temperature of the concrete to more
nearly correspond to that of the air reduce this
differential temperature somewhat. However, they are
open to the objection that the thermal shock may be
felt from low temperatures at an early age through the
form into the concrete. Either a dead airspace or
insulation should be provided to protect concrete
surfaces where steel forms are used in cold weather.
Insulation requirements and the age for form stripping
to avoid cracking the surface depend on the air
temperature and the strength of the concrete.
Requirements for protection in freezing weather are
given in ACI 306R.
5.1.6— Any change in temperature in a partially
restrained block will cause a corresponding change in
stress (Rawhouser 1945). At any point within a dam,
the total thermal stress is the sum of the structural
stress produced by the average temperature change
within the entire volume and the stress caused by the
difference between the average temperature and the
point temperature. For example, one percent of the
annual surface temperature will be felt at a depth 50
ft (15 m) from the surface, thus producing a volume
and stress change throughout the block. In designing
an arch dam, the total temperature distribution should
be considered.
5.2—Volume change
5.2.1— The tables of Chapter 3 list properties affecting
volume change for a number of dams. It will be noted
from Table 3.5.1 that the values for drying shrinkage,
autogenous volume change, and permeability are results of
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 41
tests on quite small specimens and, except for the
permeability specimens, none contained mass
concrete. However, the values given can be used
as a guide to the actual behavior of mass concrete
in service. First, it can be seen that the
permeability of these low-cement-content
mixtures is very small, a fraction
of a foot per year. As a working guide to the
behavior of concrete, it can be considered that
concrete gives up water with great reluctance,
but accepts it at a free surface fairly easily. Thus,
at a surface exposed to air, the surface is quite
capable of drying out, while the concrete farther
from the surface has lost little, if any, of its
moisture content (Carlson 1937).
Previous paragraphs have discussed
temperature differential as a cause of surface
cracking. Another common cause of surface
cracking is drying at the surface. It can be seen
from Table 3.5.1 that the concrete exhibiting
minimum drying shrinkage has a volume change
expressed in single dimension shrinkage of
roughly 300 millionths. If one considers a drying
surface concrete completely restrained by a
fully-saturated interior concrete, it will be seen
that tensile stresses in the surface concrete can
exceed 1000 psi (7 MPa). Concrete cannot
withstand such a tensile stress, and the result is
an extensive pattern of surface cracking. Exactly
as in the case of thermal cracking at the surface,
these cracks will extend inward a short distance
and disappear in the region of moisture
equilibrium. ACI 209R discusses further the
prediction of shrinkage in concrete.
5.2.2— Whenever a flat surface of concrete is
being finished as in a dam roadway, a spillway
apron surface, or a power plant floor, care must
be taken to avoid the conditions causing what is
known as “plastic shrinkage cracks.” This
cracking occurs under extreme drying
conditions, when water evaporates from the
upper surface of the unhardened concrete faster
than it reaches the surface by water gain. Even
as the concrete is setting, wide cracks appear,
often as parallel tears, across the entire finished
surface. These can be prevented in extreme
drying weather by shading the area of finishing
operations, by providing barriers against the
movement of the air, by fog spraying, by surface
sealing, or by any other means available to
prevent rapid surface moisture evaporation.
5.3 —Heat generation
207.1R-42 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
5.3.1— Since one of the main problems of mass
concrete construction is the necessity for controlling
the heat entrapped within it as the cement hydrates, a
short statement will be given here of the thermal
properties and mathematical relationships that enable
the engineer to estimate rapidly the degree of
temperature control needed for a particular application.
Both the rate and the total adiabatic temperature rise
differ among the various types of cement. Fig. 5.3.1 shows
adiabatic temperature rise curves for mass concretes
containing 376 lb/yd 3 (223 kg/m 3) of various types of
cement with a 4-1/2- in. (114 mm) maximum size
aggregate. Values shown are averaged from a number of
tests; individual cements of the same type will vary
considerably from the average for that type. As might be
expected, high-early-strength cement, Type III, is the
fastest heat generator and gives the highest adiabatic
temperature rise. Type IV, or low-heat cement, is not only
the slowest heat generator, but gives the lowest total
temperature rise. Since the cement is the active heat
producer in a concrete mix, the temperature rise of
concretes with cement contents differing from 376 lb/yd 3
(223 kg/m 3 ) can be estimated closely by multiplying the
values
Fig. 5.3.1—Temperature rise of mass concrete
shown on the curves by a factor representing the
proportion of cement.
5.3.2— When a portion of the cement is replaced by
a pozzolan, the temperature rise curves are greatly
modified, particularly in the early ages. While the
effects of pozzolans differ greatly, depending
on the composition and fineness of the
pozzolan and cement used in combination, a
rule of thumb that has worked fairly well on
preliminary computations has been to assume
that pozzolan produces only about 50 percent
as much heat as the cement that it replaces.
5.3.3— In general, chemical admixtures
affect heat generation of concrete only during
the first few hours after mixing and can be
neglected in preliminary computations.
However, in studies involving millions of
cubic yards of concrete, as in a dam, the
above remarks should be applied only to
preliminary computations, and the adiabatic
temperature rise should be determined for the
exact mixture to be used in the mass concrete
starting at the proposed placing temperature.
5.3.4— The characteristic that determines the
relative ability of heat to flow through a
particular concrete is its thermal diffusivity
which is defined as:
2 K
h = -------
Cρ
where h = diffusivity, ft2/hr (m 2/hr)
2
K = conductivity, Btu/ft ⋅hr⋅F (kJ/m-
hr-C) C = specific heat, Btu/lb ⋅F
(kJ/kg-C) ρ = density of the concrete,
lb/ft 3 (kg/m 3)
The value of diffusivity is largely affected by
the rock type used in the concrete. Table 5.3.4
shows diffusivities for concrete made with
different rock types. The higher the value of
diffusivity, the more readily heat will move
through the concrete. If the rock type is not
known, an average value of diffusivity can be
taken as 1.00 ft 2/day (0.093 m 2 /day) or 0.042 ft
2
/hr (3.9 x 10 -3 m 2/hr), although as can be seen
from Table 5.3.4, the value of diffusivity can vary
substantially from this average value.
5.3.5— Mass concrete can be affected by
heat dissipated to or absorbed from its
surroundings (Burks 1947). If the external
temperature variation can be considered to be
expressed as a sine wave, and if, as in a dam,
the body of concrete is sufficiently thick so
that the internal temperature variation is
negligible compared to that of the exposed

face, the range of temperature variation any distance
in from the surface can be computed from
R 2
–x π ⁄ h γ x
------
=eR
o When the body to be analyzed can be readily
where
R x = temperature range at distance x from
surface
R o = temperature range at the surface ( x = 0) e =
base of natural logarithms (= 2.718) x =
distance from surface, ft (m ) h2 = diffusivity, ft2/hr
(m 2/hr) as defined in 5.3.4 γ = period of the cycle
of temperature variation in days
For concrete with a diffusivity of 1 ft 2/day (0.093 m
2
/day), or 0.042 ft 2/hr (3.9 x 10 -3 m 2/hr) the penetration of
the daily and the annual temperature cycles is as shown in
Fig. 5.3.5 .
MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 43
5.4 —Heat dissipation studies
5.4.1— Studies of the dissipation of heat
from bodies of mass concrete can be
accomplished by the use of charts and graphs,
by hand computation, or with finite element
computer programs.
approximated by a known geometrical shape,
charts are available for the direct determination of
heat losses. For instance, Fig. 5.4.1 can be used to
determine the loss of heat in hollow and solid
cylinders, slabs with one or two faces exposed, or
solid spheres. The application of the values found
on these graphs can easily be made to a wide
variety of problems such as the cooling of dams or
thick slabs of concrete, the cooling of concrete
aggregates, artificial cooling of mass concrete by
use of embedded pipes, and the cooling of bridge
piers. The following five examples are typical
concrete cooling problems which can be solved by
Table 5.3.4— Diffusivity and rock type
207.1R-44 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Basalt 0.77 (0.072) 0.032 (3.0)

