THE AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL JUNE 2003 307

Aero engines of the future

P. C. Ruffles
Rolls-Royce

1.0 INTRODUCTION
One hundred and two years ago, after the Wright brothers had just
attempted another unsuccessful flight, they predicted that it would be
another 50 years before manned flight was achieved. Only two years
later and 100 years ago this year, Orville Wright achieved the first
powered flight at Kitty Hawk in North Carolina, illustrating just how
difficult it is to predict the future and at the same time launching the
pioneering age of aviation.
Since this memorable day aviation has grown at a phenomenal
rate and is now an essential part of our way of life, with society
completely dependent on the ability to transport both people and
goods safely, in comfort and in short travel times made possible by
modern aircraft and their engines. Nations across the globe have also
become highly dependant upon the aircraft as part of their national
defence force.
The two major aerospace sectors of civil and defence, from a
common beginning, have taken quite different directions over time.
Recently we have seen the military market develop from the cold Figure 1. Current civil technology drivers.
war era into one of regional conflicts, where a wide range of
complex scenarios present many new challenges for the aircraft and
engine designer. Reduced defence budgets have also pushed afford-
ability further up the agenda and these trends look set to continue. 2.0 CIVIL AEROSPACE
The civil sector, on the other hand, is driven by safety, cost of
ownership, and passenger choice with environmental factors taking
on ever increasing importance as we move towards an age of 2.1 Market drivers
sustainable growth. Ultimately this direction will be determined by
The civil aerospace market today is vast and diverse, covering a wide
the approach that the industry’s governing bodies play in addressing range of different aircraft types from large commercial airliners and
Society’s concerns over the environmental impact of aviation. It is smaller regional jets to supersonic passenger aircraft and business jets
also possible that economic factors, such as the availability of as well as rotorcraft for private and commercial use. Overall the
kerosene will, in the longer term, influence the future direction of the market continues to grow at a predicted rate of around 5% per annum,
industry. with the highest growth coming from Asia and other less developed
If the pressure for environmentally clean aircraft becomes domi- parts of the world. Although increased use of Information Technology
nant then we are likely to see accelerated technological development may moderate the growth of high yield business travel and fast cargo
of novel aircraft and aero-engine concepts. Whichever direction the ships may divert some of the anticipated freight growth, these effects
industry takes, both evolutionary and revolutionary underpinning will most likely be offset by the general increase in economic activity
technologies will be required, with innovative approaches in aero- that IT and the Internet create. In passenger terms, the market growth
engine design continuing to be a major contributor. is likely to produce a general increase in the size of aircraft in most
This paper will examine both the civil and defence aerospace sectors as well as forcing some fundamental infrastructure improve-
sectors and open up the debate by highlighting the key factors influ- ments in order to tackle issues surrounding airport security, capacity,
encing the future direction in these markets. It will address the likely air traffic management and safety.
requirements for aircraft propulsion systems in the near, medium and Although the propulsion requirements differ according to indi-
longer-term, together with the underpinning technologies that are vidual aircraft types, there are a number of factors that drive aircraft
likely to prove essential in delivering the propulsion systems that the and engine design dependant upon aircraft size, range and utilisation
community and the customer demand. (see Fig. 1). In all cases however, the designer is aiming to minimise
308 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL JUNE 2003

Figure 2. Widest market coverage with the Trent family. Figure 3. A380 and Trent 900.

cost of ownership whilst satisfying environmental and safety

requirements imposed either by competition or regulation. For
example in long haul operation, aircraft are normally large placing
great emphasis on low noise and fuel efficient engine designs
whereas in short haul operation the aircraft are smaller with greater
emphasis being placed on first cost and cyclic life. Business jets on
the other hand are small and have low utilisation, therefore life and
external noise are less important but reliability and low cabin noise
are of paramount importance.
Looking firstly at the environmental factors, noise and emissions
(CO, HC and NOx) are driven by public acceptability embodied in
either international or local legislation, whereas CO2 emissions relate
directly to fuel burn and are currently driven by aircraft economics.
We have already reached a point with large aircraft where perfor-
mance and economics are compromised in order to satisfy noise
requirements. Depending on the level of environmental regulation
facing the industry over the coming decades, and the relative impor-
tance attached to each contributor, we may well see the shape of aero Figure 4: Trent 900 high technology at low risk
engines and aircraft change significantly. The Advisory Council for
Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE) in recognising these
trends has set extremely challenging goals for the research agenda
for aeronautics by 2020, including aggressive environmental, safety
or are already under development. These products will incorporate
and economic targets. These targets will drive designs of future
technology that is already largely proven and understood. In the
generations of aero-engines and aircraft, thereby accelerating techno-
wide body sector this will include the Airbus A330, A340, and
logical progress and forcing novel, higher risk solutions than today’s
A380, the Boeing 777 and potentially the Boeing 747 all powered by
relatively mature products.
the Trent engine family (see Fig. 2).
Life cycle costs embracing initial cost, life, reliability and main-
The Airbus A380 is the largest and latest wide body aircraft due to
tainability will, nevertheless, remain important economic drivers as
enter service in 2006 powered by the three-shaft, ultra high by-pass
airlines continue to reduce seat costs in order to win market share
ratio Trent 900 engine — the latest development of the Rolls-Royce
and sustain growth by offering air travel to an increasing proportion
Trent family of turbofan engines (see Fig. 3).
of the population. In response to these challenges, as well as
The Trent 900 engine incorporates significant new technologies
providing better aircraft and engines through the introduction of over previous Trent engines as illustrated in Fig. 4, notably the first
advanced technologies and design concepts, manufacturers will fully swept fan design, 3D aerodynamics throughout the compres-
increasingly become service providers by using their product knowl- sors and advanced 3D designs in the turbines, all aimed at improving
edge to provide superior services, coupled with taking on greater efficiency. The swept fan will also reduce noise. The HP (high pres-
responsibility for the operating costs of their products. This will sure) system will be contra-rotating further improving turbine effi-
produce changes in the way products are designed to ensure lower ciencies (a concept read across from military applications) and the
costs throughout the life cycle. by-pass ratio is increased from previous Trent engines in order to
improve specific fuel consumption and further reduce noise. Much
2.2 Near term of this technology was at the research stage when the Trent 700 and
Trent 800 engines were first developed early in the last decade.
