way of thinking.8 Similarly, anthropologists report that American society emphasizes indi-
vidualism, which, in American work cultures, can be found in norms that emphasize indi-
vidual rewards and value charismatic leaders.
Another example is that national cultures whose members prefer to avoid uncertain-
ties tend to have companies with closed-system, bureaucratic cultures rather than open-
system, enterprise organizational cultures.9 Dutch organizations, for instance, are more
likely to have bureaucratic cultures than are Danish organizations.
LEVEL 1: BEHAVIORS AND ARTIFACTS At the first, most superficial level, take note of
the organization’s behaviors and artifacts, the visible but not always decipherable indica-
tors of the company culture. Level 1 includes all behaviors, and also such subtle aspects as
the language and metaphors people use,corporate rituals and ceremonies, and stories and
legends.13 Also consider how the company designs its physical space—from its architec-
ture to the art it hangs on the walls.
Some visible aspects of an organization’s culture have symbolic value. One reason
researchers and practitioners alike are so interested in corporate culture is that they recog-
nize the importance of these symbols in helping people make sense of their organizational
life.14 When assessing an organization’s culture, always consider the potential symbolic
value of its behaviors and artifacts.
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LEVEL 2: SHARED PERSPECTIVES The second level of organizational culture is the level
of shared perspectives, the underlying rules and norms that guide solutions to the typical
problems encountered by organizational members. Perspectives are relatively concrete
ideas, and organizational members are usually aware of them. For example, employees can
typically describe how their organization approaches problems, and they can define what
constitutes acceptable behavior in their company.
Wal-Mart has three basic rules. The first is that the customer is boss. The second is “Get it done
by sundown.” And the third is “Greet any customer who is within 10 feet.”19 A company slogan
is “Exceed customer expectations.”20 In 1997, because it was going global, the company
changed its “Buy American” program with a “Made Right Here” program, which promotes
Canadian products in Canada and Brazilian products in Brazil.
LEVEL 3: AWARENESS The level of awareness consists of the ideals, standards, and goals
held in consensus in the organization. These are the ideas held in common by which peo-
ple judge other people and their behaviors.
Some of these values are expressed in a company’s mission statement or statement of
philosophy, whereas others are not. Some values are clear and can be agreed upon, while
others are complex, ambiguous, conflicting, and in flux. For example, there may be incon-
sistencies between what people say they value and what they actually do, or ambiguities
about what statements and symbols actually mean.21
Wal-Mart culture emphasizes religion, patriotism, a classless collective identity, science, ratio-
nality, ecology, progressiveness, and low costs. The company’s values are embodied in the life
and myth of Sam Walton, who “went to great lengths to emphasize his old pick-up, his cheap
haircuts, and his hunting dogs,” and who bought his clothes at Wal-Mart.22
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SUCCESSFUL SOCIALIZATION After all is said and done, what makes for a successful
socialization process?38 From the organization’s perspective, this depends on its estab-
lished goals. Some companies want a high level of conformity to their culture, while oth-
ers want less conformity and, indeed, some even want nonconformity. At a minimum,
organizations want employees who accept aspects of their roles that are pivotal to the orga-
nization’s mission so they can at least do their jobs at an acceptable level, and they expect
a certain style and decorum.39 If these goals are achieved, the socialization is successful.
From the individuals’ viewpoint, the socialization is successful if they are meeting career
goals without compromising essential aspects of their identity.
employees’ behavior.48 Strong cultures can also enhance corporate performance. There is a
positive relationship between strength of corporate culture and companies’ long-term eco-
nomic performance, but the relationship is modest, and some firms with weak cultures also
have strong performance.49 When they are operating in relatively stable environments, firms
with strong cultures exhibit superior and more reliable performance than firms with weak
cultures.50 However, when the company’s environment becomes more volatile, this advan-
tage is often lost.