use of Fig. 5.4.1 . For simplicity of presentation

the examples are in inch-pound units only;
Appendix A presents the examples worked in SI
(metric) units. In the examples below and Fig.
5.4.1, the following notation is followed:

t = time, days
h = diffusivity, ft per day (m 2 /day) D
2 2

= thickness of concrete section, ft (m) θo =

initial temperature difference between
concrete and ambient material, F (C) θm
= final temperature difference between
concrete and ambient material, F (C)

Example 1 (See Appendix A for examples worked in

SI units)
At a certain elevation an arch dam is 70 ft thick and has a mean temperature of 100 F. If exposed to air at 65
F, how long will it take to cool to 70 F? Assume h2 = 1.20 ft2 /day.
Initial temperature difference, θo = 100 - 65 = 35 F
θ
Final temperature difference, m = 70 - 65 = 5 F The portion of the original heat remaining is

θm 5
----- - = ----- - = 0.14 2
Fig. 5.3.5—Temperature variation with depth θo 35

From Fig. 5.4.1 , using the slab curve

2
ht
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

0
.
1
8

D
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 45

T
h
e
n
t = ----------------0.18 D 2- = 0.1--------------------8 (7 0
)-2- = 74 0 days h 2 1.2 0

Example 2
A mass concrete bridge pier has a horizontal
cross section of 25 x 50 ft, and is at a mean
temperature of 80 F. Determine the mean
temperature at various times up to 200 days if the
pier is exposed to water at 40 F and if the
diffusivity is 0.90 ft2/day. For a prismatic body
such as this pier, where heat is moving towards
each of four pier faces, the part of original heat
remaining may be computed by finding the part
remaining in two infinite slabs of respective
thickness equal to the two horizontal dimensions
of the pier, and multiplying the two quantities so
obtained to get the total heat remaining in the pier.
For this two-dimensional use, it is better to find
for various times the heat losses associated with
each direction and then combine them to find the
total heat loss of the pier.
Initial temperature difference, θo = 80
- 40 = 40 F For the 25-ft dimension
2
ht 0.90 t
------- = ---------- = 0.00144 t
D2 (25 )2

and for the 50-ft dimension

2
h t 0.90 t
------ - = ---------- - = 0.00036 t
D2 (50 )2

Then calculate numerical values of 0.00144 t and 0.00036 t for times from 10 to 200 days. See Table
5.4.1 . These values can be used with Fig. 5.4.1 to obtain the θm /θo ratios for both
Fig. 5.4.1—Heat loss from solid bodies 25- ft and 50-ft slabs. The product of these ratios indicates the
Table 5.4.1— Calculations for Example 2
 h-----22t-  h-----22t-
= =
  θ-----m-
Time, D 25 D 50
θ-----m- = θ-----m- = = Temperature,
days 0.00144 t 0.00036 t θ o 2 5 θo 50  θo pier θm F
10 0.0144 0.0036 0.73 0.87 0.64 26 66
20 0.0288 0.0072 0.61 0.80 0.49 20 60
30 0.0432 0.0108 0.53 0.77 0.41 16 56
40 0.0576 0.0144 0.46 0.73 0.34 14 54
60 0.0864 0.0216 0.35 0.67 0.23 9 49
100 0.144 0.036 0.19 0.57 0.11 4 44
200 0.288 0.072 0.05 0.40 0.02 1 41
207.1R-46 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

heat remaining in the pier, and can be used to ------ = ------ =

0.11 θo
calculate the final temperature difference θm . The 45
values for θm are added to the temperature of the
From Fig. 5.4.1 , for a solid cylinder,
surrounding water to obtain mean pier temperatures at
various times up to 200 days as shown on Table 5.4.1 2
ht
. ------- = 0.08 0
2
D
Example 3 (0.08 0 )(50 )2 days
Granite aggregate at an initial temperature of 90 t = ------------------------------- = 17 0
1.20
F is to be precooled in circulating 35 F water for
use in mass concrete. The largest particles can be Example 5
approximated as 6-in.-diameter spheres. How long
must the aggregate be immersed to bring its mean A closure block of concrete initially at 105 F is
temperature to 40 F? to be cooled to 45 F to provide a joint opening of
0.025 in. prior to grouting contraction joints. How
For granite, h 2 = 1.03 ft 2 /day
long will it take to cool the mass by circulating
θ water at 38 F through cooling pipes spaced 4 ft 6
Initial temperature difference, = 90 - 35 = 55 F
o
in. horizontally and 5 ft 0 in. vertically. Assume
Final temperature difference, θm = 40 - 35 = 5 F concrete to be made with granite aggregate having
a diffusivity of 1.03 ft2/day.
θm 5
------ = ------ = Cross section handled by each pipe is (4.5)(5.0) = 22 ft
2
0.09 θo .
55
The diameter of an equivalent cylinder can be
From Fig. 5.4.1 , for θm /θo = 0.09, calculated from 22 = π D 2/4
2 2
ht
2
(4 )(2 2 )
------- = 0.05 0 D =
2 -------------
D ------ = 2 8
ft
π
(0.05 0 )(6 ⁄ 12 ) 2
days
t = -------------------------------------= 0.01 2 D = 5.3 ft
1.03
Initial temperature θo = 105 - 38 =
or approximately 17 min. difference, 67 F
Final temperature θm = 45 - 38 = 7
Example 4 difference, F
A 50-ft diameter circular tunnel is to be plugged
with mass concrete with a diffusivity of 1.20 ft
2
/day. The maximum mean temperature in the θ
7
concrete is 110 F, and the surrounding rock is at -----m- = ----- - = 0.10
θo 67
65 F.
Without artificial cooling, how long will it take Referring to Fig. 5.4.1 and using the curve for
for the temperature in the plug to reach 70 F, the hollow cylinder (since cooling is from within
assuming the rock remains at 65 F? cross section), for the calculated value of θm /θo
Initial temperature difference, θo = 110 - 65 =
h 2
45 F Final temperature difference, θm = t
70 - 65 = 5 F ----
---
=
1.0
2
θm 5
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 47

(1.