Due to the lengthy product development cycles and the time taken to At the smaller end of the market, two-shaft lower OPR (overall
validate new technologies, the products that will enter service in the pressure ratio), high by-pass ratio turbofans will remain the propulsion
next five or so years will be developments of those that already exist system for the majority of narrow body aircraft from small airliners,
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE
Figure 5. Widest market coverage with the two-shaft family.
Figure 6. The BR700 family applications.
regional aircraft and most business jets, with turboprops providing
power for regional aircraft below about 50 seats (see Fig. 5).
The International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500 engine, powering
the Airbus A320 family has proven to be an extremely successful
product in this fiercely competitive area of the market. Rolls-Royce
has played a key role in this international consortium and will
continue to do so through the IAE ‘Vista’ product strategy. In the
near-term, this includes both performance and durability improve-
ments and modifications to the V2500 engine, whilst longer-term
technological developments and preliminary design activity will
ensure that a competitive product is available for the next generation
single aisle aircraft. The Rolls-Royce two-shaft engine strategy will
be a key contributor to this activity.
Experience gained on the design and development of the V2500
compressor has been read across to the development of the BR700
compressor. The BR700 series of engines, which employs a similar
low risk derivative approach to the Trent family, seeks a further
near-term application on the Global 5000 aircraft in addition to the
Boeing 717, Gulfstream V and Global Express (see Fig. 6). The
BR710 variant of this family meets the market requirements of the
large business jet sector through providing high performance and low
cost of ownership, whilst retaining strong environmental performance.
For the regional market and medium sized business jets, the
309
Figure 7: The Boeing 7E7.
AE3007 powers the Cessna Citation X and the Embraer ERJ family
and has found successful military application on the Global Hawk.
The engine core is itself a derivative of the AE1107C engine used in
the SAAB 2000 commuter aircraft, which also has military applica-
tions and these are discussed later in the paper.
In addition to new product applications, existing products will be
progressively upgraded with new technology as operators attempt to
maximise the value of their assets over several decades of operation.
Technology upgrades are aimed at improving efficiency and oper-
ating cost while minimising their environmental impact and bringing
the products in line with new environmental legislation.
2.3 Medium term
Although the medium term presents more unknowns, product
configurations are likely to be evolutionary as the associated
enabling technologies are already largely identified. Again, the
lengthy product development cycles and the cost and safety driven
requirement to validate technologies prior to application, means that
many of the technologies that will feature in the products in the next
ten years, are currently at the validation phase.
The debate continues over the direction that the next generation of
large civil aircraft will take. Boeing and Airbus have expressed their
differing views on the requirements for either faster, more direct
aircraft flying point to point, or larger aircraft operating from
growing hubs. Both requirements have a place provided the
passenger is prepared to pay a premium for the benefit of a shorter
journey time.
Originally, Boeing offered the Sonic Cruiser, which thorough
investigation showed to be unviable economically. As an alternative,
the 7E7 is now offered (see Fig. 7), aiming to achieve improved
economic and environmental performance.
The engine for the 7E7 would be a new generation of engine,
building on the success of the Trent family using three-shaft archi-
tecture. A significant amount of new technology, designated
‘Vision10 technology’' by Rolls-Royce, would be incorporated,
possibly including embedded electric starting, integrally bladed
(blisk) compressors and significant weight reductions through use of
advanced materials and reduced parts count (Fig. 8).
In the medium size and range of aircraft, it is likely that we will
see a new generation of products as a replacement for current 180 to
280-seat aircraft. Presently this new aircraft type is likely to be a
largely conventional aircraft following the classic swept wing design
of current subsonic transport aircraft, but with new engine and
aircraft technologies and design methods, all aimed at addressing
310 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
Figure 8. Conceptual engine for future 250-seat aircraft.
Figure 9. ANTLE — proving technology.
both the environmental and economic challenges that face the
industry. The engine is likely to have a thrust above 40,000lb where
the three-shaft architecture is optimum and will feature the same
technologies as proposed for the 7E7 but the engine thermodynamic
cycle will be optimised to the application.
The ANTLE (affordable near term low emissions) engine
programme will deliver the technology to support this architecture
and is very much focussed on the environmental aspects including
noise and emissions, thermal, propulsive and component efficiencies
and weight reduction, in order to deliver fuel burn improvements and
hence CO2 production. Reduced through life costs, better reliability
and maintainability are also being addressed (see Fig. 9).
ANTLE is a European Union programme led by Rolls-Royce based
on a Trent 500 engine. Many of the technologies are applicable right
across the product range including military applications. ANTLE
incorporates a new HP system with a low-emissions combustor incor-
porating a novel fuel staging system and an advanced compressor
incorporating blisks, an advanced unshrouded HP turbine and a vari-
able capacity IP (intermediate pressure) turbine. The HP system also
incorporates a novel embedded electrical starting system. The LP (low
pressure) turbine is very highly loaded to enable high bypass ratios to
be achieved without increasing the number of turbine stages and a new
IP compressor with fewer stages will be introduced at a later date.
JUNE 2003
Figure 10. E3E — proving technology.
The medium-term will also almost certainly feature developments
of existing models of aircraft and new smaller aircraft developments
from other parts of the world in addition to those from Airbus and
Boeing, encouraged by the recent success of the South American
manufacturer Embraer and the Canadian Bombardier products in the
smaller regional jet sector. For example a 100-seater aircraft
programme in China is already underway and will serve to develop
their industry appreciably, although engines will come from Western
suppliers.
These types of aircraft will be powered by two-shaft high by-pass
engines adopting technology developed through the German aero-
space research programme known as ‘Engine 3E’ (E3E — effi-
ciency, environment, and economy), which is fully integrated with
the ANTLE programme (see Fig. 10). E3E features a new advanced
compressor and has a strong focus on improving noise and combus-
tion emissions as well as cost which contributes much more to direct
operating cost than on longer-haul operations. It has to be noted
however that short-haul operations are a big contributor to global
warming which could lead to a reprioritisation of drivers for this
sector were a carbon tax or other legislation introduced to control
CO2 emissions.
