5/3/2010

PSY3041 – Aims:
Lecture 8: Introduction to Ethics
Ethical Dilemma  To introduce philosophical and theoretical issues
Theories, principles & surrounding ethics
code of ethics  To explore views of ethics, key principles, and
professional resources
 To examine empirical studies of ethical issues in
Paul Jambunathan psychology
 To highlight common problems and misconceptions
about ethical and aspirational conduct
 To present some practical strategies for enhancing
ethical conduct

Ethics lectures Resources

 APS Code of Ethics (electronically available)

1. Theories, principles and codes of ethics  APS Ethical Guidelines (electronically
available)
2. Ethical dilemmas
 Francis, R. (1999) Ethics for psychologists: A
3. Procedures for making ethical decisions handbook, Chapter 8
4. Strategies for avoiding ethical problems  Steinman, et al (1998) Ethical Traps, Chapter 3

Definitions and key principles Ethics in general

 Law – governmentally imposed rules of  Based on philosophical theories

conduct
– Regulates behavioural standards tolerable by
society
 Morality – prevailing views of what
constitutes a good person & a good society
 Ethics – a range of theoretical & applied
positions on issues of conduct
– Assumption that values pervade psychology
– Process of reflection & justification
 Evoke notions such as responsibility, freedom
& risk
 Central questions
– What is a good life/society?
 Overlap with personal & political issues

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Ethical theory - Utilitarianism
 Version of consequentialism
 Views „right action‟ as one that promotes
greatest good for greatest number
– Promotion of happiness & welfare of all affected
 Does end always justify the means?
 Can consequences always be foreseen?
Professional ethics
 Draw on philosophy
– Virtues, consequences, duties, care
 Examine principles in hypothetical & real life
situations
 Represent maximum or ideal standards
 Enforced by regulating professional bodies
 Generally have a prescriptive role
First level key principles
 Dignity
 Equitability
 Prudence
 Honesty
 Openness
 Goodwill
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Ethical theory - Deontology
 Conflicts with utilitarianism
 No requirement to look at consequences
 Emphasis on duty & rules
– Disregards intention & outcomes
 Focus on rightness or wrongness of
intentions behind the action
Guiding ethical principles
Francis (1999)
 Generally refer to ethical issues that may
arise in any area of practice
 Typically arise from 2 levels:
– First level issues
 represent utmost ethical behaviour
– Second level issues
 Procedural principles & standards
First level principle - Dignity
 Treat individuals as an end in themselves
rather than means to an end
 Conflict between making money & helping
 Act to preserve an individuals dignity
 Treat people with respect
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First level principle - Equitability
 Even-handedness in judgements and
relationships
 Agreements are equally informed
 Prevent misuse of power
 Boundaries need to be clear in cases of
asymmetric power
First level principle - Honesty
 Straightforwardness & truthfulness
 Not dishonest, deceitful, false
 Involves consistency
 Honesty (but not brutally) & self-honesty
First level principle - Goodwill
 Often critical to success as a psychologist
 Not just doing the minimum
 Other-oriented rather than selfish
 Service to others & collegiality
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First level principle - Prudence
 Aiming to „do no harm‟
 Connected with risk & possible harmful
consequences
 Inaction may also be unethical
First level principle - Openness
 With clients & others (even about reasons for
non-disclosure)
 Respect for & protection of privacy
 Quality of candour
Professional ethics & codes
 Aim to promote sound professional practice
 Aspirational in contrast to mandatory ethics
 Applied in relations with clients, colleagues
& the general public in order to protect:
1. Client welfare
2. Integrity of the profession
 Constantly reviewed & updated
 Differ between countries
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Psychological registration & ethical

codes of conduct APS Ethical Principles

 State specific registration board  General principle A:

– Victorian Psychological Registration Board – Respect for the rights & dignity of people & peoples
– Legal body  General principle B:
– Requirement for registration to practice – Propriety
– Handles complaints  General principle C
 Australian Psychological Society – Integrity
– National professional membership
– No requirement for membership
– Developed Code of Ethics