0 )

(28

t = ---------------------- =
27 days 1.03

About the same results can be achieved with

greater economy if the natural cold water of the
river is used for part of the cooling. Control of the
rate of cooling must be exercised to prevent
thermal shock, and in many cases postcooling is
conducted in two stages.
Assume river water is available at 60 F, cool
to 68 F, and then switch to refrigerated water at
38 F. How much time will be taken in each
operation, and what is the total cooling time?
θ θ
For initial cooling, o = 105 – 60 = 45 F and m = 68 –
60
= 8F

θm 8
------ = ------
= 0.18 θo
45
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Key to
Q through h2 to Diagram
axis, pivot throughl to edge of
grid and go horizontally.
2
S through h to axis, pivot through t to edge of
grid and go vertically.
At intersectionof horizontalandvertical lines
read θ m /θ o
Based on use of 1 in. O.D.
Vertical spacing of pipes = 5 ft - 0 in.
tubing
EXAMPLE
SHOWN:
FO Q = 3 gal/min
R h2 = 0. ft 2 /day
l = 160 6 ft
s = 4. 0 ft
t = 3 0 days
RE θm /θ o = 0.48
0
AD
3 2 2 2 2
Note: 1.00 mm = 3.28 ft; 1.00 m/min = 264 U.S. liquid gal/min; 1.00 m /hr = 10.8 ft /hr; 1.00 m /day = 10.8 ft /
day
207.1R- 34 θ θ
Using Fig. 5.4.2(a), one can determine m / o for a given
system of 1 in. OD cooling tubes embedded in concrete of
known diffusivity. This use is illustrated on the figure.
From Fig. 5.4.1 , for a hollow cylinder Fig. 5.4.2(a) can also be used to determine how many
days of cooling flow will be required to achieve a desired
2
ht θm /θo . Using the figure to solve Example 5 of Section
------- = 5.4.2, for which it is given that
0.75 D 2
Q = 5 gal/min, h 2
Therefore = 1.03 ft 2/day, S
= 4.5 ft, and
(0.7 5 )(2 8 ) days θm /θo = (45 - 38) ÷ (105 - 38) = 0.104
t = ------------------------- = 2 0
1.0 3 and assuming that tube length is 200 ft and cooling
water flow in each tube is 5 gal/min, one can read that
θ θ 35 days will be required to accomplish the required
For final cooling, o = 68 - 38 = 30 F and m = 45 - 38 =
temperature reduction. If tube length is 600 ft, 40 days
7F will be required, according to Fig. 5.4.2(a).
θm 7
------ = ------ = 0.23 The difference in results between the method using Fig.
θo 3 0
5.4.1 and that using Fig. 5.4.2 is due to the fact that the
h 2 t ------- latter takes into account the variation in temperature of the
= 0.67 cooling water along the pipe as it extracts heat from the
2
D concrete.
5.4.3— All the foregoing methods are only
(0.6 7 )(2 8 ) approximations; in the usual case hydration and
t = ------------------------- = 1 8 cooling go on simultaneously. For this more general
days 1.0 3 case in which it is necessary to determine actual
temperature gradients, Schmidt’s meth-
Total time is 20 + 18 = 38 days, but of this, the time for
using refrigeration has been cut by one-third. Fig. 5.4.2(a)—Ratio of final mean temperature difference
to initial temperature difference θm /θo, F/F (C/C)
5.4.2— For graphical solutions, Figs. 5.4.2(a), 5.4.2(b)
(Rawhouser 1945)
and 5.4.2(c) can be used for the determination of all the
characteristics of an artificial cooling system for mass
concrete. Fig. 5.4.2(a) can be used for the determination of
the actual cooling accomplished in a given number of days
with a given pipe spacing and flow of coolant. Fig. 5.4.2(b)
gives more detail on the cooling of the mass concrete by
determining the temperature at various points along the
length of the cooling coil. Fig. 5.4.2(a) can be used to
determine the temperature rise of the coolant in the pipe.
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 49
3
Note: 1.00 mm = 3.28 ft; 1.00 m /min = 264 U.S. liquid

Key to
2
Q Diagram
through h to axis, pivot throughl to edge of grid
go horizontally. and
2
S through h to axis, pivot through t to edge of grid and
go vertically.
At intersection of horizontal and vertical lines
read θm l /θo
Based on use of 1 in. O.D.
Vertical
tubing spacing of pipes = 5 ft - 0 in.
EXAMPLE
SHOWN:
F Q = 3
O h2 = 0.gal/minft 2/
R l = 1606 ft day
s = 4. 0 ft
t = 3 0
RE θm l /θ o =00.66
days
AD
2
gal/min; 1.00 m /hr = 10.8 ft 2/hr; 1.00 m 2/day = 10.8 ft 2/day

Fig. 5.4.2(b)—Ratio of final mean temperature difference

at a given length from the inlet to initial temperature
difference θm /θo,
F/F (C/C)