Other technology demonstration programmes include the quiet
technology demonstrator (QTD), which is a joint programme with
Boeing, aimed specifically at noise technology, reducing both jet and
fan noise through the use of serrated nozzles and advanced acoustic
linings. The complimentary SILENCE(R) (significantly lower aircraft
environmental noise community exposure) programme is a European
programme, led by Rolls-Royce, which also aims to validate further
noise reduction technologies within the 10-year time frame.
2.4 Longer term
The longer-term view on the direction that aero-engine manufac-
turers follow is far more difficult to foresee. As the industry enters a
new era of sustainable growth with enforced, highly stringent envi-
ronmental targets being the primary concerns of aircraft and engine
designers, a step change in aircraft and engine designs, as well as the
key technologies within them, will be required. The specific ACARE
goals for 2020 include cutting by half the current perceived average
noise levels, reducing CO2 by 50%, reducing NOx by 80% and
reducing accident rates by a factor of five. Of these goals, that
related to CO2 is undoubtedly the most arduous and will require a
more radical approach to the way the air transport system, including
aircraft and engines, is designed and operated.
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE
Figure 11. Global fuel consumption breakdown
(reproduced with kind permission of ACARE).
Figure 12. New aircraft concepts – ‘low noise’ concept
(reproduced with kind permission of ACARE).
As Fig. 11 shows, 50% of the world’s aviation fuel is currently
used on sectors of less than 1,200nm. In view of this and with the
ACARE goals in mind, the issue of the design of short haul aircraft,
which are optimised around overall economics, passenger comfort
and convenience rather than fuel burn, is immediately raised. For
journeys of this short distance, the time penalty through switching to
slower aircraft would be minimal allowing aircraft and engine
designs to be focussed on fuel efficiency at the expense of overall
operating economics. Aircraft are likely to be of conventional layout
with up to 250 seats, using engines of very high by pass ratio
(including open rotor engines) and overall pressure ratio with high
component efficiencies. Aircraft could become larger at the expense
of frequency whilst more direct routing by better air traffic manage-
ment could yield further benefits. Future aircraft concepts in this
sector might include the ‘low noise concept aircraft’, where engines
are mounted on the top of the aircraft to reduce noise effects on the
ground (see Fig. 12).
However in the long haul market, the need to maintain speeds at
current levels is the most likely outcome but using novel aircraft (see
Fig. 13) and engines to further reduce aircraft drag and engine
specific fuel consumption (SFC). Concepts being evaluated include
311
Figure 13. New aircraft concepts.
Figure 14. Novel aircraft and engine concepts.
the ‘blended wing body’ (BWB) aircraft, the ‘lifting body’ style
aircraft and the ‘three-surface lifting aircraft’. The most promising of
these is the BWB, which offers significant aerodynamic benefits due
to its reduced wetted area and friction drag. This would produce the
type of step change required to meet potential fuel burn improve-
ments. Design constraints, notably the wing depth determined by
passenger height, limit the minimum size of a BWB aircraft to above
that of wide-body aircraft. With this configuration the optimum
engine solution may well be quite different to today’s large turbo-
fans. In fact much work has been done in assessing the contra-
rotating aft fan (see Fig. 14).
This design improves fuel consumption, weight and noise. The aft
fan configuration lifts the air intake clear of the wing and so enables
top-mounted (rather than underslung) engines to be located closer to
the fuselage. The top mounted engine allows the wing surface itself
to act as an additional noise absorber.
However, even with these new engine architectures there is a ther-
modynamic limit to the improvements that can be realised by using a
conventional Joule cycle engine. A recent study, based on a conven-
tional Joule cycle, predicted that SFC improvements from continuing
to improve cycle parameters, component efficiencies and lower
312 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
cooling flows are likely to be no more than ten per cent. This is
much less than in the past, although the most rewarding area is by
further increasing by-pass ratio provided the installation penalties of
increased drag and weight can be avoided.
As solutions are sought to provide cleaner, quieter and more effi-
cient engines, these highly interactive design trade-offs become
increasingly important considerations. They also serve to highlight
the significance of the approach of the governing environmental
bodies in establishing an effective legislative and economic balance,
aimed at minimising the overall environmental impact of the
industry.
Advanced cycle engines embodying constant volume combustion
would also provide significant efficiency improvements if the sealing
and vibratory stress problems associated with this concept could be
overcome. Recent studies on concepts for high Mach number vehicles
have yielded some very promising results in this area(6).
In looking beyond the horizon of the next 25 years, it is necessary
to consider alternative fuels both from the viewpoint of emissions
and security of supply. Recent studies predict that supplies of
kerosene, or a synthetic substitute from natural gas, would prevent
the industry from facing a kerosene shortage until 2090(2). However,
environmental pressure may expedite a move towards alternative
fuels that are cleaner than kerosene.
Hydrogen and methane are the most obvious alternatives, with
methane producing significantly less CO2 as a combustion by-
product and hydrogen producing none at all. However, the result is
an increase in the production of water vapour, the effects of which
are not yet fully understood. Resulting contrails and increased cirrus
formation may also have a detrimental effect as regards climate
change. Together with the practical problems posed in terms of fuel
storage, manufacture and safety issues, it is unlikely that we will see
the commercial use of such alternative fuels for some time.
However, the picture in the longer-term must not preclude these
from the frame.
3.0 DEFENCE AEROSPACE
3.1 Market drivers
The defence market today encompasses a wide range of different
aircraft roles from combat to reconnaissance, from helicopters to
transports, from tankers to missiles and from light combat and
trainers to the emerging, yet increasing market for unmanned aircraft
of all types. The removal of the pilot from vehicles where human
interaction is not necessary provides numerous advantages including;
more stealthy shape, non-pressurised cabins with more space, uncom-
promised longer duration missions and a significantly reduced
training demand. These factors are leading to increased focus on the
development of unmanned air vehicles and unmanned combat air
vehicles (UAVs and UCAVs) opening up brand new opportunities to
change the shape of military air strategies into the future.
