Geometrical Optics

Lecture:1 Introduction

Optics
Optics is the study of properties and nature of light and vision.
The external world is revealed to the eye by means of light.

What is light?
Light it is a form of energy, which produces sensation of sight.
We treat light as a ray while studying it interaction with moderate size objects, as electromagnetic wave while studying
its interaction with small size objects and as photon while studying its interaction with subatomic particle. Accordingly,
the subject is divided into three parts.

Geometrical Optics
In geometrical optics, light is treated as ray.
Geometrical optics primarily deals with phenomena like shadow formation and image formation due to reflection and
refraction by various devices like mirrors and lenses. It also provides us with
All the laws of geometrical optics are derived from experiments.
Study of geometrical optics concerns with making use of these laws to explain various effects as shadow formation,
image formation etc.

Ray and Beam Straight line path on which light travels is called a ray and a bunch or bundle of rays is
called a beam.
Types of Beam

Parallel Beam Convergent beam Divergent beam

Has constant width It shrinks It spreads

Source Source is a body, which emits light. It may be a self-luminous body as the sun, a light
bulb or a candle-flame or it may be a body which reflects light fallen upon as the moon.

Point source
It is a point object, which sends light either by its own or by reflection. It is an idealized
concept because in practice we do not have point objects. But extremely distant sources as
sun, stars etc can be treated as point sources on the earth.

Extended Source
All the practical sources, which we encounter in everyday life, have finite size. They are
known as extended source.
They can be considered as infinitely large number of point sources placed adjacent to each
other.
Isotropic and anisotropic Source

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 A source, which emits light, equally in all directions, is known as isotropic source and a
source, which emits light in different amount in different directions, is known as
anisotropic source.
Sun is an isotropic source and torch is an anisotropic source.

Transparent, opaque and translucent materials In general when light falls on a material body
some amount is reflected back, some amount of light that enter the body is absorbed
and remaining is transmitted through the body.

Transparent Materials
A substance such as air, clear water or glass, through which whole of the falling light is
transmitted is known as perfectly transparent material. No amount of light is absorbed
within a perfectly transparent material. We can see clearly through them.
No material is perfectly transparent but we generally use the term transparent for perfectly
transparent material.

Opaque Materials
Through opaque materials, no light is transmitted. We cannot see through opaque
material at all. Common examples of opaque materials are wood, iron etc.

Translucent Materials
Through translucent material some light is absorbed and transmitted light follows
zigzag path within the material due scattering from particles of the medium. Through
translucent materials, we cannot see clearly. In fact, we can feel presence of an object
trough a translucent material but cannot clearly recognize it. Common examples are
butter paper, ground glass, muddy water etc.

Optical medium An optical medium is an empty space or space filled with transparent material. In
geometrical optics, it is generally assumed that the media are not only homogeneous and
isotropic, but perfectly transparent as well.
A homogenous and isotropic medium possesses the same optical properties everywhere in
all directions. Vacuum, air, glass, water and are the very common examples.

Boundary It is interface between two optical media.

Fundamental Laws of Geometrical Optics

Geometrical optics is based on the following five laws. These laws are derived from experience. In geometrical optics
we do not account for these laws but assuming them true make use of them.

I. Rectilinear propagation of light

II. Mutual independence of rays
III. Law of optical reversibility
IV. Laws of reflection
V. Laws of refraction

Rectilinear propagation of light

In a homogeneous isotropic medium light travels in straight-line path. Rectilinear propagation explains shadow
formation, eclipses of the sun and the moon etc.

Example 1. Find the length of shadow of a vertical pole of height h due sunrays falling on the ground at angle  with the
horizontal.

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 Ans. h cot 

Mutual independence of rays

Light rays do not disturb each other upper intersection.

Law of optical reversibility

Rays retraces their path when their direction in reversed.

Lecture:2 Reflection and Its laws

When light falls on boundary between two media, some of its amount is turned back. This phenomenon is known as
reflection and the boundary is known as reflecting boundary of surface. Falling light is known as incident light and the
light that is turned back is known as reflected light.
For good reflecting surfaces almost all, the light is reflected back. When the entire incident light is reflected, the
reflection is known as perfect reflection and the reflecting surface as perfectly reflecting surface. In geometrical optics,
the term reflection is used for perfect reflection.

Regular and diffused reflections

Diffused reflection Reflection from rough surfaces like wall, wood etc is known regular or specular
reflection.
In surfaces capable of exhibiting diffused reflection, we cannot see images but we can
see the surface.

Reflected light
Incident light

Reflecting surface
Diffused reflection

Regular reflection Reflection from smooth surfaces like mirrors is known regular or specular reflection.
In surfaces capable of exhibiting regular reflection, we can see images but we cannot
see the surface.