3
Note: 1.00 mm = 3.28 ft; 1.00 m /min = 264 U.S. liquid
gal/min; 1.00 m 2/hr = 10.8 ft 2/hr; 1.00 m 2/day = 10.8 ft 2/day
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Fig. 5.4.2(c)—Ratio of temperature rise of water in cement and has a the heat is dissipated as
θ θ diffusivity of quickly as it is generated
cooling pipes to initial temperature difference m/ o,
1.00 ft2 /day. Take the from the concrete below.
F/F (C/C) Note that in the
207.1R-36 space interval as 1.0 ft.
temperatures of three computation above two
successive elements at Then the time
steps are required to
time t, then at time t2 interval needed for
produce the temperature
od (Rawhouser 1945) the temperature at the
at the end of the half-day
has proved of center of the space to
+
θq + ∆θ q = -------------------(θ p θr period; the first step
immense value. The reach a temperature
)-- averages the adjacent
concept and which is the average
2 temperatures, and the
application is so of the temperatures of
second step adds the
simple that it can be The universal the two adjacent
adiabatic temperature rise
performed quite easily applicability of elements is
of the concrete.
with a desk calculator, Schmidt’s method is
and yet for such that it can be ∆t = (------------∆
x
)2- =
2
Normally where there
complicated cases can extended to cases of --------------------
1
-- = 0.5 day are several stations
easily be programmed two-dimensional and considered in each lift,
2h ( 2 )(1.0 0 )
for computer threedimensional the temperature
application. Without heat flow. For the In Table 5.4.3(a) the distribution within the lift
going into its two-dimensional adiabatic temperature rise at any given time can be
derivation, it can be case the numerical (above the temperature of obtained with sufficient
said that Schmidt's constant 2 is concrete when it was accuracy by calculating
method is based on replaced by 4, and placed) in 0.5-day intervals only half of the points at
the theorem that if the the averaging must for a 3-day investigation is any one time, as shown in
body under question is take into account taken from Fig. 5.3.1 the tabulated solution.
considered to be temperatures on four (except that the With the use of
divided into a number sides of the given temperature rise at 0.5-day computers, the
of equal elements, and element. For the age is estimated). The calculations of heat and
if a number of three-dimensional induced-thermal stresses
change in temperature ∆θ
physical limitations case, the constant 2 can be easily determined
is determined by
are satisfied is replaced by the using the finite element
subtracting the temperature
simultaneously, the number 6 and the method (Wilson 1968;
at any time interval from
temperature for a averaging must be Polivka and Wilson
that of the preceding time
given increment at the carried on for six 1976). Thermal gradients
interval.
end of an interval of elements may also be determined
surrounding the In the tabular solution, as part of a wider scope
time is the average of
cubic element in Table 5.4.3(b) , the space 2-D or 3-D nonlinear,
the temperature of the
question. The interval of 1.0 ft divides incremental
two neighboring
following example each lift into six elements
elements at the
demonstrates the use or stations. Boundaries
beginning of that time
of Schmidt's method such as rock surface,
interval. The
in a practical construction joints, and
necessary physical Table 5.4.3(a)—
problem. exposed surfaces must be
relationship is For Example 6,
clearly defined. Note that
adiabatic
the adiabatic temperature
∆t = (-----------∆x )2- Example 6 (See Appendix temperature
rise at the rock surface is
2h 2 A for this example increments read
taken as just one-half of
worked in SI units). from Table 5.3.1
where ∆t is the time the concrete rise since the
Determine rock is not generating heat. Adiabatic temperature rise
interval, ∆x is the length of above placing
temperature rise At a construction joint the
element, and h 2 is the Time, temperature θ F
throughout two 6-ft rise is the average of the days (read from Fig. 5.3.1)
diffusion constant. Units of
lifts of mass concrete two lifts, which are
∆t and ∆x must be placed at two-day
0 0
generating heat at different 0.5 20
consistent with units in intervals. The 1 31
rates at any given time. At
which h2 is expressed. concrete contains 376 1.5 37
the exposed surface the 2 40
Stated mathematically, θp lb/yd 3 of Type II adiabatic rise is zero since 2.5 42.5
θq, and θr are the
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 51
3 44.5 concrete structures, this Reclamation discussed cell operates
Table method of analysis can structural behavior hydraulically to balance
5.4.3(b)— evaluate complex measurement practices (null) a given pressure,
For geometry of a structure, (1976), and prepared a while the Carlson load
Example nonlinear behavior of concrete dam cell uses changing
6, concrete, structure instrumentation manual electrical resistance due
calculated interaction with the (1987). The U.S. Army to wire length changes
temperatu foundation, fill, or other Corps of Engineers caused by applied
re rise in elements such as a prepared an engineer pressure. The vibrating-
concrete reservoir, the effects of manual on wire gauge, a variation of
above sequential construction, instrumentation (1980). the Carlson cell,
placing thermal gradients, added Some of the instruments measures the change in
temperatu insulation, and surface available for use are: vibration frequency
re, F and gravity forces caused by strain in a
Hydrostatic Pressure
(Corps of Engineers vibrating wire. The flat
Time Measuring Devices —
1994). jacks use a Bourdon-tube
Distan These are generally
ce 0 0.5 1 1.5 gauge to measure
piezometers, operating
abov pressures.
e 5.5—Instrumentation either as a closed or open
groun ∆θ1 = 20F ∆θ1 = ∆θ1 = 5.5.1— Factors or system, or closed system Seepage
d, 11F 6F
quantities that are often Bourdon-type pressure Measurement Devices
ft — Commonly used
monitored in mass monitoring systems.
12
concrete dams and Closed system piezometers seepage monitoring
11
10 other massive structures consist of vibrating-wire devices include
9 include structural units or Carlson-type quantitative devices
8 that include weirs,
7 displacements, devices, while open system
deformations, devices used are flowmeters, Parshall
6 0 0 0
5 0 20 settlement, seepage, commonly called flumes, and calibrated
0 20
1 2
26
piezometric levels in observation wells. A catch containers.
4 0 20
0 20
0 1 28. the foundation, and variation of the closed Flowmeters and
3
0 20 2 3
5
uplift pressures within system unit is the well or pressure transducer
0 10
2 0 1 15. the structure. A wide pipe system, which is devices are also
1 2
5
variety of instruments capped so that a Bourdon- sometimes used to
1 5 6
can be used in a type gauge may be used determine quantity of
comprehensive for directly reading water flow in a pipe or open
0
monitoring program. pressure. Some similar channel.
-1 0 0 5 5 2.
- 5 An instrumentation systems use pressure Internal Movement
0 00
2 0 program at a new dam transducers rather than Measuring Devices—
0
may cost from about 1 Bourdon gauges to These are used to obtain
-
3 to as high as 3 percent measure the pressure. measurements of relative
-4
of the total construction Other types of piezometers movements between the
-
5 cost of the dam, are available but have not structure and the
depending on the been used in concrete abutments and/or
- complexity of dams. These other types foundations. The devices
6 instrumentation include hydrostatic consist of essentially
Note that in the requirements. pressure indicators, horizontal and vertical
computation above
two steps are Instruments installed in hydraulic twin-tube measurements, using
required to produce mass concrete to date in piezometers, pneumatic calibrated tapes, single-
the temperature at
the end of the half- the United States have piezometers, porous-tube point and multi-point
day period: the first been primarily of the piezometers, and slotted- borehole extensometers,
step averages the
adjacent unbonded resistance- pipe piezometers. joint meters, plumblines,
temperatures, and wire or Carlson-type Pressure or Stress dial gauge devices,
the second step adds
the adiabatic
meter, although a wide Measuring Devices— Four Whittemore gauges,
temperature rise of variety of instruments is types have been used: resistance gauges, tilt
the concrete. meters, and
being incorporated in Gloetzl cell, Carlson load
structural analysis. current projects. The inclinometer/deflectomet
Ordinarily used only for cell, vibrating-wire gauges,
U.S. Bureau of and flat jacks. The Gloetzl ers. Strain meters and
very complex mass
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
“no-stress” strain devices cells, and sensing elements, they mounted
may also be used for reinforcement meters. must not only be instrumentation.
measuring internal In each of these waterproof, but all Reliable
movements. devices, two sets of material must be measurements of
Surface Movement unbonded steel wires resistant to the alkalies strain and stress must
Measuring Devices— are so arranged that in concrete. The come from electrical
External vertical and when subjected to the necessity of maintaining measuring
horizontal movements are action to be proper operational instruments embedded
measured on the surface of measured, one set characteristics creates far enough from the
structures to determine increases in tension, many problems. Even a surface to avoid the
total movements with while the other simple surface leveling effects of daily
respect to a fixed datum decreases. A test set, point may be subject to temperature cycles.
located off the structure. based upon the damage by frost action, Embedded
Reference points may be Wheatstone Bridge, traffic, and maintenance instruments are
monuments or designated measures resistance operations on the crest, generally accessed by
points on a dam crest, on and resistance ratios or vandalism. means of conducting
the upstream and from which the Observation wells and cables leading to
downstream faces, at the temperature and the most piezometers can be convenient reading
toe of a dam, or on strain and stress can damaged by frost action, stations located in
appurtenant structures. be determined. These caving, corrosion of dam galleries or at the
Both lateral, or instruments material used for casing, surface of other mass
translational, and rotational embedded in fresh loss of measuring concrete structures.
movements of the dam are concrete are relatively equipment in the hole, If certain types of
of interest. Surface durable in service, and by vandals dropping piezometer tubing are
movements are usually provide a stable zero rocks into the holes. used, there are certain
observed using reading, maintain Unless special microbes that can live
conventional level and their calibration, and precautions are taken, and proliferate within
position surveys. The are constructed so as the average life of the tubes unless the
position surveys may be to be dependable for a installations of these water in the system is
conducted using long time. types may be treated with a
triangulation, trilateration, 5.5.3— To properly significantly reduced. To biological inhibitor.
or collimation techniques. monitor the minimize damage, the Some antifreeze
Individual measurement performance of a mass tops of measuring solutions previously
devices include levels, concrete structure, it is 207.1R- 38 placed in systems
theodolites, calibrated often necessary to develop a floc that
survey tapes, EDM collect instrumentation results in plugging of
(electronic distance data over extended points and wells should the tubes. Also, in
measuring) devices, and periods. It is important be capped and locked, certain environments,
associated rods, targets, that the monitoring and should be as material in some
etc. equipment be as inconspicuous and gauges may corrode
simple, rugged, and close to the and render them
Vibration surrounding surface as
Measuring Devices — durable as possible and useless.
be maintained in possible. Locations of
Various commercially installations should not Many devices are
available instruments satisfactory operating removable and many
condition. The be immediately
include the strong adjacent to roads, trails, be calibrated on a
motion accelerograph, instruments must be regular basis.
rugged enough to be or water channels, and
peak recording non-corrosive material However, most
accelerograph, and embedded in fresh instrumentation is
concrete. When should be used
others. wherever possible. fixed in place and not
measuring strain, in repairable when
5.5.2— Unbonded Concrete surfaces
particular, the damage or
resistance-wire or may be subjected to
instruments must be at malfunctioning is
Carlson-type meters excessive stresses and
least three times the discovered. Fixed
include strain meters, cracking that will make
length of the largest devices can generally
stress meters, joint meaningless stress or
particle in the fresh only be replaced from
meters, deformation strain measurements
concrete. Since they the surface by devices
meters, pore pressure obtained from surface-
contain electrical-
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 53
installed in drilled an accurate evaluation of 207.5R Roller Compacted C 94 Standard
holes and are, the instrumentation Concrete Specification for Ready-
therefore, usually not results should have been 209R Prediction of Creep, Mixed Concrete
replaceable. Other made through long-term, Shrinkage, and C 125 Standard
devices, such as surface laboratory-sample studies Temperature Definitions of
monuments, are to determine progressive Effects in Terms Relating
replaceable to some age relationships for Concrete to Concrete and
extent. properties of the actual Structures Concrete
5.5.4— The specific project concrete. Aggregates
210R Erosion
goals of data collection, Resistance of C 150 Standard
transmittal, processing, CHAPTER Concrete in Specification for Portland
review and action 6— Hydraulic Cement
procedures are to provide REFEREN Structures C 260 Standard
accurate and timely CES
211.1 Standard Practice for Specification for
evaluation of data for
Selecting Air-Entraining
potential remedial action 6.1—Specified and
Proportions for Admixtures for
relating to the safety of a recommended
Normal, Concrete
structure. For credibility, references
Heavyweight, and C 494 Standard
enough instruments The documents of the Mass Concrete Specification for
should be installed to various standards-
provide confirmation of producing organizations 212.3R Chemical Chemical
all important data. It is referred to in this Admixtures for Concrete Admixtures for
often desirable to use document are listed 221R Guide for Use of Concrete
more than one type of below with their serial Normal Weight C 595 Standard
instrument to facilitate the designation. The Aggregates in Specification for
analysis. Instrumentation documents listed were Concrete Blended
is also required in cases the latest effort at the Hydraulic
224R Control of
where it is necessary to time this document was Cements
Cracking in Concrete
correlate with or confirm revised. Since some of Structures C 618 Standard
an unusual design concept these documents are Specification
226.1R Ground Granulated
related to either the revised frequently, the for Fly Ash
Blast-Furnace
structure or the service user of this document and Raw or
Slag as a
condition, or where the should check directly Calcined
Cementitious
instrumentation results with the sponsoring Natural
Constituent in
may lead to greater group if it is desired to Pozzolan for
Concrete
refinements for future refer to the latest Use as a
design. revision. 226.3R Use of Fly Ash in Mineral
Concrete Admixture in
5.5.5— It is suggested
that the reader review American Concrete 304R Recommended Portland
Chapter 3 for a Institute Practice for Measuring, Cement
reexamination of the scope Mixing, Concrete
116R Cement and
of laboratory studies that Concrete Terminology Transporting, and C 684 Standard
are necessary for a Placing Concrete Method of
201.2R Guide to Durable
meaningful interpretation 304.2R Placing Concrete Making,
Concrete
of data obtained from an by Pumping Methods Accelerated
embedded instrument 207.2R Effect of
304.4R Placing Concrete Curing, and
program. Instrumentation Restraint,
with Belt Conveyors Testing of
should be part of the Volume Change, Concrete
design and construction of and 305R Hot Weather
Compression
any mass concrete Reinforcement Concreting
Test
structure wherever it can on Cracking of 306R Cold Weather Specimens
be foreseen that a future Massive Concreting
Concrete C 989 Standard
question may arise 309R Guide for Specification for
concerning the safety of 207.4R Cooling and Consolidation of Concrete Ground Iron Blast-
the structure. Also, Insulating Systems for Furnace Slag for Use in
preparations essential for Mass Concrete ASTM Concrete and Mortars