Currently the defence aerospace market is growing from the low
levels reached after the end of the cold war, although time has seen a
shift in the particular requirements as a result of the changing shape
of recent conflicts. Whilst new requirements emerge, life-cycle costs
of existing and new equipment and affordability will determine what
new equipment is acquired. Increased international collaboration, the
development of network-centric defence systems, technology read-
across from the civil aerospace sector, together with the develop-
ment of multi-use engine cores are all seen as essential means of
making the required developments affordable.
Thrust to weight ratio, increased Mach number, safety, reliability
(including prognostics and diagnostics), fuel burn, survivability,
maintainability, emissions and noise remain key drivers in the
defence sector, although the relative importance of each is highly
dependent upon the application (see Fig. 15).
JUNE 2003
Figure 15. Current military technology drivers.
In the area of manned combat, which is likely to be one of the
largest market sectors over the next 20 years, high thrust to weight
ratio remains an important design requirement in order to provide air
superiority and good low altitude strike capability. There is also a
continued need for such aircraft to be ‘carrier capable’. Emphasis in
the transport sector is on heavy lift capability, deployment, and short
field performance requiring engines with low fuel burn and low
overall product life cycle cost. Helicopters will continue to be used
for troop carrying capability, support and heavy lift especially in hot
and high environments, although offensive roles will increasingly
move toward UCARs (unmanned combat armed rotorcraft). In
engine terms, power to weight ratio, robustness and durability are
the crucial requirements in the helicopter sector.
In the trainer and light aircraft sector, cost is the major driver as
aircraft are often complementary to relatively inexpensive simulation
tools. There is still, however, a large market in the developing world
where trainer aircraft often perform a light combat role.
The primary market drivers in the UAV and UCAV sector are
strongly dependent on the mission requirements. For unmanned
reconnaissance aircraft very high altitude and long duration are key,
requiring low specific thrust engines whilst, UCAVs on the other
hand, require very high specific thrust. The requirement for
autonomous operation, shared by all engines powering this new
family of aircraft, provides a unique new requirement for the devel-
opment of new technologies and processes and in particular the
demand for lightweight electrical power. A further new requirement
in this area is the need for long-term storage. Missiles, also a partic-
ular form of UCAV, have the additional requirement for the propul-
sion system to be expendable.
Product development cycles in the military market are generally
longer and less frequent than their civil counterparts. As a result,
recent times have seen more technology transfer in the civil to mili-
tary direction, which is a dramatic change from the position 20 to 30
years ago.
3.2 The near term
In the near-term engines will be largely conventional embodying
largely proven technologies developed in the late 1980s and early
1990s but will be updated during their life with new technology
currently under development (see Fig. 16).
The EJ200 engine for the Eurofighter Typhoon manned fighter is
one of only three new combat engines satisfying the market for a
versatile manned fighter with excellent air superiority. The EJ200
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE
Figure 16. Near term technology injection.
Figure 17. T406 family.
contains significant innovative technology including all blisk LP
and HP compressors, single-stage shroudless, single crystal HP
turbine blades as well as brush seals and an airspray combustor
derived from the Trent civil engine.
The Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322 engine for the EH101,
NH90 and Apache helicopters provides an excellent example of a
near-term product aimed at the growing military helicopter sector,
where innovative design and state-of-the-art technology were essen-
tial in penetrating a highly competitive market. Technologies include
a unique inlet particle separator, which prevents FOD (foreign object
damage) and erosion but has no moving parts, a three-stage blisk
axial compressor, compact annular combustor and a highly efficient
gas generator turbine using single crystal material.
The V-22 Osprey tilt rotor aircraft (see Fig. 17) fulfils a unique
requirement in the military transport arena and required the develop-
ment of the Rolls-Royce AE 1107C turboshaft engine. The wing-tip
tilting nacelles and self-contained oil system were designed to
accommodate vertical and horizontal operation and provided major
technological challenges during development.
This core has since been used in the Rolls-Royce AE 2100 turbo-
propellor engine for the Lockheed Martin C-130J military transport
aircraft. The turboprop’s inherently better thermal efficiency and
313
Figure 18. Rolls-Royce STOVL technology in action.
high take off thrust provide both the low fuel burn and short runway
field performance essential to this type of aircraft. The final member
of this family of engines to share the same core is the Rolls-Royce
AE 3007 turbofan, powering the Northrop Grumman Ryan Aeronau-
tical Centre Global Hawk unmanned surveillance aircraft. The
engine, incorporating a wide chord single-stage fan to provide the
required fuel efficiency and noise performance was initially devel-
oped for the business and regional jet markets in the civil sector.
However its versatility has made it capable of satisfying the require-
ments of this emerging military unmanned market sector.
3.3 Medium term
In the medium term, the emphasis will be on versatility in order to
contain costs by making one basic aircraft design satisfy several
roles. This philosophy has been applied to the Joint Strike Fighter
(JSF) multi-role aircraft, the most important fighter for the next 30
years, where CTOL (conventional take-off and landing), VSTOL
(vertical or short take-off and landing) and carrier variants aim to
provide all military services with versatile and affordable aircraft in
large production volumes.
The STOVL (short take-off and vertical landing) variant of the
JSF provides its forward lift with the novel Rolls-Royce LiftFan®
system, incorporating significant innovative technology in both its
aerodynamic and mechanical design. Rearward lift is provided by an
innovative three bearing deflecting nozzle fitted to the main propul-
sion engine. The fan comprises a two-stage contra-rotating high
flow, low-pressure ratio blisked fan rotor driven by the main propul-
sion engine and provides around 19000lbs thrust vertically. The
multi-plate clutch and gearbox transmit nearly 30,000hp whilst the
fan exit flow is directed through a variable area vane box nozzle
(VAVBN) with a considerable range of deflection. It can be
deployed at relatively high aircraft speeds in conditions of high inlet
distortion and at high clutch engagement speeds (see Fig. 19).
As part of the JSF programme Rolls-Royce has also teamed up
with General Electric in order to deliver the F136 — the alternative
engine to the baseline Pratt & Whitney F135. The F136 engine will
again include many new technologies and will find applications in
other military aircraft in this thrust range (see Fig. 20).