Sometimes strong cultures are maladaptive. As one researcher puts it, “In firms
with strong corporate cultures, managers tend to march energetically in the same direc-
tion in a well-coordinated fashion. That alignment, motivation, organization, and con-
trol can help performance, but only if the resulting actions fit an intelligent business
strategy for the specific environment in which a firm operates. . . . Strong cultures with
practices that do not fit a company’s context can actually lead intelligent people to
behave in ways that are destructive—that systematically undermine an organization’s
ability to survive and prosper.”51
Financially, Microsoft is arguably the most successful technology company of all time. But in
recent years its stock has struggled, and a big question for the company today is whether its
increased size, along with its strong culture, will be its downfall. In recent years employees have
complained about oppressive bureaucracy. The company’s compensation system has created a
culture of haves and have-nots, with newer employees in the have-nots category because stock
deals are less lucrative than in the past. Also, efforts to trim costs, such as asking employees to
make a $40 co-payment on prescription drugs, have been met with disbelief.
Researchers Jeffrey Pfeffer and John Veiga estimate that only about 12 percent of
today’s companies have a sufficiently motivating culture to give them a competitive advan-
tage.52 Worse, some companies actively weaken or even destroy their organizational cul-
tures because they ignore their human resources in favor of the short-term bottom line.
Based on their research and consulting experience, Pfeffer and Veiga suggest that compa-
nies should build their cultures in a variety of ways, including offering job security, using
teams to minimize bureaucracy, reducing status differences, sharing information, and mak-
ing compensation contingent on organizational performance.
cultural fit Will Microsoft’s strong culture continue to enhance its competitive advantage? Will the com-
The extent to which an pany maintain its entrepreneurial capabilities, or evolve into something less innovative? In
organizational culture suits the 1995, Bill Gates, having ignored the Internet, led the company in an inspiring comeback to deal
organization’s circumstances, and with it. But Gates is now focusing on product development, and his friend Steve Ballmer is the
predicts how well an organization chief executive officer. Stay tuned.
will perform under those
circumstances. COMPARE THE PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES
bureaucracy
A second approach to organizational culture and performance examines different types of
A type of culture which controls cultures and compares how they perform in different circumstances.53 This approach looks
mainly by developing in its for a cultural fit.
members shared understandings For example, if you think of organizational culture as a way of controlling and gov-
about legitimate authority and fair erning an organization, you can imagine three distinct types of cultures. One type, the
treatment of employees. bureaucracy, governs through developing in organizational members shared understand-
ings about legitimate authority and fair treatment of employees. Another type, the market
market culture
A type of organizational culture
culture, controls by sharing among organizational members complex understandings
which controls mainly by sharing about competition and prices. The third type, the clan, controls by developing in its mem-
among its members complex bers a deep social understanding, specific to their organization, about its general objec-
understandings about competition tives, methods and values. Although in reality organizations use all three types of control,
and prices. their emphases differ.
Because it emphasizes participation and openness, the clan is the most time-consuming
clan
culture to develop and maintain.54 Building a clan is worth the effort, however, because it is
A type of organizational culture
which controls mainly by
likely to be more efficient than other cultures when the organization faces conditions of
developing in its members a deep ambiguity and complexity. On the other hand, the clan is less efficient than bureaucratic or
social understanding about its market cultures when the organization faces conditions characterized by low to moderate
general objectives, methods and complexity and uncertainty. For example, small high tech companies determined to launch
values. a new product often operate like clans, with intense interpersonal interactions and shared
ANDRMC13_346-369v2 8/24/07 11:22 AM Page 346
Preview
What is power?
How can you identify the sources of power in your company?
Power sources versus power tactics
Formal versus informal power
Interpersonal source of power: the soft and the harsh
Other sources of power
346
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Organizational politics is about who you know rather than what you know. Whether
playing politics is a good idea or a bad idea depends on whom you ask.
Many companies strive to be meritocracies, in which the brightest and hardest
working people advance based on their merits. Although these companies may not
fully succeed, their belief that fair treatment is what motivates most employees
keeps them working hard to reduce influences such as nepotism and favoritism. For
example, when a position opens up, they make sure to inform all possible candi-
dates and make the selection process impartial.