These publications may
be obtained from the
following organizations:
American Concrete
Institute
P.O. Box 9094
Farmington Hills, MI
48333-9094
ASTM
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA
19428
6.2—Cited references
American Concrete Institute,
1963, Symposium on Mass
Concrete , SP-6, Detroit, 427 pp.
Bogue, R. H., 1949, “Studies on
the Volume Stability of Portland
Cement Pastes,” PCA Fellowship
Paper No. 55, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C.
Burks, S. D., Sept. 1947, “Five-
Year Temperature Records of a
Thin
Concrete Dam,” ACI J O U
R N A L , Proceedings V.
44, No. 1, pp.65-76.
Carlson, Roy W., Jan.-
Feb. 1937, “Drying
Shrinkage of Large
Concrete Members,” ACI
J O U R N A L , Proceedings
V. 33, No. 3, pp. 327-336.
Carlson, R. W., 1979, Manual for
the Use of Strain Meters and Other
Instruments in Concrete Structures ,
Carlson Instruments, Campbell.
Carlson, Roy W.;
Houghton, Donald L.;
and Polivka, Milos, July
1979, “Causes and
Control of Cracking in
Unreinforced Mass
Concrete,” ACI JO U R N
A L , Proceedings V. 76,
No. 7, pp. 821-837.
Davis, Raymond E., 1963,
“Historical Account of Mass
Concrete,” Symposium of Mass
Concrete , SP-6, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 1-
35. Dusinberre, D. M., Nov. 1945,
“Numerical Methods for Transient
Heat Flow,” Transactions ,
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, V. 67, pp. 703-772.
Ginzburg, Ts. G.; Zinchenko,
N. A.; and Skuortsova, G. F.,
1966, “Concrete for Krasnoyarsk
Dam,” Gidrotekhnecheskoe
Stroitelstvo ( Moscow),
No. 2, pp. 6-12. (in Russian)
Graham, J. R., 1978,
“Design and Analysis of
Auburn Dam—Volume
Four, Dynamic Studies,”
U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver.
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Harboe, E. M., Dec. 1961,
“Properties of Mass Concrete in
Bureau of Reclamation Dams,”
Report No. C-1009, Concrete
Laboratory, U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 6
pp.
Hess, John R., 1992, “Rapid
Load Strength Testing for Three
Concrete
Dams,” Association of State Dam
Safety Officials Annual
Conference Proceedings
(Baltimore), Lexington, pp. 187-
194.
Higginson, Elmo C.;
Wallace, George B.; and Ore,
Elwood L., 1963, “Effect of
Maximum Size Aggregate on
Compressive Strength of
Mass Concrete,” Symposium
on Mass Concrete , SP-6,
American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, pp. 219-256.
Houghton, D. L., May
1972, “Concrete Strain
Capacity Tests—Their
Economic Implications,”
Proceedings , Engineering
Foundation Research
Conference, Pacific Grove,
pp. 75-99.
Houghton, D. L., Dec. 1976,
“Determining Tensile Strain
Capacity of
Mass Concrete,” ACI J O U R N A L
, Proceedings V. 73,
No. 12, pp. 691-700.
Houghton, D. L., 1970,
“Measures Being Taken for
Prevention of Cracks in Mass
Concrete at Dworshak and Libby
Dams,” Transactions , 10th
International Congress on Large
Dams (Montreal, 1970),
International Commission on
Large Dams, Paris.
Houghton, Donald L.,
Oct. 1969, “Concrete
Volume Change for
Dworshak Dam,”
Proceedings , ASCE, V.
95, PO2, pp. 153-166.
Houghton, D. L., and Hall, D.
J., Mar. 1972, “Elimination of
Grout on
Horizontal Construction Joints at
Dworshak Dam,” ACI J O U R N A
L , Proceedings V. 69, No. 3, pp.
176-178.
Houk, Ivan E., Jr.; Borge,
Orville E.; and Houghton,
Donald L., July 1969, “Studies
of Autogenous Volume
Change in Concrete for
Dworshak
Dam,” ACI J OURN
A L , Proceedings V. 66,
No. 7, pp. 560-568. Hurd, M.
K., 1989, Formwork for
Concrete, SP-4, 5th Edition,
American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 475 pp.
ICOLD, 1964, Transactions ,
8th International Congress on
Large Dams, (Edinburgh, 1964),
International Commission on
Large Dams, Paris, V. 2.
Itaipu Binacional, Dec. Roberts, H. H., June
1981, “The Itaipu 1951, “Cooling
Hydroelectric Project, Design Materials for Mass
and Construction Features.” Concrete,” ACI JO U R N
Klein, Alexander; Pirtz, David; A L , Proceedings V. 47,
and Adams, Robert F., 1963, No. 10, pp. 821-832.
“Thermal Properties of Mass Ross, A. D., and Bray, J. W.,
Concrete During Adiabatic Jan. 1949, “The Prediction of
Curing,” Symposium on Mass Temperatures
Concrete, SP-6, American in Mass Concrete by Numerical
Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. Computation,” Magazine of
199-
Concrete Research (London), V.
218. 1, No. 1, pp. 9-20.
Liu, T. C., McDonald, J. E., May Saucier, K. L., June 1977,
1978, “Prediction of Tensile Strain “Dynamic Properties of Mass
Capacity of Mass Concrete,” ACI J Concrete,” Miscellaneous Paper
O U R N A L , Proceedings V. 75, No. No. C-77-6, U.S. Army Engineer
5, pp.
Waterways Experiment Station,
192-197. Vicksburg, 24 pp.
Mather, Bryant, Dec. 1974, “Use Silveira, J.; Carvalho, R.;
of Concrete of Low Portland
Paterno, N.; and Kuperman,
Cement S., 1982, “Grouting of
Content in Combination with Contraction Joints in Concrete
Pozzolans and Other Admixtures in Structures at Aqua Vermelha
Construction of Concrete Dams,” Dam— Instrumentation and
ACI J O U R N A L , Proceedings , V. Behavior,” Transactions , 14th
71, No. 39, pp. 589-599. International Congress on
Large Dams (Rio de Janeiro,
McLean, Francis G.,
1982), International
and Pierce, James S.,
1988, “Comparison of Commission on Large Dams,
Joint Shear Strength for Paris.
Conventional and Roller- Steinour, Harold H.,
Compacted Concrete,” Sept. 1960, “Concrete
Roller Compacted Mix Water—How
Concrete II Proceedings Impure Can It Be?”
, ASCE, pp. 151-169. Journal , PCA Research
and Development
Polivka, Milos; Pirtz, David;
Laboratories, V. 2, No.
and Adams, Robert F., 1963,
3, pp. 32-48.
“Studies of Creep in Mass
Concrete,” Symposium on Mass Tennessee Valley Authority,
Concrete, SP-6, American 1939, “The Norris Project,”
Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. Technical Report No. 1,
257-285. Knoxville.
Polivka, R. M., and Wilson, E. L., Tuthill, Lewis H., July 1967,
1976, “Finite Element Analysis “Advanced Concrete Practices,”
of Civil Engineering—ASCE , V. 37,
Nonlinear Heat Transfer Problems,” No. 7, pp. 40-44.
SESM Report No. 76-2, Tuthill, Lewis H., Dec. 1980,
University of California, Berkeley, “Better Grading of Concrete
98 pp. Aggregates,”
Portland Cement Association, Concrete International: Design &
1979, “Concrete for Massive Construction, V. 2, No.
Structures,” Publication No. 12, pp. 49-51.
IS128T, 24 pp. Tuthill, Lewis H., Sept. 1943,
Price, Walter H., and Higginson, “Developments in Methods of
Elmo C., 1963, “Bureau of Testing and
Reclamation Practices in Mass Specifying Coarse Aggregate,”
Concrete,” Symposium on Mass ACI J O U R N A L , Proceedings V.
Concrete , SP-6,
39, No. 1, pp. 21-32.
American Concrete Institute, Tuthill, Lewis H., Jan. 1950,
Detroit, pp. 77-87.
“Inspection of Mass and
Rawhouser, Clarence, Feb. 1945, Related Concrete
“Cracking and Temperature Construction,” ACI J O U R N A L ,
Control of
Proceedings V. 46, No. 5, pp.
Mass Concrete,” ACI J O U R 349-359. Tuthill, Lewis H., June
N A L , Proceedings V. 41, 1953, “Vibration of Mass
No. 4, pp. 305-348. Raphael, Concrete,” ACI J O U R N A L ,
J. M., Mar.-Apr. 1984, Proceedings V. 49, No. 10, pp.
“Tensile Strength of 921-932.
Concrete,” ACI JO U R N A L ,
U.S. Army Corps of
Proceedings V. 81, pp. 158- Engineers, 1949, Handbook
165. for Concrete and Cement,
Rhodes, J. A., 1978, “Thermal Waterways Experiment
Properties,” Significance Station, Vicksburg, (with
of Tests and supplements issued
Properties of Concrete and Concrete quarterly).
Making Materials , STP-169B, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, July 1959, July
ASTM, Philadelphia, pp. 242-266.
1963, June 1966,
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 55
“Investigation of Methods of Waugh, William R., and Controlled in Massive, Reinforced
Preparing Horizontal Rhodes, James A., Oct. 1959, Structural Concrete by Application 0
Construction Joints in “Control of Cracking in of Mass Concrete Practices,” ACI J .
Concrete,” Technical Report Concrete Gravity Dams,” O U R N A L , Proceedings V. 69, No.
1
No. 6-518, Waterways Proceedings , ASCE, V. 85, 8, pp. 5
Experiment Station, PO5, pp. 1-20. Wilson, E. L., 481-491.
Vicksburg, 28 pp. Also, Dec. 1968, “The
Report 2, “Tests of Joints in Determination of Tennessee Valley Authority, θ
Large Blocks,” 20 pp., and Temperatures within Mass 1950, “The Kentucky Project,” o