The engine uses a second-generation hollow SPF/DB (super plas-
tically formed/diffusion bonded) blisk fan based on technology
developed in the civil sector and also used in the LiftFan®. The
combustion system and HP NGV (nozzle guide vane) are Rolls-
Royce design responsibility and feature unique transpiration cooling
technologies in the form of the Lamilloy® and the advanced Cast-
314 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
Figure 19. JSF lift system.
Figure 20. Applying advanced technologies — F136.
Bond® process developed under the United States IHPTET (inte-
grated high performance turbine engine technology) defence tech-
nology demonstration programme. These technologies will all have
wide applicability in the longer-term.
The European requirement for a new military transport will be
satisfied by the A400M airlifter being developed by Airbus Military.
The propulsion system requirements for heavy lift capability and
short field performance with low fuel burn require a high power
TP400 turboprop of 12,000hp, the largest to be developed in the
western world (see Fig. 21). The engine will be developed by the
Aero Propulsion Alliance (APA) in which Rolls-Royce, Snecma,
MTU, Fiat and ITP are partners.
A three-shaft configuration was selected to enable a high-pressure
ratio engine cycle to be used whilst avoiding the handling
complexity associated with an arrangement where the propeller shaft
and LP compressor are directly coupled. The three-shaft layout also
provides for power growth potential by addition of either a rebladed
LP compressor of higher-pressure ratio or an additional stage.
3.4 Long term
In the longer-term the market could split into manned and unmanned
vehicles, with growth in the unmanned sector increasing rapidly as
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Figure 21. A400M and TP400 engine.
Figure 22. Future defence programmes.
further roles are identified where pilots can be replaced. The growth
in the unmanned sector will cover reconnaissance, combat (both
fixed wing and rotorcraft) as well as missiles and space access. The
manned sector, however, will predominantly feature growth in
reconnaissance and strike.
The focus on affordability and versatility will drive the develop-
ment of products that will find applications to satisfy more than one
requirement, as is the case with JSF. In order to contain the cost of
developing new technology, sharing of technologies between mili-
tary and civil products will be essential.
The general trend towards increased Mach number, range, perfor-
mance and reliability are all consistent with the US VAATE (versa-
tile affordable advanced turbine engine) and the UK FOAS (future
offensive air system) technology demonstration programmes. These
aim to deliver the future technology requirements of a broad range of
sectors and, as mentioned, focus particularly on delivering multi-use
technologies and versatile engine cores that can be applied across a
number of specific products.
The unmanned sector presents a number of new challenges that
will require new engine technologies to meet them, for example
advances in prognostic and diagnostic techniques will be driven
directly from the need for autonomous operation which will lead
eventually to an ‘intelligent engine’. Advanced control system and
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE
Figure 23. Future power for UAVs.
Figure 24. Future power for high Mach vehicles.
increased electric power requirements will accelerate the use of
more electric technologies as well as power off-take systems. These
vehicles also need to be stored for great lengths of time (aircraft
may be stored for many months or even years between missions)
and this provides further challenges and adds weight to the case for
the deletion of the oil system in preference for more integrated elec-
trical systems such as active magnetic bearings (AMBs).
All operational military aircraft will need to be stealthy particu-
larly those that operate in the front line. Whilst realising a stealthy
aircraft is primarily related to aircraft design, the propulsion
system has an important part to play in inlet and exhaust system
design and emissions, notably smoke and NOx. Major areas of
improvements in stealth will come from reducing the infrared
signature from the exhaust plume and hot exhaust components by
better integration with the aircraft shape as illustrated in the UCAV
depicted in Fig. 23. Reheat engines, whilst good in improving
thrust/weight ratio and combat capability, present major problems
when trying to achieve the very low infrared signature levels
required for UCAVs. Instead, the emphasis will be on the need for
high specific thrust from dry engines during combat and low
specific thrust at cruise. One way of achieving this difficult
requirement is to employ a variable cycle concept, although cost
and complexity currently remain barriers to this approach.
315
High Mach number vehicles are taking on increased importance in
order to reduce the time between target identification and destruc-
tion. These vehicles require engines to operate at high temperatures
with acceptable life and reliability (see Fig. 24). Studies of wave
engines employing detonation waves to effect combustion are one
option being considered for these applications(6).
Across the spectrum of gas turbine engines used for defence
purposes, the future will see the introduction of more advanced
materials, including metal matrix composites, more electric tech-
nologies, advanced turbo machinery and combustion systems. Many
of the technologies will continue to be read across from the civil
aerospace sector and vice versa whilst some will be developed
uniquely for military purposes.
4.0 UNDERPINNING TECHNOLOGIES
The aero engine has always responded favourably to the application
of new technology whether related to performance, emissions,
weight, life, reliability or cost. The pressures to reduce environ-
mental impact and reduce life cycle costs will require continued
significant investment in all the underpinning technologies in both
the civil and defence markets.
4.1 Design systems and modelling
Advanced design methods, analysis tools and improved modelling
capability will enable further improvements in many areas with
greater emphasis on even more sophisticated computational modelling
during the product design and development stages, enabling expensive
engine and rig tests to be minimised and ultimately eliminated.
Real time modelling of the complete engine or system is
expected to be the next step delivering both product advances and
improvements in the efficiency of engineering processes. Holistic
modelling will allow interactions or ‘knock on effects’ and risks
to be properly assessed and trade studies carried out early in the
product design phase. Importantly this would enable designers to
understand the life-cycle cost and time-scale effects of proposed
design changes, thus improving time to market and reducing
product cost whilst improving performance. Recent work in the
areas of design for manufacture (DFM) and design for assembly
(DFA), involving multi-disciplinary teams that cover the entire
design, manufacture and assembly process are already making
progress in this area.
4.2 Materials
Materials for gas turbines are a key technology and advances will need
to satisfy both enhanced functional requirements and lower manufac-
turing costs, a theme that runs throughout all advances in technology.
Modelling capability is also critical here, particularly in the new envi-
ronment of ‘power by the hour’ contracts for both civil and military
products. These contracts place greater emphasis on understanding the
relationship between operational or duty cycle and the associated
stresses and temperatures. This is leading to more accurate predictive
models that are able to accurately calculate component lives and hence
better quantify and minimise associated costs.
