FEASIBILITY OF
ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN
NEW YORK CITY
MANAGEMENT
Todd Miner, Manager
Andrea Karpati, Deputy Manager
TEAM
Lena Bansal
Wini Chen
Luke Clause
George Gatta
Andrea Karpati
Joseph Katz
Alison Miller
Todd Miner
Asaf Selinger
Dmitriy Shvets
Janelle Sommerville
Michelle Thompson
REPORT EDITORS
Wini Chen, Chief Editor
Luke Clause
Alison Miller
Dmitriy Shvets
Michelle Thompson
REPORT DESIGN
Dmitriy Shvets
Preface
This report is the culmination of the Workshop in Applied Earth Systems Policy
Analysis, a core course for the Master of Public Administration in Environmental
Science and Policy (MPA ESP) at Columbia University’s School of International
and Public Affairs. The MPA ESP program provides students with the theoretical
knowledge and practical skills necessary to address environmental policy and
management issues. The core curriculum focuses on innovative, systems-based
thinking to environmental issues, encouraging students to think systemically and
act pragmatically. In the fall and summer semesters, students acquire the skills
necessary to analyze an environmental problem and create an implementation
plan to address the issue. In the spring semester, students apply these skills by
conducting policy analysis on environmental or management issues for clients in
government and non-profit agencies. The NYC Mayor’s Office of Long-Term
Planning and Sustainability requested a study of electric vehicle deployment
and methods enhancing electric vehicle feasibility in New York City.
Acknowledgements
This report would not have materialized without the guidance and support of
our advisor, Professor Steven A. Cohen. We would like to acknowledge David T.
Saeger for his assistance with the GIS program and spatial analyses. We wish to
express gratitude to Ari Kahn and the Mayor’s Office of Long-Term Planning and
Sustainability for this tremendous opportunity to help New York City become
sustainable.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 1
Background: New York City and Electric Vehicles ................................................... 4
Purpose of the Report .......................................................................................................... 4
The Environmental Problem: Vehicle Traffic in New York City.......................................... 4
The Solution: PlaNYC and Electric Vehicles ....................................................................... 4
Environmental Benefits of Electric Vehicles ....................................................................... 6
Electric Vehicle Early Adopters .......................................................................................... 6
Barriers to Adopting Electric Vehicles in New York City ........................................... 6
Charging Accessibility ........................................................................................................ 6
Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure ........................................................................... 7
High Electricity Rates ........................................................................................................... 7
Electric Vehicle Off-Peak Charging Rate ......................................................................... 7
Study Methodology ...................................................................................................... 8
Phase 1: Literature Review................................................................................................... 8
Phase 2: Expert Interviews .................................................................................................. 8
Phase 3: Study Analyses ...................................................................................................... 8
Charging Infrastructure Analyses Findings ............................................................... 10
Spatial Analyses Findings .................................................................................................. 10
Maps 1 & 2: Educational Attainment and Median Household Income Maps .............. 10
Map 3: Job Density Map ................................................................................................... 11
Map 4: Vehicle Availability Map ...................................................................................... 11
Map 5: Hybrid Vehicle Registration Density Map ............................................................ 11
Relative Distribution of Electric Vehicle Charging Units .................................................. 12
Potential Locations of Future Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure ......................... 12
Further Research ................................................................................................................ 17
Additional Variables ........................................................................................................... 17
Implement Parking Facility Survey.................................................................................... 17
Utilities Best Practices Findings................................................................................... 20
Utilities Best Practices ........................................................................................................ 20
Best Practice #1: Electric Vehicle Time-of-Use Rates .................................................... 20
Best Practice #2: Consumer Education & Outreach .................................................... 21
Best Practice #3: Collaboration and Partnerships ......................................................... 22
Best Practices #4: Complementary Programs ............................................................... 22
Best Practice #5: Electric Vehicle Data Collection and Smart Charging .................. 23
Barriers to Applying Utilities Best Practices in New York City ......................................... 24
Recommendations for Applying Utilities Best Practices in New York City .................... 25
Next Steps for Future Analysis ........................................................................................... 25
Electric Vehicles Cost Analysis Findings ................................................................... 26
Electric Vehicle Costs ........................................................................................................ 26
