AS Unit F321: Atoms, Bonds and Groups

Module 1: Atoms and Reactions

1.1.1 Atoms

a) All elements are made up from atoms. Atoms are made up from 3 types of particles,
protons, neutrons and electrons. Electrons have a -1 relative charge, and Protons have a
+1 charge, whilst Neutrons are neutral. Protons and neutrons have a relative mass of 1,
whilst electrons have a relative mass of -12000-.

b) The majority of mass is in the nucleus of the atom, where you find the protons and
neutrons, but its diameter is tiny compared to the diameter of the whole atom.

c) The top number on a nuclear symbol is the mass (nucleon) number, which is the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic (proton) number is the
number of protons, and is on the bottom. The neutrons can be found by subtracting the
atomic number from the mass number.

d) Negative ions have more electrons than protons, and positive ions have fewer.

e) Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons. It is the number and arrangement of electrons that
decides the chemical properties of an element. Isotopes have the same configuration of
electrons so they’ve got the same chemical properties. They do have slightly different
physical properties due to the change in mass, such as different densities and rates of
diffusion.

f) 12
C is used as the standard measurement of relative masses, with one atom of carbon-12
weighing 12.

g) Relative isotopic mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope of an element on a scale

where an atom of carbon-12 is 12. Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of
an atom of an atom of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12.

h) Relative isotopic abundance and how to work it out from a mass spectrum.

i) Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) is the average mass of a molecule or formula unit on a
scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12. Relative Formula Mass is used for compounds
that are ionic or giant covalent.

1.1.2 Moles and Equations

a) The amount of substance is the quantity whose unit is the mole. The amount of substance
is measured using a unit called the mole and given the symbol n. One mole is the amount
of any substance containing as many particles as there are in carbon atoms in exactly 12g
of carbon-12 and is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. This number is known as the
Avogadro constant.

b) Molar mass is the mass per mole of a substance. Its unit is g mol-1.

c) The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element
present in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each
element in a molecule.

d) Practice calculating molecular and empirical formulae by using composition by mass and
percentage composition.

e) A chemical reaction starts with reactants and ends with products. An equation is a
symbolic representation of the reaction taking place.

f) Practice calculations involving mass, gas volume and solution volume and concentration.
 g) Stoichiometry is the molar relationship between the relative quantities of substances
taking part in a reaction.

h) The concentration of a solution tells you how much solute is dissolved in the solvent,
measured in moles per cubic decimetre, dm3 (1000 cm3). A standard solution is a
solution of known concentration and is usually used in titrations to work out information
about the other substance. The terms concentrated and dilute are descriptive terms for
the amount, in mol, of dissolved solute in a solution. Concentrated is a large amount of
solute per dm3 and dilute is a small amount. Concentrated acids usually have a
concentration of greater than 10 mol dm3.

1.1.3 Acids

a) Acids release H+ ions (protons) in aqueous solution. H+ ions are the active ingredient in
acids. An H+ ion is responsible for all acid reactions. An acid is a proton donor.

b) Commons acids include sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid
(HNO3).

c) Common bases are metal oxides and hydroxides and ammonia. Bases are proton, H+,
acceptors. They neutralise acids, and will readily accept H+ ions, e.g. NH3 forming NH4+.

d) An alkali is any chemical compound that gives a solution with a pH of greater than 7.0
when dissolved in water. It is a type of base that dissolves in water forming hydroxide
ions, OH- (aq) ions.

e) Common alkalis include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
aqueous ammonia (NH3).

f) A salt is an ionic compound with the following features: the positive ion (cation) is usually
a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH4+. The anion, negative ion, is derived from an acid. The
formula for a salt is the same as the parent acid, except that an H+ ion has been replaced
by the cation. A salt is produced when the H+ ion of an acid is replaces by a metal ion or
NH4+. When an acid has two replaceable H+ ions (such as H2SO4) it is called a diprotic
acid and can form an acid salt such as NaHSO4, which is acidic, as it still has a replaceable
H+ ion.