Other companies are quite open about playing favorites. Nowhere is this more
true than in family-owned businesses. The real Trump apprentices are his three chil-
dren Donald Jr., Ivanka, and Eric, all of whom plan to enter the Trump companies.
Getting an MBA is a Trump family tradition, and, The Donald rea-
sons, why start all over again when they can build on a base that
already exists? Trump points out that nepotism, whether among
friends or families, is the way the world works. “The fact is,” he
says, “I love my children and I hope they do a real good job.”1
So what do Donald Trump, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Dr. Phil have
in common? Trump’s children will enter his business. Paltrow is the
daughter of the Hollywood actor Blythe Danner and her husband
director Bruce Paltrow. And Dr. Phil’s son Jay McGraw is following
in his father’s footsteps as a talk show host. Are these offspring
innately talented, or do they simply know how to use the power of
family connections? Or both? How will their presence influence
others who work in their companies?
The influence of nepotism is just one example of how power
works in organizations. In this chapter you will learn about orga-
nizational power and influence—including how to acquire them
in today’s organizations.
347
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What Is Power?
power Power is the ability to mobilize resources to accomplish some end.2 In organizations, this
The ability to mobilize resources to generally means that it is the ability to get someone to do something. Sometimes power has
accomplish some end. a negative connotation, implying coercion. For example, “He used his power to get her the
job,” implies that the candidate’s qualifications alone would not have been sufficient and
that someone had to be influenced to hire her. Early definitions of power were, in fact,
often negative: “A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B
would not otherwise do.”3 However, today’s view of power is generally more balanced.
influence The related term influence also involves the ability to get someone to do something,
The ability to move or impel some- and is often used interchangeably with power. However, influence typically has a positive
one to some action, typically has a connotation, suggesting that the individuals who have been influenced have gone along
positive connotation, in that it somewhat willingly. For example, “He influenced the decision.” The term authority sug-
impels someone to go along with gests legitimate control or command over others. For example, “As her superior, he has the
something willingly. authority to tell her what to do.”
Of course, in organizational life there are many common terms that suggest some
authority
Legitimate control or command
aspect of power, including the expressions “power base,” “the powers that be,” “power
over others. play,” “power structure” “personal power,” and “political power.” Even the term leadership
suggests power—or is it influence?—over others.
In earlier, simpler societies, the exercise of power was usually direct and face-to-face,
whereas today power often operates indirectly.4 The policy set by a CEO is implemented
down through the many levels of the organization. Power extends throughout a corporation
in part because of hierarchical relationships, making everyone answerable to someone and,
ultimately, to the top person.
Personal (“soft”)
sources of power
Referent power Identifies with, likes, A subordinate sees the
and admires Person A boss as a role model.
Expert power Believes Person A has An employee agrees to
relevant experience implement a policy
and knowledge created by the company’s
legal advisors.
Information power Is convinced by A work team is sold on a
Person A’s clear company redesign because
logic, argument, of the way the boss
or information presents it to them.
Formal (“harsh”)
sources of power
Coercive power Fears being punished Employees receive
if he or she does not tangible punishments
comply with Person A’s such as a pay cut,
wishes or intangible punishments
such as personal
disapproval.
Reward power Anticipates being rewarded Employees receive
if he or she complies with tangible rewards such as
Person A’s wishes money, or intangible
rewards such as personal
approval.
Legitimate power Accepts that Person A’s A boss tells a subordinate
formal position in the how to do his or her job.
organization gives him
or her the right to make
certain decisions.
Sources: J. R. P. French, “A Formal Theory of Power,” Psychological Review 63, 1956:181–194; J. R. P. French
and B. H. Raven, “The Bases of Social Power,” in D. Cartwright, ed., Studies in Social Power (Ann Arbor, MI:
Institute for Social Research, 1959):150–167; B. H. Raven, “The Bases of Power: Origins and Recent
Developments,” Journal of Social Issues 49 (4), 1993:227–251; B. H. Raven, J. Schwarzwald, and M.