Cost Model Analysis .......................................................................................................... 27
Cost Model Analysis Conclusion & Recommendation ................................................... 30
Summary of Recommendations for New York City ................................................. 30
Electric Vehicles and the Northeast Corridor ........................................................... 34
Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 38
Glossary ....................................................................................................................... 39
Appendix 1: New York City’s Home and Public Parking Spots .............................. 41
Appendix 2: Expert Interview Questions ................................................................... 42
Appendix 3: Summary of Expert Interviews.............................................................. 47
Appendix 4: Existing Policy ........................................................................................ 48
Federal Policy Efforts .......................................................................................................... 48
State Policy Efforts .............................................................................................................. 48
New York City Efforts .......................................................................................................... 48
Private Sector Efforts........................................................................................................... 49
Appendix 5: Current Electric Vehicle Charger Infrastructure ................................. 50
Appendix 6: Spatial Analyses Methodology ............................................................ 53
Connecting ........................................................................................................................ 53
Hybrid Vehicle Ownership ................................................................................................ 53
Socio-Economic Factors ................................................................................................... 53
Job Density ......................................................................................................................... 53
Households with More than Two Vehicles........................................................................ 53
Conducting Spatial Analyses............................................................................................ 53
Appendix 7: Traffic Analysis ....................................................................................... 56
Appendix 8: Sample Questionnaire for Parking Facility Representatives ............. 60
Appendix 9: Spatial Analysis Maps ........................................................................... 61
Appendix 10: Electric Vehicle Cost Model Assumptions ........................................ 67
Appendix 11: Quick Matrix of Utilities Best Practices .............................................. 68
Appendix 12: Geographically Weighted Regression .............................................. 69
Appendix 13: Utility Case Study: Michigan .............................................................. 73
Appendix 14: Infrastructure Case Study: Seattle ..................................................... 74
Image Sources ............................................................................................................ 75
Works Cited ................................................................................................................. 76
Executive Summary
New York City recently incorporated electric vehicle adoption into its strategy to fulfill
the objectives of PlaNYC 2030, NYC’s long-term sustainability plan. Electric vehicles
contribute to PlaNYC’s sustainability goals by improving local air quality, reducing the
negative environmental and health effects of congestion, and reducing greenhouse
gas emissions contributing to global climate change.
Despite New York City’s goal of facilitating electric vehicle use, the City faces unique
barriers that may prevent its widespread adoption. While auto-makers market electric
vehicles to homeowners with access to personal garages and driveways for recharging,
nearly half of New York City drivers depend on street parking. Additionally, New York
City’s electricity rates are among the highest in the nation, reducing the fuel cost
savings that are critical to inducing customers to purchase an electric vehicle over a
conventional gasoline or hybrid vehicle. In this setting, the Mayor’s Office of Long Term
Planning and Sustainability commissioned a report to examine two issues: (1) how Con
Edison, New York City’s electric utility, should form electric vehicle policy, and (2) where
the City should encourage the installation of public electric vehicle charging
infrastructure in order to meet future consumer demand.
The report divided its analyses, findings, and subsequent recommendations into two
primary segments: (1) geo-spatial analyses identifying areas with anticipated electric
vehicle public charging demand and (2) utilities best practices encouraging electric
vehicle use.
Within the geo-spatial analyses, key demographic variables associated with electric
vehicle ownership were identified: education, income, hybrid vehicle ownership,
ownership of more than one vehicle, and job density. Using these variables, our
analyses identified targeted “hotspots” for public charging infrastructure in Northwest
Brooklyn, North Brooklyn, and Western Queens. These areas are expected to show
significant interest in electric vehicles but lack fundamental access to home garages
for charging. Therefore, in these hotspots, we recommend electric vehicle charging
station installations in public parking garages for potential owners to park overnight for
recharging. While other locations in New York City also exhibit hotspots for electric
vehicle demand, a robust public charging infrastructure is already developing
throughout Manhattan. Additionally, areas in Staten Island and Eastern Queens have
substantial access to home charging. Therefore, New York City can focus its planning
efforts on the identified areas within Northwest Brooklyn, North Brooklyn, and Western
Queens. Public charging infrastructure should be implemented quickly, within the next
few years, to take advantage of federal funding for free charging stations.