Report 3, “Effects of Iron Concrete Structures,” SESM Technical Report No. 13, Tennessee
Stain on Joints,” 22 pp. Report No. 68-17, Structures Valley Authority, Knoxville.
2
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and Materials Research, U.S. Army Corps of 0
Aug. 1994, “Nonlinear, Department of Civil Engineers, Aug. 1985,
Incremental Engineering, University of “Earthquake Analysis and
California, Berkeley, pp. 1- Design of Concrete Gravity From Fig. 5.4.1 using
Structural Analysis of Massive Dams,” ETL 1110-2-303.
Concrete Structures,” ETL 1110-1- 33. 6.3 —Additional the slab curve, the value
references U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, May 1994, “Arch Dam2 Design,”
365. of h2t/D corresponding
1110-2-2201.
U.S. Army Corps of ACI Committee 311, 1992, ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection
U.S. Army200 Corps to θm /θo = 0.15, is 0.18.
Engineers, Feb. 1994, 2(92), 8th Edition, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. of Engineers, May 1983, “Waterstops and Other
“Standard Practice for Joint Materials,” EM 1110-2021.
Concrete for Civil Works Brazilian Committee on Large Dams, 1982, “Main Brazilian
Structures,” EM 1110-2- Dams— Then Mechanics
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, June 1991, “Fracture
2000. Design, Construction and Performance.” of Concrete Hydraulic Structures,” ETL
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S.1959,
Carlson, Roy W., and Thayer, Donald P., Aug. Bureau of Reclamation, 1992, “Concrete Manual,
“Surface Part 2,”
Sept. 1990, “Gravity Dam Design,” 9th Edition, Denver, 900 pp. 0.18 D 2 0.18 (21.3 )2
Cooling of
EM 1110-2-2200.
Mass Concrete to Prevent Cracking,” ACI J U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1977, “Design of Arch Dams,”
days
U.S. Army Corps of Denver, 882 pp. t =
Proceedings
Engineers, Sept. 1980, -
No. 2, pp. 107-120.
“Instrumentation for -
Concrete Structures,” EM Copen, M. D.; -
1110-2- 4300. Rouse, G. C.; and APPENDIX—METRIC EXAMPLES -
Wallace, G. B., Feb. -
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1962, “European
1975, Concrete Manual, Example A-1 -
Practice in Design and -
8th Edition, At a certain elevation an arch dam is 21.3
Construction of - m
Revised, Denver, 627 pp. Concrete Dams,” U.S. -
Bureau of Reclamation,
thick and has a mean temperature of 38 C. If
U.S. Bureau of -
Reclamation, 1949, Denver, V. 2. exposed to air at 18 C, how -
“Cooling of Concrete ICOLD, 1959, long will it take to cool to 21 C? Assume -
Dams: Final Reports, Transactions , 6th -
Boulder Canyon International Congress on 0.111 m -
Project, Part VII— Large Dams ( New York, -
Cement and Concrete 1958), International -
Investigations,” Commission on Large -
Bulletin No. 3, Denver, Dams, Paris, V. 3. ICOLD, =
236 pp. 1962, Transactions , 7th day.
U.S. Bureau of International Congress on Initial temperature -
Reclamation, 1976, “Design Large Dams (Rome, 1961), -
of Gravity Dams,” Denver, International Commission difference, θo = 38 – 18 -
553 pp. on Large Dams, Paris, V. 1. -
= 20 C
207.1R-40 ICOLD 1984 (with -
update in 1988) World Final temperature -
Register of Dams, U.S. -
Committee on Large difference, θ m = 21 -
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Dams, 3rd Edition, – 18 = 3 C -
July 1958, “Properties of Mass Denver. -
Concrete in United States and Japan Dam The portion of the -
Foreign Dams,” Report No. C- -
880, Concrete Laboratory,
Association, Oct. original heat remaining -
1963, “New
Denver, 3 pp. Horizons—Topmost is -
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Oct. Dams of the World.” -
1987, Concrete Dam -
Mermel, T. W., Jan. 1963, θm -
Instrumentation Manual, Denver, Register of Dams in the United
153 pp. -
States, U.S. Committee on Large -
U.S. Bureau of Dams, p. 167. (Currently 3
- -
Reclamation, 1981, “Control maintained in unpublished form -
of Cracking in Mass by U.S. Committee on Large -
- -
Concrete Structures,” Dams). -
Engineering Monograph No. -
Price, Walter H., Oct. 1982, - -
34, Denver, 71 pp. “Control of Cracking in Mass -
-
Wallace, George B., and Ore, Concrete Dams,” Concrete -
Elwood L., 1960, “Structural and International: Design & -
Lean Mass Construction , V. 4, No. 10, pp. = -
Concrete as Affected by Water- 36-44. =
Reducing, Set-Retarding Agents,” -
Semenza, C., and Giuseppe,
Symposium on Effect of Water- - 7
T., Sept. 1951, “Le Barrage de
Reducing Admixtures and Set- - 4
Pieve di Cadore,” Travaux
Retarding Admixtures on - 0
(Paris).
Properties of Concrete , STP-266; -
Tuthill, Lewis H., and Adams, -
ASTM, Philadelphia, pp. 38-96.
Robert F., Aug. 1972, “Cracking = h
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
multiplying the two for times from 10 to 200 be immersed to
2
quantities so obtained days. See Table A.5.4.1. bring its mean
0 to get the total heat These values can be used temperature to 4 C?
. remaining in the pier. with Fig. 5.4.1 to obtain For granite having a
1
1 For this two- the θm /θo ratios for both diffusivity h2 of
2
1 dimensional use, it is 7.6-m and 15.2-m slabs. 0.096 m /day
better to find for The product of these ratios Initial temperature
various times the heat indicates the heat difference, θo = 32
Example A-2 losses associated with remaining in the pier, and – 2 = 30 C Final
A mass concrete each direction and can be used to calculate the temperature
bridge pier has a then combine them to final temperature difference,
horizontal cross section find the total heat loss difference θm . The values θm = 4 – 2
of 7.6 x 15.2 m, and is of the pier.
at a mean temperature for θm are added to the =2C
of 27 C. Determine the temperature of the
Initial temperature surrounding water to θm
mean temperature at
difference, obtain mean pier
various times up to 200 2
days if the pier is For the 7.6 m dimension temperatures at various -
exposed to water at 4 C
2 times up to 200 days, as -
ht 0.084 t -
and if the diffusivity is ------- = ---------------= shown on Table A.5.4.1. -
2D -
0.084 m 2 /day. For a (7.6 )2 -
prismatic body such as Example A-3
this pier, where heat is Granite aggregate =
moving towards each and for the 15.2 m at an initial
-
of four pier faces, the dimension temperature of 32 C -
part of original heat h 2t 0.084 t
is to be precooled in -
-
remaining may be ------- = -----------------= circulating 2 C water -
computed by finding D 2
for use in mass -
=
the part remaining in concrete. The largest
(15.2 )2
two infinite slabs of particles can be 0
respective thickness Then calculate approximated as 150- .
0