g) Salts can be produced by neutralising acids with carbonates, bases and alkalis. When
reacted with carbonates a salt, water and CO2 are formed. On reacting with bases and
alkalis a salt and water is formed. They can also be formed by reacting metals with acids,
which are known as redox reactions.

h) Hydrated refers to a crystalline compound containing water molecules. Anhydrous

refers to a substance that contains no water molecules. Water of crystallisation refers
to water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline structure of a compound.

i) How to calculate the formula of a hydrated salt from percentage composition, mass
composition or experimental data.

j) Titrations and calculations

Indicator Colour in Colour in End point

Acid base colour
Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange

Bromothymol Yellow Blue Green

blue
Phenolpthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink

1.1.4. Redox
 a) An oxidation number is a measure of the number of electrons that an atom uses
to bond with atoms of another element. The rules are set out in the table below:

Species Oxidation Examples

Number

Uncombined 0 C,Na,O2, P4
element
Combined oxygen -2 H2O, CaO

Combined +1 NH3,H2S
hydrogen
Simple ion Charge on ion Na+, +1, Cl- -1

Combined -1 NaF, CaF2

fluorine
When bonded to fluorine, oxygen had an oxidation number of +2. In peroxides, it has an
oxidation number of -1. When bonded to metals in hydrides, hydrogen has an oxidation
number of -1.

b) Oxidation is loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number. Reduction is gain

of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number. OILRIG. A redox reaction is a
reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place.

c) Because a name may be ambiguous when writing, Roman numerals are used to
indicate the magnitude of the oxidation state of an element e.g. iron (II) chloride (Fe
oxidation number +2) iron (III) chloride (Fe oxidation number +3)

d) Half equations

e) Metals generally form ions by losing electrons with an increase in oxidation number to
form positive ions. Non-metals generally react by gaining electrons with a decrease in
oxidation number to form negative ions.

f) See text book page 33 and learn reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric and
sulphuric acids. And bottom part of page too.

Module 2: Electrons, Bonding and Structure

1.2.1 Electron Structure

a) The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one
electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous
1+ ions. Successive ionisation energies are a measure of the energy required to
remove each electron in turn e.g. the second ionisation energy of an element is the
energy required to remove one electron from each ion in one mole of gaseous 1+ ions
to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions.

b) To form a positive ion, energy must be supplied to an electron to overcome the

attraction from the nucleus. The nuclear attraction experienced depends on three
factors: atomic radius (the further away the weaker the attraction experienced by
the outer electrons), nuclear charge (the greater the nuclear charge, the greater the
attractive force on the outer electrons) and electron shielding. Electron shielding
is the repulsion between electrons in different shells. The more inner shells, the larger
the shielding effect and the smaller he nuclear attraction experienced by the outer
electrons.

c) Know how to predict the number of electrons in each shell of an element and its group
by using successive ionisation energies.
 d) The number of electrons that can occupy each shell is up to 2n2 electrons.

e) An atomic orbital is a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons, with
opposite spins. Orbitals are regions where electrons can be found

f) An S orbital is spherical. From n=1 upwards each shell contains one s-orbital. A p-
orbital has a 3-dimensional dumb-bell shape. From n=2 upwards each shell contains
three p-orbitals, px, pz and py, at right angles to each other. The structures of the f and
d orbitals are more complex. From n=3 upwards, each shell contains 5 d-orbitals. From
n=4 upwards, each shell contains 7 f-orbitals.

g) A sub-shell is a group of the same type of atomic orbital (s, p, d or f) within a shell.
The sub-shells within a shell have different energy levels. Within a shell the sub-shell
energies increase in the order s, p, d and f.

h) The order of sub shells is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 4d, 4f. Each energy
level must be full before the next, higher energy level starts to fill. Each orbital is filled
singly in a sub-shell before pairing starts. The 4s sub-shell has a lower energy level
than the 3d sub-shell meaning that it fills before the orbitals in the 3d sub-shell.

i) 4s: first in, first out. The 4s and 3d energy levels are so close together that, after the
4s-orbital has been filled it is actually at a slightly higher energy than the 3d level. So
4s-electrons are lost before the 3d-electrons.