For the utility analyses, a set of five best practices were developed from interviewing
utilities with advanced electric vehicle programs. These five guiding principles broadly
apply to New York City as well as other municipalities:
1
(1) Offer customers a range of electric vehicle rate options including time-of-use rates,
which provide reduced prices overnight and higher prices during the day;
(4) Offer complementary programs, such as the option to purchase 100% renewable
energy, to further incentivize potential consumers and;
(5) Encourage electric vehicle data collection and smart charging as a means of
understanding future demand distribution and to make necessary upgrades to the
electric grid.
Given the significant emphasis on reduced electricity rates, a subsequent cost analysis
demonstrated the role of electricity rates impacting lifetime costs of vehicles: reducing
New York City electricity rates significantly impacts the lifetime cost of an electric
vehicle. After applying tax credits, the purchase price of an electric vehicle is over
$3,000 more than a hybrid. For electric vehicles to be cost-effective, the annual
savings, from maintenance and fuel costs, must recoup that purchase premium. The
cost analysis found current New York City electricity rates require eight years to recover
the premium, while a reduced electricity rate significantly lowers this payback period.
These findings suggest that Con Edison should implement an electric vehicle-specific
rate, separate from its regular Time-of-Use rate.
Implementation requires policy changes from New York City to allow installation of
second electric meters, enabling Con Edison to bill the electric vehicle at its own rate
separate from the rest of the home. Second meters are currently prohibited to prevent
illegal apartments, it is recommended that New York City review and consider
changing this building code to allow for an electric vehicle exception. In the meantime,
Con Edison is researching smart dual channel metering to allow two rates within a single
primary meter, cutting costs and complexity. We recommend the City help Con Edison
in moving forward with an EV-rate and new metering technology for approval by the
New York State Public Service Commission.
Throughout the research process of this analysis, experts from all ends of the market
continually stress the importance of collectively engaging market participants and a
wide variety of stakeholders to enable broad adoption. With the ultimate goal of
moving beyond early adopters, local governments working with utilities and other
stakeholders can effectively encourage electric vehicle adoption through strategic
coordination. Similarly, an electric vehicle partnership between Boston, Philadelphia,
and New York City demonstrates an approach for municipalities to share information,
lessons learned, and resources to support the electric vehicle movement across the
Northeast.
2
Background:
New York City
and Electric
Vehicles
Background: The Environmental Problem:
Vehicle Traffic in New York
New York City and City
Electric Vehicles With widely accessible public transit,
it is not surprising that only 23% of
New Yorkers own automobiles.1
Purpose of the Report However, NYC’s traffic congestion is
one of the worst in the nation—
Both rising gasoline prices and
exacerbating the region’s air
growing environmental concerns
pollution.2 As on-road vehicle
attribute to the increasing availability
exhaust deteriorates local air quality,
of electric vehicles (EVs) offered by
it also poses global implications—
major automakers. EVs offer New
comprising 17% of NYC’s greenhouse
York City (NYC) an opportunity to
gases (GHG) emissions.3
reduce vehicle exhaust emissions,
improving local air quality while
minimizing the city’s impact on The Solution: PlaNYC and
global climate change. While Electric Vehicles
significant technological
improvements brought EVs into the In 2006, the Mayor’s Office launched
mainstream automobile market, PlaNYC—a sustainability strategy for
barriers to its widespread adoption NYC, which includes the goal of a
remain. In NYC, many residents lack 30% reduction in its GHG emissions
access to home garages where EVs (relative to 2005 levels) by 2030. The
are intended to be recharged.