A: Respect for rights & dignity of

people & peoples B: Propriety

“Psychologists regard people as intrinsically
valuable & respect their rights, including the
right to autonomy & justice. Psychologists
engage in conduct which promotes equity & the
protection of people’s human rights, legal rights
& moral rights. They respect the dignity of all
people & peoples” (APS, 2007, p.11)
“Psychologists ensure that they are competent to
deliver the psychological services they provide.
They provide psychological services to benefit,
& not to harm. Psychologists seek to protect
the interests of the people & peoples with
whom they work. The welfare of clients & the
public, & the standing of the profession take
precedence over a psychologist’s self-interest”
(APS, 2007, p.18)

C: Integrity
Ethical dilemmas
“Psychologists recognise that their knowledge of
the discipline of psychology, their professional
standing, & the information that they gather
place them in a position of power & trust.
Psychologists keep faith with the nature & Topic 2
intentions of their professional relationships.
Psychologists act with probity & honesty in
their conduct” (APS, 2007, p.26)

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Overview Resources

 Ethical traps  MacKay, E & O‟Neill, P (1992) What creates the

dilemma in ethical dilemmas? Examples from
 Ethical dilemmas
psychological practice. Ethics & behaviour, 2, 227-
 Common ethical dilemmas 244
 Summary  Pope. K., S & Vetter, V. A (1992) Ethical dilemmas
encountered by members of the APA: A national
survey. American Psychologist, 47, 397-411
 Lindsay, G & Colley, A (1995) Ethical dilemmas of
members of the society. The Psychologist, 8, 448-
449

Ethical traps
Steinman et al., (1998) Commonsense objectivity trap

 Commonsense objectivity trap

 Belief that solutions are easy because
 Values trap psychologists are basically ethical
 Circumstantiality trap  Erroneous assumption of objectivity
 Who will benefit trap  Generalisation based on „what is normal for
me‟
 Facts appear to be „value free‟

Values trap Circumstantiality trap

 Belief that personal moral & religious

convictions are related to ethics
 Confusion about what ethical codes are &
are not
 Awareness about personal values & beliefs
required
 Based on circumstances & relativity
 Often not mitigating
 May have some bearing on consequences
 Defensible circumstances are rare

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Who will benefit trap Ethical versus mixed dilemmas

 Typically arises when working with multiple  Ethical dilemmas

clients
 Problem when there are potential winners &
losers
 Not always a client-first view
 Consideration of long-term rather than short-
term interests of client may be appropriate
– Perceived conflict of ethical principles in which
different actions are prescribed
 Mixed dilemmas
– Dilemmas where a prescribed course of action is
blocked in some manner (an ethical principle versus
an external protagonist
– Impediments inc the legal system, employer‟s
demands, interprofessional relationships, &
inadequate resources

Prevalence of ethical dilemmas Psych Registration Board of Vic

BPS% APA%  In 2007

 Confidentiality 17 18
– 5987 registered psychologists
 Research 10 4
 Sexual issues 6 4 – 1518 probationary psychologists
 Assessment 6 4 – 61 new ethics complaints
 Organisational 5 1  The most common complaints included:
 Dual relationships 3 17
– 18% - Inadequate standards of practice
 Payment 3 14
 Academic training 3 8 – 14% - Unprofessional conduct related to report
 Supervision 3 2 writing
 Competence 3 3 – 11% - Abuse of professional position

Common ethical dilemmas Working in rural locations

 Undertaking work in a rural location Dilemmas may involve:

 Confidentiality
 Research  Dual relationships
 Dual relationships  Competence
 School psychology
 Burnout
 Sexual issues
 Assessment  Confidentiality
 Payment  Visibility
 Academic training & supervision
 Forensic situations
 Competence