Table A.5.4.1 —Example A-2: calculations in SI (metric) units

θ m  θm 
h------2 θ-----m- θ-----m- ------- x -------
h  =
2t   θ o 7.6 θo15.2 θ-----m-
------ -  t-
=  2  θo 7.6  θo 15.2 
 2 D 15.2 = θ m   θo θm + 4 =
read from read from -------
Time, D 7.6
0.0003 Fig. Fig. pier x θo temperature

days 0.00145 t 6 t 5.4.1 5.4.1 θo pier = θm ,C

10 0.0145 0.003 0.73 0.87 0.64 15 19

6
20 0.0290 0.61 0.80 0.49 11 15
0.007
30 0.0435 0.53 0.77 0.41 9 13
2
40 0.0580 0.46 0.73 0.34 8 12
0.010
60 0.0870 8 0.35 0.67 0.23 5 9
100 0.1450 0.014 0.19 0.57 0.11 3 7
4
200 0.2900 0.05 0.40 0.02 0 4
0.021
6
0.03
6
0.07
2
7
equal to the two mm-diameter
horizontal dimensions numerical values of spheres. How long θ
of the pier, and 0.00145 t and 0.00036 t must the aggregate o
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 57
or approximately 19 -
corresponding to Θm /Θo = -
3 minutes.
0 0.12 can be found to be -
-
0.075. -
From the solid sphere Example A-4 -
Therefore -
curve of Fig. 5.4.1 the
A 15.2-m-diameter =
value of h2t/D 2 0.07515.
circular tunnel is to be 2( )
θ θ 2
corresponding to m / o = plugged with mass 2