Incident light Reflected light

Reflecting surface
Regular reflection

Laws of Reflection
Normal
Incident Ray Reflected Ray
Ist Law: Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
i =  r

IInd Law: Incident ray, reflected and normal lies in same plane i r

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 Note

● Laws are valid for curved surface as well.

i r i r
● None of wavelength, frequency and speed
changes due to reflection.

● Intensity or amplitude decreases.

Smaller is the angle of incidence, greater is the reduction in intensity.

This effect we usually neglect in geometrical optics.

Incident Ray

Example 2. A ray of light is incident on a horizontal reflecting floor. Find height of

light spot made on the wall by the reflected light.
Ans. y  d cot  

d
M2
Example 3. A ray of light is incident on a horizontal plane mirror M1. After first
reflection at M1, the ray falls on the vertical mirror M2.
(a) What is the angle of incidence on M2?
(b) In which direction ray would go after reflection from M2.
M1 
Ans. (a) 90    (b) Antiparallel to initial incident ray
d
M1
Example 4. Initial incident ray is parallel to the mirror M2.
(a) Find angle of incidence on mirror M1.
(b) Find angle  for normal incidence on M2.
(c) What will happen, if incidence on M2 is normal? 
M2
Ans. (a) i1  90    (b) 45º (c) Ray will retrace itself
after the second reflection

M2
Example 5. Initial incident ray is on mirror M1.
(a) Find expression for angle of incidence on mirror M2. Consider the cases
i1   , i1   and i1   .
i1
(b) If the ray retraces itself after reflection from M2, find expression for 
angle of incidence i1 on M1. M1

Ans. (a) i1  i2   , i1  i2   and i2  0 (b) i1  

Example 6. A plane mirror is placed as shown in the figure. If a ray incident parallel to y
the x-axis becomes vertical after reflection, find angle , which the mirror
makes with the x-axis.
Ans. 45º
 x

Example 7. A cylindrical reflecting surface is placed with its axis along the z-axis. The principle plane y
of the cylinder is a circle x 2  y 2  1 . A ray incident parallel to the x-axis becomes
vertical after reflection.
(a) Find slope of the normal at the point of incidence.
(b) Find slope of the tangent to the circle at the point of incidence. 
(c) Find coordinates of the point of incidence. x

 1 1 
Ans. (a) m n  1 (b) m t  1 (c)  , 
 2 2

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Lecture:3

Deviation
Rotation of Plane Mirror

Deviation Change in direction of ray after reflection.

It is usually the smaller angle. i

  180  2i    2i

Normal incident (i = 0) max = 180º

Grazing incident (i → 90º) min = 0º



Slope

i


Total deviation after multiple reflections

Total deviation after several reflections equals to algebraic sum of deviations after every
reflection.
   1   2   3  ..................

M2
Example 1. Initial incident ray is on mirror M1. Find conditions for clockwise and
anticlockwise deviations after reflection at M2.

Ans. Clockwise 2 i1  
i1

Anticlockwise 2 i1   M1

Note If ray turns towards the intersection point i1  

If ray turns away from the intersection point i1  

M2
Example 2. Initial incident ray is on mirror M1 at angle i1   .

(a) Decide directions of deviations at both the mirrors

(b) Find deviations after every reflection. i1
(c) Find total deviation. 
M1
Ans. (a) M1: Clockwise M2: Clockwise

(b) 1    2i1  2    2    i1  (c)   2     

M2

Example 3. Initial incident ray is on mirror M1 at angle i1   .

i1 5

M1
 (a) Decide directions of deviations at both the mirrors
(b) Find deviations after every reflection.
(c) Find total deviation.
Ans. (a) M1: Clockwise M2: Anticlockwise

(b) 1    2i1  2      2  i1     (c)   2

Rotation of Mirror If mirror is rotated by angle  keeping incident ray fixed, the
reflected ray rotates by double angle 2 in same sense as
2
that of rotation of mirror.
Original

New

Rotation of Incident Ray If incident ray is rotated by angle  keeping the Original
New
mirror fixed, the reflected ray rotates by angle  in the
opposite sense as that of rotation of the incident ray.  

Example 4. If a plane mirror is rotated by angle  in clockwise sense, by how much angle the incident ray must be rotated to keep
reflected ray unchanged?
Ans. 2 clockwise

M2
Example 5. (Exercise S-2, Q-1)
The mirror is rotating at constant angular velocity  keeping the incident
ray fixed. When the mirror is perpendicular to the wall, find speed of
light spot formed on the wall.