1.2.2 Bonding and structure

a) A compound is a substance formed from two or more chemically bonded elements in

a fixed ratio. An Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions. It generally occurs between metals and non metals, when the metal transfers
electrons to the non-metal, and the metal becomes positive and the non-metal
negative.

b) Know how to draw dot and cross diagrams to describe ionic bonding

c) All ionic compounds exist as a giant ionic lattice in the solid state, a three-dimensional
structure of oppositely charged ions, held together by strong ionic bonds. By looking at
which group an element is in you can work out what ionic charge it will have. Atoms of
metals in groups 1-3 lose electrons and form positive configuration of the previous
noble gas in the periodic table. Atoms of non-metals in groups 5-7 gain electrons and
form negative ions with the electron configuration of the next noble gas.

d) NO3-, C O3-, SO42- and NH4+.

e) A covalent bond is a bond formed by a shared pair of electrons. The electrons are
attracted to both nuclei, overcoming the repulsion between the two positively charged
nuclei. A lone pair is an outer-shell pair of electrons that is not involved in chemical
bonding. A dative covalent or a coordinate bond is a shared pair of electrons which
has been provided by one of the bonding atoms only. It can be shown by an arrow in
the direction of the donation.

f) Pages 56-57

g) The shape of a molecule or ion is determined by the number of electron pairs in the
outer shell surrounding the central atom; as electrons have a negative charge each
electron pair repels other electron pairs, pushing each other as far away as possible.

h) A lone pair of electrons is slightly more electron dense than a bonded pair so therefore
repels more than a bonded pair. Each lone pair reduces the bond angle by around 2.5o,
due to the extra repulsion.

i) Learn the 7 shapes of molecules and ions.

j) Predict the shapes of molecules similar to those seen here

k) Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of
electrons in a covalent bond.

l) Because the atoms in some compounds are different, they differ in their
Electronegativity. The Cl atom in a molecule of HCl is more electronegative than the H
atom and attracts the pair of bonded electrons more. This means that the bonding
electrons are closer to the Cl atom and the Cl atom becomes delta negative. This
creates a small charge difference called a permanent dipole. A permanent dipole
is a small charge difference across a bond that results from a difference in the
electronegativities of the bonded atoms. A polar covalent bond has a permanent
dipole. The greater the difference between the electronegativities of the bonding
atoms, the greater the ionic character of the bond (the smaller, the greater the
covalent character).

m) Van der Waals’ forces are attractive forces between induced dipoles in neighbouring
molecules. They are caused by the movement of electrons in the shells which induces
an instantaneous dipole at any moment. This induces a dipole in neighbouring
molecules which in turn induce dipoles in other neighbouring molecules. The strength
of van der Waals forces increase with increasing numbers of electrons, due to the
larger induced dipoles and the greater the attractive force between molecules. They
are the only attractive intermolecular force acting between non-polar molecules.

n) A hydrogen bond is a strong dipole-dipole attraction between: a electron deficient H

(delta +) on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on a delta negative O or N on a
different molecule.

o) Hydrogen bonding is strong enough to give water some anomalous properties: Firstly,
ice is less dense than water because ice has an open lattice with hydrogen bonds
holding the water molecules apart. It has relatively high melting and boiling point due
to these extra forces and the extra intermolecular bonding also explains the relatively
high surface tension and viscosity of water.

p) Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and
delocalised electrons. The delocalised electrons are shared between all the atoms in
the metallic structure, whilst the positive ions occupy fixed positions. Metallic bonding
is strong meaning that metals have a high melting/boiling point. Metals are also good
conductors of electricity, due to the fact that the delocalised electrons can move freely
and can carry a charge. They also account for metals’ malleability and ductility
because the metallic structure can move.

q) Structures with ionic bonding are known as giant ionic lattices, with each ion being
surrounded by oppositely charged ions. All ionic compounds exist as a giant ionic
lattice in the solid state. Ionic compounds have a high melting and boiling point due to
the strong electrostatic forces that hold the oppositely charged ions together. In a
solid ionic lattice the ions are in fixed positions and cannot move, so do not conduct
electricity, but when an ionic compound is melted or dissolved the solid lattice breaks
down and the ions can move – so can thus conduct electricity. Ionic lattices dissolve in
polar solvents, such as water because the solvent surrounds each ion to form a
solution.