Koslowsky, “Conceptualizing and Measuring a Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence,” Journal of
Applied Social Psychology 28 (4), February 15, 1998:307–332.
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INFLUENCING THIRD PARTIES One way to influence others is to bring in a third party
who has some sort of power, such as expertise or referent power (contacts). A person’s
work group might be used as a third party to apply pressure, too. Of course, sometimes it
may be necessary to deal with an interfering third party by undermining the party’s legiti-
macy, expertise, or status as a role model.
CONTROL OF RESOURCES One way to bring others under your power is to take control of
the resources that they want or need, thus making them dependent on you. Resources peo-
ple often want include money, prestige, legitimacy, rewards and sanctions, expertise, and
the ability to deal with uncertainty.12 Resources vary in their importance, scarcity, and
nonsubstitutability.13 For instance, to an employee just out of college and paying off big
loans, money is important and scarce, and hardly anything can take its place, whereas to an
employee whose children are grown and whose savings are substantial, money is less
important and its scarcity does not matter, and more vacation time would be an adequate
substitute.
SETTING THE STAGE The first factor is literally setting the scene. Have you ever walked
into a professor’s office and seen a wall full of diplomas? Or a politician’s office and seen
a wall full of pictures of him or her with celebrities? Have you noticed that doctors often
wear a white laboratory coat? These people are setting the scene by showing you signs of
their expert, referent, and legitimate power. (By the way, how do you decorate your own
space? Is power a factor?)
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ENHANCING AND EMPHASIZING POWER BASES There are various ways people can
enhance their own power base in the eyes of others. They may make a point of refer-
ring to their role as a person’s boss, teacher, or doctor, thus emphasizing their legiti-
mate power over the person. They may self-promote, emphasizing their superior
knowledge or connections. They may make a request the other person is not likely to
accept, thus inducing guilt in preparation for another request. They may even intimi-
date, presenting the person with a fearful image and hinting at what harm might come
from disobeying them.
MINIMIZING THE OTHER PERSON’S STRENGTH This is another factor to consider when
you want to apply power. Subtle put-downs that decrease the other person’s self-esteem
and confidence may increase your own expert, informational, or legitimate power in the
person’s eyes.
PATTERNS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR Political behavior has distinct patterns.22 For one
thing, it is both internal and external. Internal politics includes the exchange of favors,
forming alliances, trading agreements, reprisals, and even symbolic protest gestures.
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External politics involves attempts to engage outsiders. Examples are leaking information
to the media, engaging in whistle blowing, or filing a lawsuit.
Political behavior also has a vertical–lateral dimension. Vertical political behav-
iors include complaining to a supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, and apple-
polishing. Lateral political behaviors include exchanging favors, offering help, and
organizing coalitions.
Finally, political behavior has a legitimate–illegitimate dimension. Some political
behavior is common and acceptable, whereas some violates organizational norms. This
dimension invites the question: Is political behavior good or bad for organizations? Some-
times political behavior is good for the organization and sometimes it is not.23 See Table
13.3, in which the three shaded boxes include political behaviors and the unshaded box
includes nonpolitical behaviors, and which suggests which behaviors are functional and
dysfunctional for an organization.
Should you play politics? A major consideration is whether you consider playing pol-
itics to be ethical. Professor Debra Comer has provided this set of guidelines for
determining whether a particular political behavior is personally appropriate for an
individual:24
First, is the act of engaging in this political behavior in line with your personal beliefs,
values, and style? Do you consider it be ethical?
Second, what outcomes is this behavior likely to produce? For instance, can you exe-
cute it well? Is the behavior appropriate given your organization’s culture? How likely
is it to be rewarded in your organization’s culture? Will key players respond favorably
to the behavior? What is your relationship with these key players, and how will this
relationship affect their response?
Third, is engaging in this behavior in line with your personal goals?
Finally, are the likely outcomes of this behavior in line with organizational goals?
If you can answer “yes” to all of these questions, then playing politics—this time, at
least—is for you.