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Confidentiality
Dilemmas may involve:
 Actual or perceived risks to 3rd parties
 Reporting child abuse, HIV/Aids, threats or
actual violence
 Disclosure of withheld information
 Concerns about careless/unintentional
disclosure
 Access to records
Dual relationships
 Maintenance of clear, reasonable &
therapeutic boundaries
 Can be accidental or incidental extra
therapeutic contacts
 Decisions centre on entering into or avoiding
such relationships
 Can be difficult in rural practices
 Also may involve other roles (eg supervision,
teaching)
Sexual issues
 Conditions minimised to allow psychologists
to use others for their own gratification
 No sexual relationships with any clients,
students, supervisees, in a therapeutic,
teaching or supervisory relationship
 Part of a more general prohibition on dual or
multiple relationships
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Research
Dilemmas may involve:
 Unethical procedures
 Informed consent
 Health risk or harm to participants
 Deception
 Misrepresentation &/or fabrication of findings
 Detection of illegal behaviour
School psychology
 Concern with respect to restrictions on work
 Needs versus reality of provision of services
 Lack of availability of specialist services
 Conflicts with school policies
Assessment
 Availability of tests to individuals
inadequately trained
 Conclusions based on inadequate data
 Ignorance of other important sources of data
– Interview
– Behavioural observations
– Collateral information
 Failure to discuss results with the individual
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Payment
 Psychologists feeling compelled to offer less
than adequate care
 Billing for no-shows, potentially punitive
approach
 Conflict between client & person paying
 Gifts (eg expensive presents)
 Unnecessarily prolonging professional
relationship
Forensic
 Concerns about „hired guns‟
 Assessments linked to outcomes
 Concern about another‟s testimony
 Recommendations based on inadequate or
biased data
 Discomfort with revealing personal &
sensitive information
Process & resolution
 Expect to encounter ethical dilemmas
 It is your responses that determine whether
your behaviour is ethical or not
 Many problems begin innocently &
individuals can be unaware of a dilemma
– This is no excuse!
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Academic training & supervision
 Inflated grades
 Discrimination
 Potential for exploitation
 Misuse of power
 Problems with competence
 Impositions of own viewpoint & style on
others
Competence
 Concerns about areas of little competence
 Erosion of competence over time
 Failure to maintain current knowledge base
 Intrusion of personal issues & „blind spots‟
 Burn out & failure to address one‟s own
problems
Resources
MacKay, E., & O‟Neill, P. (1992). What creates the
dilemma in ethical dilemmas? Examples from
psychological practice. Ethics & Behaviour, 2, 227-244.
Pope, K. S, & Vetter, V. A. (1992). Ethical dilemmas
encountered by members of the American Psychological
Association: A national survey. American Psychologist,
47, 397-411.
Lindsay, G., & Colley, A. (1995). Ethical dilemmas of
members of the society. The Psychologist, 8, 448-449.
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Ethical traps
Steinman et al. (1998)
Commonsense objectivity trap
Values trap
Circumstantiality trap
Who will benefit trap
Values trap
Can occur when personal, moral and religious
convictions are preferred
They are important but not professional and
on-the-job
Conflicts may occur which need to be resolved
May think beliefs have special force
Who will benefit trap
Problem when there are potential winners
and losers
Not always a client-first view
Long-term rather than short-term interests of
client may be appropriate
Also professional and personal self-protection
is important
Examples include threatening behaviour or a
need to report
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Commonsense objectivity trap
Belief that solutions are easy because
psychologists are basically ethical
Objectivity and subjectivity
“Real” differences which reflect personal
biases
Generalization on the basis of what is normal
for me
Facts appear to be “value free”
Circumstantiality trap
Based on circumstances and relativity
Often not mitigating
May have some bearing on the consequences
Cannot as professionals decide upon
provisional acceptance
Defensible circumstances are rare
Ethical versus mixed dilemmas
Ethical Dilemmas
Perceived conflict of ethical principles in which
different actions are prescribed
Mixed Dilemmas
Dilemmas in which a prescribed course of
action is blocked in some manner (an ethical
principle versus an external protagonist.
Impediments include the legal system,
employer‟s demands, inter-profession
relationships, and inadequate resources
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Common ethical dilemmas