Ans. v s  2 x csc 2  ↑ 

x
Lecture: 4
Vector form of laws of reflection
Formation of Images
Field of view

Vector form of Laws of Reflection

Normal

eˆr  eˆi  2  cos   eˆn Incident Ray Reflected Ray

eˆn
eˆr  eˆi  2  eˆi  eˆn  eˆn eˆi   eˆr


Example 1. A ray incident in the direction of vector A  iˆ  2 jˆ  2 kˆ is reflected by mirror placed in the x-y plane. Find unit vector
in the direction of the reflected ray.

iˆ  2 jˆ  2 kˆ
Ans. eˆr 
3

Example 2. A cylindrical reflecting surface is placed with its axis along the z-axis. The principle plane y
of the cylinder is a circle x 2  y 2  25 . A ray is incident parallel to the x-axis at the point
(4, 3).

(d) Find unit vector eˆn .

(e) Find unit vector in the direction of the reflected ray.  x

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 (f) Find coordinates of the point of incidence.

Ans. (a) eˆn  45 iˆ  53 jˆ (b) eˆr  7

25
iˆ  24
25
jˆ

Example 3. A ray of light is incident on a horizontal plane mirror M1. After first
reflection at M1, the ray falls on the vertical mirror M2. y M2

(a) Express unit vector in the direction of the incidence ray. x

(b) Express unit vector in the direction of reflected ray after reflection
form M1.
(c) Express unit vector in the direction of reflected ray after reflection
form M2. M1 
(d) What regularity do you observe regarding components parallel and
d
normal to the mirror in reflection?

Ans. (a) eˆi   sin   iˆ   cos   jˆ (b) eˆi   sin   iˆ   cos   jˆ (c) eˆi    sin   iˆ   cos   jˆ

(d) Component parallel to the mirror remains unchanged and the component normal to the mirror is
reversed.

Image formation by Plane Mirror

Example 1. Consider the point objects A and B.

B
(a) Can the mirror make images of both the objects?
(b) Locate their images.
(c) Find regions from where one can see image of A only. A
(d) Find regions from where one can see image of B only.
(e) Find regions from where one can see images of both the objects A and B.
(f) Find the region in front of the mirror from no one can see either of the images.
Ans. (a) Yes (b) Images of A and B
B B’

A A’

(c, d, e, f)
FOV of B’ only

B’

A’

FOV of both
A’ and B’

FOV of neither
A’ nor B’
FOV of A’ only

Lecture: 5
Formation of Images
Field of view
Multiple images in parallel mirrors and inclined mirrors

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Formation of Images and Field of view

Example 1. Find coordinates of the image of point P for different orientation of the plane mirror shown in the figure.

(a) (b) (c)

y y y

P (a, b) P (a, b) P (a, a)

45º
x x x

(d) (e) (f)

y y y

r P
P (a, 0) P (a, 0) 
x x x
30º 
60º

Ans. (a) (a, b) (b) (a, b) (c) (a, b)

a a 3  a a 3
(d)  , 
2

2 
(e)   , 
2

2 
(f)  r cos    2   , r sin    2   
 

Example 2. Consider the extended objects in each of the following cases and draw their images.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

45º 45º

Example 3. Find positions between which an insect moving on the x-axis can see its image in the mirror. The mirror has square
shape of side 100 cm.

(a) (b)
y y
45º 30º

50
x 50
x

Ans. (a) 50 cm to (50 + 100√2) cm (b) 50√3 cm to (50√3 + 200) cm

y
M
Example 4. A man is walking on the y-axis parallel to a plane mirror M of length l. A
point object P is symmetrically placed in front of the mirror at a distance
d on the x-axis. Find the positions between which the man can see the P
l x
image of the object. d O

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3d
 Ans. Between the points (0, 2l) and (0, 2l)

Example 5. Find the lowest and the highest eye levels of a man standing on A M
to see image of a point P on the ground in the plane mirror
mounted on a wall. All dimensions are in centimeters. 10

Ans. 75 cm, 105 cm 25

P A

50 50

Example 6. A point light source P is placed on the axis of a circular mirror of radius r. The mirror
M
is mounted on a wall. Find radius of light spot obtained on the front wall.
Ans. 4r P
d O

Example 7. Minimum size of mirror

3d
Find minimum size of mirror to see full image of him.
Ans. Vertical length of the mirror must be half of the height of the man.

Example 8. Position of the mirror to see full image

A man of height 1.8 m wants to use a mirror of minimum size to see his full image. If his has eyes are 1.7 m above the
ground, what should he position the bottom of the mirror?
Ans. 0.85 m above the ground

Example 9. A man of height h is standing at the center of a room of height 2h and a mirror is installed on the front wall.
(a) To see full height of the back wall, what should be minimum size of the mirror?
(b) To see full height of the back wall as well as full image of him, what should be minimum size of the mirror?
Ans. (a) h/3 (b) 5h/6

Multiple images in parallel mirrors

A point object O is placed between two plane mirrors M1 and
a b
M2 as shown.
O
M1 M2

In mirror M1 first image is at distance 2a from O then separation between successive images
2a, 2b, 2a, 2b …………. ∞
In mirror M2 first image is at distance 2b from O then separation between successive images
2b, 2a, 2b, 2a …………. ∞

Example 1. A point object is placed between two parallel mirrors as shown in the figure.
(a) Find distance of 2nd image in M1 from O. 10 20
(b) Find distance of 2nd image in M2 from O. O
(c) Find distance of 5th image in M1 from O. M1 M2
(d) Find distance between 3rd image in M1 and 4th image in M2.