Another exciting area for the future is a family of technologies
known as ‘smart technologies’ including shape memory aqlloys
(SMA). These materials open up new prospects for both reliability
and performance improvements. Shape memory alloys will enable
a component to alter and indeed optimise its shape according to its
environment. One application in the area of noise reduction is
discussed in Section 4.8. Ultimately, many key engine components
might optimise themselves by adapting their shape for various
operating conditions as opposed to being compromised by off-
design operation. Research is currently underway in a number of
316 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
Figure 25. Potential ‘smart’ applications in engine design.
Figure 26. Smart applications — NASA morphing aircraft concept.
areas in both aircraft and engine design. Figure 25 highlights some
potential applications in aero engine design, while Fig. 26 depicts a
very long-term NASA study into a ‘morphing aircraft concept’. This
would use SMAs and embedded sensors in order to achieve new
levels of aerodynamics and control.
4.3 Fans and compressors
With the trend for high by-pass ratio turbofans set to continue in the
civil sector, the titanium wide chord fan blade will remain a key
component. The focus of activity in the future will be on further
improved efficiency and reduced noise as is already evident in the
lower tip speed swept fan design of the Trent 900.
For military fans pressure ratios will continue to increase in order to
enhance thrust/weight ratio and eliminate the need for reheat. The
number of stages will be held to a minimum through improved aero-
dynamics and higher tip speeds made possible by better materials and
mechanical constructions. Work already underway for the LiftFan®
and main propulsion fan for JSF using the wide chord SPF/DB blade
and blisk technology will pioneer this technological area.
Further improvements in fan design will result from aerodynami-
cally modelling the whole flow regime from the free stream ahead of
JUNE 2003
Figure 27. Fan technology.
Figure 28. Compressor technology (multistage CFD).
the intake to the exhaust nozzle enabling the fan design, with its inlet
and outlet systems, to be optimised throughout the flight regime.
Longer-term fan technologies may come through fibre reinforce-
ment in the form of silicon fibre reinforced titanium providing
increases in strength of around 50% and greater stiffness over
conventional titanium blades. This greater strength could allow the
blade chord to be increased further allowing fewer blades to be used
with improved performance and reduced cost. Currently the cost
associated with the manufacturing process is inhibiting development.
In the area of blade containment, future advances in mechanical
modelling will improve fan blade-off and containment analysis
leading to weight reduction. Developments in resistance to FOD
(and the detection and inspection of any resulting damage) will also
be important as a means of avoiding blade failures, especially in
single engine military aircraft.
The performance of multistage compressors in both civil and mili-
tary engines is being improved by using state-of-the-art CFD (computa-
tional fluid dynamics) flow solvers and ‘optimisers’ (see Fig. 28). By
automating the design process, the optimum design is achieved in the
minimum time possible. Recent examples have yielded six fold
improvements in the time taken to optimise tip clearances.
Although compressor aerodynamic efficiency can be improved
further, more significant improvements are likely to be realised
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE 317

Figure 29. Blisk and bling technology. Figure 30. Forcing down emissions through innovation (ANTLE
combustor).

through increased stage loading to reduce parts count and the use of
bladed disks or blisks to reduce weight, initially using monolithic tita-
nium and nickel materials. However, further weight reduction will
result from material advances, including the application of titanium
aluminides (with their inherent low densities) to blades and stators.
Blisks will ultimately be replaced by ‘blings’ or bladed rings which
use MMC (metal matrix composites) to provide a 70% weight saving
and a cost benefit over a conventional design (see Fig. 29). The bling
eliminates the bore of the conventional disk by using a fibre reinforced
ring to bear the hoop stresses and is likely to be used initially in mili-
tary products followed by civil products at a later date.
Titanium, whilst an ideal compressor material in many respects, is
susceptible to ferocious fires when rubbing under high temperatures.
For this reason it is only used for compressor blades below a limiting
operating temperature determined by fire resistance rather than
strength. However research work is currently underway to develop a
form of non-burn titanium (BuRTi), to counter this effect, which
would enable titanium blades to replace steel or nickel blades in the
rear compressor stages thereby further saving weight.
Figure 31. Combustion system modelling.

4.4 Combustion
Combustion technology continues to receive much attention as the
focus falls on delivering solutions to the emissions challenges for
civil engines and high temperature rise for military engines. Whilst
the two requirements are different in nature, the solutions are
remarkably similar. In the civil engine the fuel is burnt as weak as
possible to reduce emissions whilst preserving other operating char-
acteristics such as weak extinction and relight boundaries. In the
military engine, whilst the combustion chamber burns more richly at
max power, it is exposed to the same weak extinction and relight
problems when the engine is throttled back.
Past combustor technology developments have virtually elimi-
nated emissions associated with smoke, unburned hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide. However, NOx formation remains a more difficult
problem as the high pressure and temperature conditions favoured
for its formation are exactly the conditions needed to improve
overall engine efficiency, fuel burn and CO2 generation.
Building on the success of the Trent (Phase V) combustion system,
studies initially moved on to examining double annular configura-
tions to deliver staged combustion, which accommodates the
conflicting requirements of both high power and low power operation
by using two separate combustors. However the extra cooling air
required by these concepts and other compromises, meant that the
theoretical benefits were not fully realised in practice. A new
approach is now being pioneered in ANTLE featuring a simple low-
cost single-annular system with fuel staging within a single injector
(see Fig. 30). This offers significant benefits over the double annular
design in terms of cost, weight and reliability, while delivering better
emissions. In this design, the volume of air going into the primary
zone is large thereby reducing the peak temperature during the
burning process thus significantly reducing NOx. This system aims to
reduce NOx by 50% and if successful, will be applied across the wide
range of civil aerospace products in the fullness of time.
In the longer-term and in line with the accomplishment of the
ACARE goals of an 80% reduction in NOx by 2020, combustion
systems will have to proceed towards a premixed system similar to
that used in land-based gaseous applications. Lean pre-vapourised,
pre-mixed concepts using liquid fuel are being researched in order to
develop these systems but major issues remain surrounding auto-
ignition and flashback. These issues need to be overcome before
they are likely to have a practical application in aerospace.