Additionally, NYC residents are
subject to high electricity rates—
rendering other types of vehicles
more cost-effective than EVs. To PlaNYC Initiatives and Goals
overcome these two city-specific
barriers, NYC Mayor’s Office of Long- PlaNYC uses a portfolio of initiatives to
Term Planning and Sustainability (the achieve sustainability goals. These
Mayor’s Office) seeks answers to a initiatives are categorized by ten
central question: “How can New general goals: Housing and
York City promote the adoption of Neighborhoods, Parks and Public
electric vehicles throughout the five Space, Brownfields, Waterways, Water
boroughs?” The purpose of the Supply, Transportation, Energy, Air
report is identifying strategies to Quality, Solid Waste, and Climate
overcome barriers relating to (1) Change.
charging infrastructure accessibility
and (2) electricity rate structures.
4
Electric Vehicle Supply plan also calls for significant
Equipment (EVSE) Charging improvements in local air quality
through the reduction of smog
Levels 1 – 3
causing pollutants. PlaNYC employs
a portfolio of initiatives to fulfill this
There are three levels of EVSE
objective—including a 44%
charging time capability:*
reduction in transportation
emissions.4
Level 1 uses a 120 volt AC circuit from
a standard wall outlet and extension
As zero-emission passenger vehicles,
cord to power the vehicle’s onboard
the Mayor’s Office considers electric
charger. Level 1 is the slowest of the
vehicles as a strategy for achieving
charging levels, taking 20 hours to
PlaNYC’s air quality and climate
recharge a fully depleted Nissan Leaf.
change goals. Solely operating on
electricity, plugging the EV into an
Level 2 uses a 240 volt AC circuit,
electric vehicle supply equipment
requiring EVSE installation in facilities
(EVSE or “charging unit”) or an outlet
equipped to provide this level of
recharges its batteries. In
power. The charge time is faster than
comparison, hybrid and plug-in
Level 1, typically charging a fully
hybrids vehicles use conventional
depleted Nissan Leaf battery in 6 – 8
internal combustion engines,
hours. It is well-suited for an overnight
distinguishing them from EVs.
recharge. Level 2 EVSE can be used
for both public charging infrastructure
as well as at home charging.
5
Environmental Benefits of Electric Vehicle Early
Electric Vehicles Adopters
Converting 75% of batteries’ Comprising only a segment of NYC’s
chemical energy into power, electric new car buyers, “early adopters” are
motors in EVs offer drastic energy eager to purchase EVs.8 As
efficiency improvements over aficionados for new technologies or
conventional gasoline vehicles— green products, EV early adopters
which converts only 20% of have a higher willingness-to-pay
gasoline’s potential energy.5 than other market participants.
Additionally, they play an important
Figure 1: Wheel-to-Well Emissions role by shaping non-early adopters’
Comparison for Combustion Engine views on EVs—influencing further
and Electric Driving in New York City6 adoption into the mainstream
market. However, key obstacles must
be overcome to effectively
encourage non-early adopters to
purchase EVs.9
Barriers to Adopting
Electric Vehicles in
New York City
EVs are designed for recharging
overnight in a home garage during
Source: IEA, IAEA, AG Energiebilanzen, U.S. Dept. of
Energy, McKinsey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
“off-peak” electricity hours, taking
advantage of reduced electricity
In a “wells-to-wheels” comparison rates. However, NYC does not fit this
(Figure 1), EVs emit roughly 25% of model, posing two specific barriers:
conventional vehicles’ total carbon 1) most residents lack access to
dioxide emissions. This value is not 0% personal garages for home
because emissions-producing charging, and 2) high electricity
electricity grids power EVs. Carbon rates reduce the cost-effectiveness
neutral sources—such as nuclear of EVs.
and hydro-electric power—generate
40% of NYC’s electricity,7 and the
addition of more such energy
Charging Accessibility
resources would reduce EVs’ wells- A sizable percentage of NYC
to-wheels emissions. Along with residents lack access to personal
carbon dioxide emissions, other air garages. Roughly 50% of vehicles
pollutants will experience a net park on streets or public parking lots
reduction.