r) Elements and compounds with covalent bonds are either simple molecular lattices
or giant covalent lattices. Simple molecular structures are made up from small,
simple molecules such as Ne, H2 and H2O. In a simple molecular lattice molecules are
held together by weak IMFs with the atoms within molecules being strongly bonded
together by covalent bonds. Simple molecular structures have low melting and
boiling points because the IMFs (van der Waals’) are weak so little energy is needed to
break them. They do not conduct electricity because there are no charged particles
free to move. They are soluble in non-polar solvents (e.g. Hexane) because van der
Waals’ forces form between the structure and the solvent weakening the lattice
structure.

s) Giant covalent structures are a three-dimensional structure of atoms, bonded

together by strong covalent bonds. They have high melting and boiling points because
high temperatures are needed to break the strong covalent bonds. Aside from
 graphite there are no free charged particles so they do not conduct electricity.
They are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents because the covalent bonds
are too strong to be broken by polar or non-polar solvent. Diamond has a tetrahedral
structure held together by covalent bonds. It does not conduct but is very hard.
Graphite has a strong hexagonal layer structure but only weak van der Waals’ forces
in-between layers so the layers slide easily. It is however, a good conductor due to the
presence of delocalised electrons between layers.

Module 3: The Periodic Table

1.3.1 Periodicity

a) The periodic table is arranged by increasing atomic number. Elements often show
trends (gradual changes) in properties across a period in the table – these trends are
repeated across each period. Each vertical column is called a group and contains
elements with similar properties and the same number of outer-shell electrons. Metals
are left of the Boron step; non-metals to the right, boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic
and tellurium are metalloids, sharing properties of both.

b) Periodicity is a regular periodic variation of properties of elements with atomic number

and position in the Periodic Table.

c) Elements in the same group react in a similar way because they have similar electron
configuration.

d) Across each period there is a general increase in the ionisation energy due to the
presence of more protons. Electrons are added to the same shell, so the outer shell
is drawn inwards slightly, reducing the atomic radius, and the electron shielding will
not change. At the start of a next period, a new shell is formed, increasing the
distance of the outermost shell from the nucleus and increasing the electron shielding
of the outermost shell by inner shell. Going down a group the first ionisation
energies decrease due to the increase in the number of shells and the distance of the
outer electrons from the nucleus. The number of protons also increases but the
increased attraction is outweighed by the increase in distance and shielding.

e) In periods 2 and 3 there is a distinct change between groups 4 and 5, in both the
physical structure of the elements and the forces holding the structures together. This
change is: from giant structures to simple molecular and from strong to weak forces.
The bonding changes from metallic to covalent for C and Si to van der Waals’ for
groups 5-0.

1.3.2 Group 2

a) The alkaline earth metals all have hydroxides which are alkaline. They have
reasonably high melting/boiling points, low densities and form colourless compounds.
They each have two electrons in their outer shell and are strong reducing agents and
reactive metals. They are oxidised in reactions to form a 2+ ion. As you go down the
group reactivity increases as it becomes easier to lose electrons. They all react
vigorously with oxygen in a redox reaction. They all react with water to form
hydroxides (typically pH 10-12). Mg reacts very slowly, as you go down the group each
metal reacts more vigorously with water.

b) The solubility of the hydroxides in water increases down the group. The resulting
solutions are also more alkaline. E.g. Mg (OH)2 is only slightly soluble and forms a
dilute solution. Ba (OH)2 is much more soluble in water, and forms a more alkaline
solution.

c) The group 2 carbonates are decomposed by heat (thermal decomposition). The

carbonates become more difficult to decompose with heat as you move down the
group.
 d) Two common uses of group 2 hydroxides are as lime (Ca (OH)2) to neutralise acidic
soils and ‘milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2) to relive indigestion by neutralising any excess
acid in the stomach.