As well as advances in combustion modelling capability, high
temperature materials provide the key to future improvements in
combustion design and performance (see Fig. 31). Materials temper-
ature capability and wall cooling are vital in realising good combus-
tion performance, as air used for cooling is not normally available
318 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
Figure 32. HTDU (high temperature demonstration unit).
Figure 33. Turbine cooling.
for the burning process. Lamilloy material, which incorporates a
form of transpiration cooling, is already used in some engines for
combustor walls and will be developed further to meet the stringent
requirements of the F136 engine. It will be more widely deployed as
greater confidence is gained with respect to its integrity.
In the longer-term the use of ceramics or CMCs (ceramic matrix
composites) offer the potential for significant temperature increases
with minimal cooling. However questions over life, strength, fibre
capability and fabrication must first be answered. Steps towards this
are already well underway in the shape of technology demonstration
programmes. If successful, ceramic combustors may provide the
realisation of eliminating cooling requirements thus leading to emis-
sions improvements.
4.5 Turbines
Turbines have always provided numerous challenges to the designer
and remain an area where further developments are critical to
improving overall engine performance. There need to be advances in
component efficiencies, temperature capability and cooling air
consumption, particularly the latter, so that cycle advances are not
eroded by the use of additional cooling air.
JUNE 2003
Improvements in aerothermal methods and design capability
focusing on the analysis of unsteady phenomena, including detailed
film cooling analysis for turbine aero and life optimisation, will
provide efficiency benefits. This will build on recent developments
made through applying advanced ‘3-D end-wall profiling’ tech-
niques to the latest turbine designs in the civil products. Further
benefits will come through employing variable turbine geometry and
contra-rotation systems within future engines, a configuration that
will be demonstrated for the first time on the ANTLE programme. A
contra-rotating, statorless system as used in the GE F136 engine, has
benefits in improving efficiency and reducing cooling flow in certain
types of engine architecture.
Developments in high temperature materials are inextricably linked
to advances in turbine designs (see Fig. 32). Following the develop-
ment of three generations of single crystal material, we have seen
rapid developments in the use of thermal barrier coatings to increase
turbine temperature capability. Further developments are now likely to
come through optimisation of the blade alloy and TBCs (thermal
barrier coatings) as a single system. By improving the TBC itself,
achieved by the inclusion of heavy elements providing better thermal
properties (referred to as coloured TBCs), and through optimising the
interaction of the TBC with the elements of the blade base alloy,
significant temperature advances should be possible.
In the longer-term ceramics could find their way into turbines,
offering increased temperature capability and reduced cooling require-
ments, providing the problem of fracture toughness can be overcome.
HP NGVs(nozzle guide vanes) are likely to provide the initial oppor-
tunity for ceramics with the ultimate challenge obviously lying in the
realisation of an uncooled HP turbine rotor blade (see Fig. 33).
4.6 Controls technology
The control system is now fundamental to delivering the perfor-
mance and reliability expected of current and future aero engines but
it is growing in sophistication, complexity and cost. A reduction in
the level of complexity, leading to reduced costs (although clearly
not at the expense of safety, reliability or performance) is a target for
the future of control systems, with lessons being read across from
the mass produced yet reliable systems of the automotive sector.
FADEC (full authority digital engine control) is commonplace on
modern aero-engines, complimenting the ‘fly-by-wire’ advances in
aircraft controls. The architectures and technologies of these systems
will continue to be closely linked, yet the requirement to interface
with a large number of sensors and actuators around the engine make
the level of standardisation being sought in IMA (integrated modular
avionics) architectures more difficult to realise. So, particularly on
large civil engines, the central microprocessor controlling dumb
actuators around the engine (controlling variable compressor and
turbine geometry for example) will give way to a ‘distributed control
system’. Intelligent actuators will interface directly with digital data
buses, allowing reduction in wiring complexity and weight, while
simplifying maintenance. This also allows the level of sophistication
and reporting capability of the associated BITE (built in test equip-
ment) to be enhanced. Systems become more fault tolerant, further
easing the logistics issues of provisioning spares. Thus the control
system becomes both easier to manage in its own right and can
greatly contribute to the information being gathered on its own and
the engine’s state of health.
4.7 Predictive maintenance and engine health monitoring
A growing area of sophistication in new aero-engine designs and one
that is set to expand further in capability is that of EHM (engine
health monitoring) (see Fig. 34). Although often closely linked to
controls technologies, these systems are by definition something
different. Predictive maintenance, leading to major reliability
improvements, are requirements that are needed by both operators
and service providers alike.
R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE 319

Figure 34. Engine health monitoring. Figure 35. SILENCE(R) — Noise technology demonstrator.

The Trent 900 will make a significant step towards advanced

EHM through its QUOTE system. This system provides the capa-
bility to analyse engine behaviour on-line, based on inputs from a
number of engine sensors. Using stored data it is then able to detect
abnormal engine behaviour, thus highlighting potential component
failures before they happen. Future advances in such systems will
come from employing an increased number of more sophisticated
sensors (including material ‘inserts’ for example) and improved
analytical engine models, allowing more sophisticated on-line
analysis of overall engine behaviour. The stored criteria, which are
then modified as the system learns from experience, are used to
diagnose abnormal engine behaviour, predict forthcoming failures,
and communicate this information in a timely manner to reduce
operational disruption and enable maintenance to be scheduled as
appropriate. The Internet provides the medium for conveying this
information off aircraft, and on-line product support is already being
practised in many key areas.