.
concrete with a t = -------------------------------= 6
0.07 can be found to be 160 days 7
0.055. diffusivity of 0.111 m
2 0.111
/day. The maximum
Example A-5 π
mean temperature in
Therefore the concrete is 43 C, A closure block of and
and the surrounding concrete initially at 41
0.055
rock is at 18 C. C is to be cooled to 7
0.15(
C to provide a joint D = 1.63 m
Without artificial
)
opening of 0.64 mm
0 cooling, how long
2 prior to grouting Initial temperature
will it take for the
t = contraction joints. difference, θo = 41 - 3
- temperature in the
- How long will it take = 38 C
plug to reach 21 C,
- to cool the mass by
- assuming the rock Final temperature
-
circulating water at 3
remains at 18 C? difference, θm = 7
- C through cooling
-
pipes spaced 1.40 -3=4C
-
- Initial temperature horizontally and 1.50
- difference, θo = 43 - 18 θm 4
-
m vertically. Assume -
- = 25 C concrete to be made -
- -
Final temperature with granite aggregate -
-
- difference, θm = having a diffusivity h2 -
- -
21 -18 = 3 C of 0.096 m 2/day.
-
- Cross section handled by =
-
-
θm each pipe is (1.40)(1.50)
-
- = 2.10 -
- 3
- - m2 -
- -
-
- - The diameter of an -
- equivalent cylinder -
-
- =
- can be calculated as
- -
- πD 2/4 = 2.10 m 2 0
- = .
- 1
- 1
- - Therefore
- -
- θ
= m2
- o
2
(4 )(2.10 )
-
0 - D 3
. = 8
0 =
1
3 0 Referring to Fig.
. -
1 - 5.4.1 and using the
d 2 - curve for the hollow
a -
cylinder (since cooling
-
y θ
- is from within the cross
s o
-
section), for the
-
0
2 - θ /θ
.
5 - calculated value of m o
-
0
-
h2t/D 2 can be found to
9 From the solid cylinder
6 - be 1.0.
curve of Fig. 5.4.1, the -
value of h2 t/D 2 -
- Therefore
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
1.02.67( ) days - = (
-
t =
- -
-
- - 2
- = -
- -
- - - .
- - -
- -
- - = 6
- -
- - 0
- = .
-
2
-
0 4
-
.
- 7
1
- θ
6
- o
-
- θ 1 )
- o
7
-
-
- t = ------------------------------ = 1 8
= h 0.09 6
2
5 2
2 Total time is 23 + 18 =
207.1R-42
t 41 days, but of this, the
8
time for using
0 From Fig. 5.4.1 for a
- refrigeration has been cut
. -
0 hollow cylinder - by one third.
9 -
6 2
-
ht - Example A-6 (see 5.4.3)
- -
About the same Determine the
-
results can be achieved - = temperature rise
with greater economy if -
-
throughout two 1.8-m
0
the natural cold water - . lifts of mass concrete
of the river is used for - 6 placed at two-day
5
part of the cooling. = 2
intervals. The concrete
Control of the rate of D contains 223 kg/m 3 of
cooling must be 0 Type II cement and has
.
exercised to prevent 8 a diffusivity of
thermal shock, and in 4 0.093 m 2/day. Take the
many cases postcooling space interval as 0.3 m.
D
is conducted in two ( Then the time
stages. 2
interval needed for the
Assume river water 0 temperature at the
Therefore
is available at 16 C, center of the space to
cool to 20 C, and . reach a temperature
then switch to (0.8 4)(2.6 7) days
t = ------------------------------ = 2 3 which is the average
refrigerated water at 0.09 6 of the temperatures of
6
3 C. How much time the two adjacent
will be taken in each θ elements is
operation, and what For final cooling, ο= 20
is total cooling time? θ
- 3 = 17 C and m= 7 - x
∆t = ∆------- 2- = ------------------
For initial cooling, θo = 3=4C 5 0.3
( ) 2 -- = 0.5 day
41 - 16 = 25 C and
2h
2
2 (0.09 3 )
θm = 20 – 16 θm 4
-
= 4C - In Table A.5.4.3(a),
-
- the adiabatic
θm 4 )
-
- temperature rise (above
-
- the temperature of the
-
 MASS CONCRETE 207.1R- 59
concrete when it was tempera- the adiabatic
temperature rise of the
placed) in 0.5-day ture concrete. Calculations
intervals for a three-day 0.0 0 are carried out here to
more significant
investigation is taken 0.5 12 figures than are
from Fig. 5.3.1 (except justified merely to
1.0 18 make clear the
that the temperature rise method.
at 0.5-day age is 1.5 22
estimated). 2.0 24
The change in temperature 2.5 25
∆θ is determined by
3.0 26
subtracting the temperature
at any time interval from Table
that of the preceding time A.5.4.3(b)—
interval. For Example
A-6,
In the tabular solution,
calculated
Table A.5.4.3(b), the space temperature
interval of 0.3 m divides rise in
each lift into six elements. concrete
Note that the adiabatic above
temperature rise is taken as placing
just one-half of the temperature,
concrete rise since the rock C
is not generating heat. At
the construction joint, the
rise is the average of the Distanc
two lifts, which are e 0.0 1.0 1.5
above
generating heat at different grou
∆θ1 = ∆θ1 =
∆θ1 = 6C 4C
rates at any given time. At nd
, 12C
the exposed surface, the
m
adiabatic rise is zero
because the heat is 3.6
3.3
dissipated as quickly as it
3.0
is generated from the 2.7
concrete below. 2.4
Normally where there 2.1

are several stations 1.8 0 0 0

considered in each life, the 1.5 0 12 1
1.2 0 12 6 2 1
temperature distribution 5
0.9 0 12
within the lift at any given 1 1
0.6 0 12
time can be obtained with 0.3 0 12
2 8 16.
5
sufficient accuracy by 0.0 0 6 1
9
calculating only half of the 5 9
points at any one time, as
shown in the tabulated -0.3 0 0 3 1.
solution, Table A.5.4.3(b) . -0.6 0 0 5
-0.9 0 0
0
-1.2
-1.5
Table A.5.4.3(a)— For -1.8
Example A-6,
Note that in the
adiabatic computation above
temperature two steps are
required to produce
increments read from the temperature at
Table 5.3.1 the end of the half-
day period; the first
Adiabatic temperature risestep averages the
above concrete placing adjacent
temperatures, and
Time, days the second step adds