1.3.3 Group 7

a) The Halogens have low melting and boiling points and exist as diatomic molecules.
Because there is an increase in electrons as you go down the group, the van der
Waals’ forces are consequently stronger and the boiling points increase going down
the group.

b) The oxidising power of a halogen is a measure of the strength with which a halogen
atom is able to attract and capture an electron to form a halide ion. The halogens
become less reactive down the group as their oxidising power decreases as atomic
radii and electron shielding increases. Redox reactions can show this by using the
reactions of aqueous solutions of halide ions and halogens in a displacement
reaction. Cyclohexane is used to distinguish between bromine and iodine. Chlorine
oxidises both bromide and iodide ions. Bromine oxidises iodide only. Iodine does
neither.

c) Disproportionation is a reaction in which the same element is both reduced

and oxidised. An example is the use of chlorine in water to kill bacteria. It reacts with
water, forming HCl and HClO, and it is both oxidised and reduced. In aqueous sodium
hydroxide it reacts to form bleach: Cl2 + 2NaOH goes to NaCl +NaClO + HCl.

d) Fluorine is super reactive! Chlorine is a toxic gas, and can be harmful, so must be used
sparingly.

e) The presence of halide ions can be detected with a simple test tube test. Firstly, the
unknown halide is dissolved in water before an aqueous solution of AgNO3 is added.
The silver ions, Ag+ react with any halide ions forming a precipitate – the colour
indicates which ion is present. To double check dilute aqueous ammonia can be added
– iodide precipitates are insoluble in ammonia, the other two are soluble, though
bromide is only soluble in concentrated ammonia. Chloride forms a white precipitate,
bromide a cream one and iodide a yellow one. A precipitation reaction takes place in
aqueous solution when aqueous ions react together to form a solid precipitate.
AS Unit F322: Chains, Energy and Resources
Module 1: Basic Concepts and hydrocarbons
2.1.1 Basic Concepts

a) Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in
a compound.
Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
General formula is the simplest algebraic formula of a member of homologous series.
Structural formula is the minimal detail that shows the arrangement of atoms in a
molecule e.g. for butane: CH3CH2CH2CH3 or CH3(CH2)2CH3
Displayed formula is the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds between them.
H H

H C C O H OH

H H
Skeletal formula is the simplified organic formula shown by removing
hydrogen atoms from alkyl chains, leaving just carbon skeleton and
associated functional groups.
b) Homologous series are organic compounds having the same functional group but with
each successive member differing by CH2.
Functional groups are group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions of a
compound.
c) Methane – CH4
Ethane - C2H6
Propane - C3H8
Butane - C4H10
Pentane - C5H12
Hexane - C6H14
Heptane – C7H16
Octane – C8H18
Nonane – C9H20
Decane – C10H22
k) Using IUPAC rules of nomenclature for systematically naming organic compounds:

This has a chain of 4 carbons, and so
it is based on butane.
There are no branches, and so it's
just butane.
1. The longest chain of carbons is 3, and so it's
based on propane.
2. There is a methyl, and so it's methylpropane.
3. The methyl is on the second carbon, so it's 2-
methylpropane.

l) Types of isomers:

Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae.

Stereoisomers are compounds with the same structural formula but with a different
arrangement in space
 E/Z isomerism is an example of stereoisomerism, with restricted rotation about the
carbon-carbon double bond and requires two different groups attached to each carbon
atom of the C=C group

cis-trans isomerism are a special case of EIZ isomerism in which there are two non-
hydrogen groups and two hydrogen around the double bond.

m) If the difference occurs on the same side of the C=C bond (like in the left example) the
isomerisation is called cis-isomerisation. To the left is a cis-isomer of but-2-ene. If the
difference occurs on across the C=C double bond, (right example) the isomerisation is
called trans. ('trans' is the Latin for 'across') To the right is a trans-isomer of but-2-ene.
n) Homolytic fission forms two radicals

o) Heterolytic fission forms a cation and an anion

p) The curly arrow is used to show the movement of an electron pair, showing either the
breaking or formation of a covalent bond.

q) Electrophilic Addition
Because the pi bonds produce high electron densities, positively charged ions are drawn
towards them. The Electronegativity can also cause some molecules to become polar
(such as Br2). When ions or δ+ molecules are drawn towards them, the C=C is broken and
the pi bond forms a covalent bond with the particle. The 'electron loving' molecules are
called electrophiles and the reaction is called electrophilic addition.
For example: C2H4 + Br2 -----> C2H4Br2

The type of fission here is heterolytic, which means it's unequal. Look at the bromine
molecule: it's splitting, but unlike a free radical, one Br takes the two electrons becomes
an ion. The positive charge on the carbon in the second step is called a carbocation.
Other electrophiles include: H2, H2O, HBr.