Further improvements in diagnostics could come through whole-
engine modelling advances, integrating with the engine health moni- Figure 36. QTD — reducing engine noise.
toring tools. Advances in understanding the material properties
affecting component lives and the failure mechanisms themselves
will also lead to more sophisticated failure prediction criteria and so
provide reliability improvements as advanced systems are devel- system, which directs the noise upwards and hence minimises the
oped. Interestingly, these advances will become increasingly driven noise observed on the ground is one such technology. Also being
by the military sector, as they will prove essential in effective demonstrated on SILENCE(R) is a reduced speed swept fan design.
unmanned aircraft operation. The swept design is developed specifically to reduce fan rotor noise,
which together with the low noise OGV (outlet guide vane) and ESS
(engine section stator) designs and advanced acoustic lining, aim to
4.8 Installations and noise technologies make significant reductions in fan noise, see Fig. 35.
In the civil context, noise and installation aerodynamics will be The QTD project, already mentioned, used a Boeing 777 aircraft
particularly important as by-pass ratios are increased to reduce jet with modified Trent 800 engines to evaluate a serrated nozzle and
velocity and improve bare engine fuel consumption. Today the advanced acoustic linings (known as Amax) in the intake of the
Airbus A380 aircraft carries a small fuel burn penalty in order to nacelle. These make further reductions in both jet and fan noise
meet noise targets because the additional installed drag and weight respectively. The measured result was a reduction in both fan and jet
associated with its large diameter nacelle more than offset the funda- noise of 4db and 13db respectively, albeit with a small performance
mental benefit of its high bypass ratio. Avoidance of this penalty penalty, Fig. 36.
requires a different approach to engine installations involving weight Further refinement of nozzle serrations could be achieved by
reduction using even lighter fan systems and LP turbines, a new designing them to adapt to the different flight regimes to allow noise
approach to thrust reversing and possibly laminar flow nacelles. In to be minimized during take-off and efficiency maximized at cruise.
the longer-term more novel installations such as the blended body To achieve this result, the serrations could be stowed at cruise or
wing aircraft open up new possibilities. change their shape according to the surrounding air temperature by
In parallel with this approach, noise reduction technologies will using SMAs — part of the family of ‘smart technologies’ described
play a vital role. The SILENCE(R) programme, previously in Section 4.2. In order to further reduce fan and turbine noise,
mentioned, demonstrates a number of key noise technologies aimed several concepts using active control techniques will become avail-
at reducing both fan and jet noise. The negatively scarfed intake able to reduce the tonal content of turbo-machinery noise.
320 T H E A ERONAUTICAL JOURNAL
Figure 37. Electric engine concepts.
Noise at source can be reduced in several different ways. An
emerging technology is that of flow management on fan and turbine
blades to reduce noise. Ideas that are being evaluated include blade
trailing edge treatments and flow devices on the blade surface to
modify wake development and hence rotor/stator interaction noise.
Alternatively, sensors and actuators can be built into the intake, to
produce sound waves that cancel the noise signature produced by
the fan. The control technology for this is understood today, but
further development is required to produce sensors and actuators
that are cost-effective and lightweight enough to make such a
system viable.
All of the above ideas become easier to implement if a good
understanding of noise source generation exists. Modern CFD tools
now offer great potential in providing this understanding and for
subsequently optimising designs to reduce noise. Eventually this
analysis capability will include near field to far field effects so that
greater use can be made of indoor testing on conventional test beds.
4.9 More electric technologies
Both the civil and defence aerospace sectors are demanding
increased levels of electrical power. This is driven by the need for
increased functionality, reliability, lower weight and cost, whilst
replacing mechanical complexity with elegant electrical solutions.
Particular requirements in the civil sector are driven by the demand
for increased passenger comfort and facilities, while military
aircraft demand increased electrical requirements for the move
toward network-centric systems, weapons and surveillance equip-
ment, particularly in the growing unmanned sector.
The MEE (more electric engine) follows on directly from the
more electric advances of the ANTLE programme and is expected
to deliver step changes in functionality and reliability, whilst
achieving reductions in cost and weight. Reliant upon close engine
and airframe integration, these improvements will enable the
replacement of traditional modern engine/aircraft systems (that
today are individually optimised) with globally optimised electrical
systems. An electrically powered ECS (environmental control
system), for example, is particularly attractive as it also provides
improvements in fuel burn, while eliminating potential cabin air
quality problems.
The next step in this evolution at an engine level would be to
replace conventional lubrication systems with oil-less, AMBs, ulti-
mately leading to the deletion of the entire oil system and gearbox.
A generator, mounted directly on the fan shaft, would deliver power
JUNE 2003
Figure 38. Simplifying the aircraft and engine interface (more electric
aircraft).
to the airframe systems and all flight control actuators would also
be electric.
However, developments in this field rely heavily on corre-
sponding advancements in electric and magnetic materials in order
to realise the required temperature capability and low weight
designs. Particular developments in insulation technology, perma-
nent magnet materials and power electronics are fundamental
requirements to achieving the more electric engine and more elec-
tric aircraft. These areas are currently being addressed through
extensive research and development activity.
5.0 SUMMARY
Following a century of progress, the aerospace industry continues to
pose new challenges, no more so than for the engine designer who
has contributed significantly to progress to date. The civil sector is
at a crossroads, on the verge of a new era of sustainable growth,
where environmental and social factors will take on increased
importance compared with the more familiar commercial drivers of
change. In this era we will see radically new aircraft designs
requiring the development of new and, in some ways novel, propul-
sion systems. The defence sector also enters a new era, where an
emergence of unmanned aircraft will open up new opportunities in
the changing face of modern conflicts. Again cost, together with
performance and capability, are set to retain a powerful role in
dictating the future direction.
The propulsion system requirements in the two sectors are
moving in quite different directions although the underpinning tech-
nologies remain largely common, providing further opportunities
for technology transfer. Materials advances, more electric technolo-
gies, sophisticated design methods, environmentally cleaner and
quieter technologies and the intelligent engine will all influence
further developments of the gas turbine, which is positioned to
continue to dominate the propulsion requirements of future aircraft
in both sectors as today no viable alternative exists. Developments
will be increasingly delivered at a global system level, through
global companies and through industry collaboration.
Although no prediction can be certain and there will undoubtedly
be unforeseen factors that will also influence the direction of the
aerospace markets, we can be quite certain that the second century
of aviation will provide as many challenges and as much fascination
as the first.
 R UFFLES A ERO ENGINES OF THE FUTURE 321

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Rolls-Royce for permission to present and
publish this paper. I would also like to thank Will Erith who has
helped with writing the text and with the illustrations.

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