Common ethical dilemmas
%BPS %APA
Pope and Vetter‟s (1992) survey reported Confidentiality 17 18
ethical dilemmas among APA members Research 10 4
Questionable int. 8 3
Colleague‟s cond. 7 4
Lindsay and Colley‟s (1995) survey of BPS School psych 7 2
members found similar results Sexual issues 6 4
Assessment 6 4
Organizational 5 1
Dual relationships 3 17
Payment 3 14
Academic training 3 8
Supervision 3 2
Forensic 2 5
Competence 3 3

Difficult to judge
PRBV (Sullivan, 2002)

 In 2006 there were 5,730 registered psychologists
 1496 registered probationary psychologists in 2006
 Approx. 44 new ethics complaints in 2006.
 The most common complaints in 2006 included:
– Inadequate standard of practice - 25.6%
– Unprofessional conduct related to a written report –
20.9%
– Abuse of professional position – 14%
 Recruiting private clients through an agency
contact.
 Providing personal advice in the media.
 Collecting fees through legal action.
 Inviting clients to an office open house.
 Contingency fees for forensic work.
 Earning a salary based on a percentage of
the client‟s fee.

Rural concerns Confidentiality

 Multiple relationships Dilemmas involved:

 Competence actual or potential risks to third parties
 Burnout reporting child abuse, HIV or AIDS, threats or
 Confidentiality actual violence
 Visibility disclosure of withheld information
concerns about careless/unintentional
disclosure
access to records

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Research Questionable intervention

Concerns about:  Whether conducted by oneself or others

unethical procedures
 Choices between treatments with different
informed consent
costs/benefits
health risk/harm to participants
 Release of clients into potentially harmful
disclosure of sensitive personal information (without
follow-up mechanisms) situation
deception  Interventions based on cost not
mistatement/fabrication of findings effectiveness/evidence
no acknowledgement in publications
detection of illegal behaviour

Dual relationships School psychology

Involves maintaining clear, reasonable and therapeutic

boundaries around the client-professional relationship Concern regarding restrictions on work
Can be accidental or incidental extra-therapeutic Needs versus reality of provision
contacts Lack of specialist services
Pope and Vetter mention blurred and conflictual Conflicts with school policies
relationships
Decisions centre on entering into or avoiding such
relationships
Can be difficult in rural practices
Also involves other roles (e.g., supervision, teaching)

Sexual issues Assessment

Conditions minimized to allow psychologists to use Availability of tests to individuals inadequately

others for their own gratification
trained
No sexual relationships with any clients, students or
supervisees, respectively, in therapeutic, teaching,
Conclusions based on inadequate data
and supervisory relationships Ignorance of other important sources of data
Includes touching, physical activity without consent Failure to discuss results with the person
Part of more general prohibition on dual or multiple
relationships

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Payment Academic training

Psychologists feeling compelled to offer less than Selection and graduation of unqualified
adequate care students
Billing for no-shows, potentially punitive approach Inflated grades
Conflict between client and person paying Discrimination
Gifts (e.g., expensive presents, wills, TVs!) Potential exploitation of students
Unnecessarily prolonging professional
Misuses of power
relationship
Teaching with insufficient resources

Supervision Forensic

Concerns about supervisors who are Concerns about “hired guns”

neglectful Assessments linked to outcome
Includes also supervisors who are Concern about another‟s testimony
disrespectful Recommendations based on inadequate or
Problems with competence biased data
Impositions of own viewpoint and style on Discomfort with revealing personal and
others sensitive information

Competence Process and resolution

Concerns about areas of little competence Ethical dilemmas will arise

Erosion of competence over time
Failure to maintain current knowledge base
Intrusion of personal issues and “blind spots”
Burn out and failure to address one‟s own
problems
ethical dilemma ≠ unethical
Responses determine whether one‟s
behaviour is unethical
Many problems begin innocently and
individuals are not always aware of a dilemma
Hence the need for procedures

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Summary

 Theories and principles

 Professional ethics and codes
 Guiding principles
 First-level principles and standards
 APS Code of ethics and ethical principles
 Ethical traps
 Ethical dilemmas
 Common ethical dilemmas experienced by psychologists
 Next week: Ethical decision making and strategies for avoiding
ethical dilemmas

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