Free Radical Substitution

This requires UV light and involves a mechanism with three stages: initiation,
propagation and termination.
Initiation
Blasting the Cl2 with UV light causes photo dissociation – meaning that the bond between
the chlorine molecule breaks. Two chlorine atoms are formed, each with an unpaired
electron. This is called a free radical. The process is called homolytic fission. The
unpaired electron does not mean it is an ion – free radicals are not charged.
Cl2 -----> 2Cl.
A free radical is indicated by a . . Free radicals are very reactive and are unstable.
Propagation
The Cl free radical reacts with the CH4 to produce hydrogen chloride (HCl) and a methyl
free radical (CH3.)
Cl. + CH4 -----> HCl + CH3.
The methyl radical then reacts with Cl2 to produce chloromethane and a new chlorine
radical.
CH3. + Cl2 -----> CH3Cl + Cl.
 The propagation stage now repeats itself and continues until the reagents have been used
up.
Termination
When the reagents are used up, the reactions begins to terminate.
2Cl. -----> Cl2
CH3.+ Cl. -----> CH3Cl
2CH3. -----> C2H6
Free radical substitution is very difficult to control and often leads to a mix of products,
such as di or tri chloromethane.

Nucleophilic Substitution
The C-halogen bond is polarised, which leaves the carbon atom electron deficient and
open to reaction by a nucleophile (electron pair donor, such as OH-). The halogen is easily
substituted by a nucleophile, although the C-I bond is much easier to break than the C-Fl
bond because the bond is weaker.
The mechanism that occurs is called nucleophilic substitution. For example, when
bromoethane and OH- react, the following occurs:

r) Reactions which go to completion are known as quantitative, but some reactions don’t
always go to completion and the percentage yield of product can be calculated from
these:
% yield = amount of product formed x 100
Maximum amount of product possible:
2.0 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) is oxidised to ethanoic acid (CH3COOH). 1.9 g of ethanoic acid
is produced. What is the percentage yield? (Assume 1:1 ratio)
Moles of ethanol = 2/46 = 0.0435
Max moles of ethanoic acid = 0.0435
So maximum mass of ethanoic acid = 0.0435 x 60 = 2.61 g
Percentage yield = 1.9/2.61 x 100 = 73%
s) Addition reactions have an atom economy of 100% whereas substitution reactions are less
efficient.
When product is made in a chemical reaction, other by-products are made as well.
The atom economy of a reaction is the percentage of the total mass of reactants that can,
in theory, be converted into the desired product. It can be calculated as follows:
The production of NaOH from NaCl the following reaction takes place:
molecular mass of the desired products
×100%
sum of molecular masses of all products
t) 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
Assuming we start with 2 moles of NaCl and 2 moles of H2O, we will make 2 moles of
NaOH, and 1 mole of H2 and Cl2.
So % atom economy = (2 x 40) x 100 = 52.3 %
(2 x 40) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 71)
The remaining 47.7% of the mass is converted into less useful products and is hence
wasted.
So the higher the atom economy, the less waste and the more efficient the product
process (assuming the reaction does actually go to completion).
All reactions which have only one product have an atom economy of 100%
u) A reaction sometimes may have a high percentage yield but a low atom economy. FILL IN

2.1.2 Alkenes

a) A hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon only.

b) Fractional Distillation is the separation of
c) A fractionating column separates crude oil (the mix of oils) into fractions, depending on
their boiling points. The column is heated at the bottom so all the crude oil evaporates. It's
passed into the column and condenses as it rises.
d) The heavier fractions have higher boiling points (due to more Van der Waals) and so
condense first, coming off the column lower down. The lighter alkanes come off higher up.
e)