Ans. (a) 60 cm (b) 60 cm (c) 140 cm (d) 200 cm

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Lecture: 6
Multiple images in inclined mirrors
Motion of object and Mirror

Multiple images in inclined mirrors

M2
A point object S is placed between two plane mirrors
S
M1 and M2 as shown.

All the images are on a circle of radius OS and center
at O 
O M1

Angular position of the images from the object

Angular positions of images made by M1 (In clockwise direction)
2 , 2  2  , 2  2   2 , 2  2   2  2  ….. till 180     180   
Angular positions of images made by M2 (In anticlockwise direction)
2  , 2   2 , 2   2  2  , 2   2  2   2 ……till M2
180     180   

Example 1. A point object is placed between two mirrors inclined at angle 60º as shown in the S
figure. 30º
(a) Find angular positions of all the images made by M1. 30º
(b) Find angular positions of all the images made by M2. O M1
(c) Do the last two images coincide?
(d) Find total number of images.

Ans. (a) 60º, 120º, 180º 90º P1 M2

(b) 180º, 240º, 300º

(c) Yes
(d) 5 150º P2 S

30º

30º M1

210º P3
Q1 30º
150º Q3

Q2 90º

M2
Example 2. A point object is placed between two mirrors inclined at angle 60º as shown in the
figure.
S
(a) Find angular positions of images made by M1. 20º
(b) Find angular positions of images made by M2.
(c) Do the last two images coincide?
40º
(d) Find total number of images. O M1

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 Ans. (a) 40º, 120º, 160º
(b) 80º, 120º, 200º 80º M2
Q1
(c) Yes
(d) 5
S

160º Q2
20º

M1
40º

200º P3

160º Q3

P1 40º

P2 80º

Number of total images

360 Position of object No. of images

n

Even Any where n 1
Add Symmetric n 1
Symmetric n
Fraction Anywhere Integral Part

Example 3. Find total number of images, if angle between the mirrors is 30º, 45º, 60º, 72º, 75º, 90º, 120º.

Ans.
 360 Number of Images
n Symmetrical Object Asymmetrical Object

30º 12 11 11
45º 8 7 7
50º 7.2 7 7
60º 6 5 5
72º 5 4 5
75º 4.8 4 4
90º 4 3 3
110º 3.27 3 3
120º 3 2 3
Example 4. In which condition do the last two images coincide?

360
Ans. n is even


360
n is odd and the object is symmetrically placed.


Example 5. A ray reflected successively from two mirrors inclined at certain angle undergoes a deviation of 240º. The after second
reflection deviates away from intersection of the mirrors.
(a) Find the angle between the mirrors.
(b) Find the total number of images of an object placed between the mirrors.
Ans. (a) 60º (b) 5

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Motion of object and mirror
v ip  v op

v in  2v m n  v on

Example 1. A point object is moving in front of a fixed plane mirror as shown in the figure. Find
velocity of its image with respect to the ground and with respect to the object. vo y

x
  
Ans. v i  (v o cos  )iˆ  (v o sin  ) jˆ , v i  2(v o cos  )iˆ

Example 2. Find velocity of the image relative to the ground and relative to the mirror. 3 m/s

Ans. v in  10 m/s towards the left, v in / m  5 m/s towards the left 2 m/s

Example 3. Find velocity of the image relative to the object.

Ans. 12 m/s towards the right

3 m/s
Example 4. Find velocity of the image relative to the ground.
5 m/s y
 37º
Ans. v i  10 iˆ  3 jˆ x


Example 5. A point object is moving with velocity v o in front of a plane mirror that
 vo y
is moving with velocity v m as shown in the figure. vm
x
(a) Find velocity of the image.  
(b) Find speed of approach between the object and the image.

(b) 2  v m cos   v o cos  


Ans. (a) v i    2v m cos   v o cos   iˆ   v o sin   jˆ


Example 6. A point object is moving with uniform velocity v o before an
arrangement of two mirrors as shown in the figure. M2
vo
(a) Find speed of image made by M1.
(b) Find speed of image made by M2. M1 
(c) Find speed of its image in mirror M1 relative to its image in mirror
M2.

Ans. (a) vo towards right (b) 2v o sin  along normal of M2

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