6
throughout Manhattan, Brooklyn, Electric Vehicle Off-Peak
Queens, and the Bronx.10 (See Charging Rate
“Appendix 1: New York City’s Home
and Public Parking Spots” for To become cost-competitive in NYC,
detailed statistics on NYC parking.) a reduced rate for recharging EVs is
Accessing alternative charging necessary. Con Edison, NYC’s
options is crucial for encouraging EV
usage. NYC offers few options,
presenting a serious obstacle for EV
adoption and reflecting the need for Range Anxiety
policy intervention.
The range limitations of EVs, coupled
Electric Vehicle Charging with sparse public charging options,
Infrastructure cause many consumers to believe EVs
will run out of power before returning
Installing public charging units within home for recharging. This is known as
parking facilities is one solution to the “range anxiety”, and it complicates
charging accessibility issue. As EV adoption initiatives. Under optimal
recharging requires several hours, conditions, most EVs today have a
overnight parking (near EV owners’ maximum range of roughly 100 miles
homes) and workplace parking per charge. Variables, including
present potential charging spots. To driving speed, terrain and road
effectively entice EV adoption, it is conditions, cold weather and air
necessary to strategically locate conditioner usage cause the range to
public chargers in the vicinity of fluctuate. In some conditions, the
demand. Other potential charging range could decrease to 50 miles per
unit locations include traditional gas charge. Although range limitations
stations and government parking are important, the majority of
lots. commuters in the U.S. drive only 20
total miles in a day. As this distance is
High Electricity Rates within the EV’s range, the misinformed
perception of range requirements is
In November 2010, the average U.S. the underlying cause of range
electricity rate was 9.6¢ per kWh.11 anxiety. This perception is likely to
With volatile gasoline prices, this rate dissipate once a greater number of
incentivizes EV adoption as it costs people drive EVs, demonstrating that
less to operate than conventional range anxiety fears are unfounded.
vehicles. Varying by location,
Source: NYC Mayor's Office. PlaNYC. Exploring
however, NYC’s current electricity
Electric Vehicle Adoption in New York City.
rate is 27.0¢ per kWh12—rendering New York: City of New York, 2010.
EVs more expensive to operate than
hybrid vehicles.
7
electricity supplier, currently does not Analyzing interview summaries
offer EV-specific rates. However, an unveiled patterns and data relevant
optional Time-of-Use (TOU) rate or to the Study Analyses (Phase 3).
reduced off-peak (overnight) rate is
available. Using the TOU rate
exclusively for EV charging (while the
Phase 3: Study Analyses
standard rate applies for all other
Track 1: Charging Infrastructure
use) potentially resolves the high
NYC electricity rate barrier. Relevant case studies from the
Literature Review (Phase 1)
Study Methodology structured the Charging
Infrastructure Analyses. Employing
The study methodology comprises geo-spatial methods, several
three phases: Literature Review potential EV adoption patterns
(Phase 1), Expert Interviews (Phase emerged from juxtaposing current
2), and Study Analyses (Phase 3). The NYC charging unit locations with five
Study Analyses consists of two parts demographic datasets. The
to evaluate the two barriers facing demographic dataset selection is
electric vehicle adoption. based upon frequently cited socio-
economic variables predicting EV
adoption.
Phase 1: Literature Review
Track 2: Utilities Best Practices
Conducting an extensive literature
review developed the broad The Utilities Best Practices Analyses
understanding of the EV industry, draws from case studies ascertained
relevant stakeholders, and pertinent in the Literature Review (Phase 1)
policy issues. Additionally, research and expert interview summaries
informed and shaped the analyses (Phase 2). Comparing and
methodology. contrasting the EV-focused efforts of
utilities nationwide unveiled
Phase 2: Expert Interviews common practices encouraging EV
adoption. Additionally, this exercise
Key informant and expert interviews sheds light on obstacles for utilities
embody the second phase of the implementing EV initiatives. Lastly,
study. Using a uniform interview employing a cost model
guide—containing general as well as demonstrates the different variables
industry-specific questions— impacting the payback period of
interviewers gathered qualitative the EV’s purchase premium relative
information in a standardized (See to hybrid and conventional gas
“Appendix 2: Expert Interview vehicles.
Questions” and “Appendix 3:
Summary of Expert Interviews.”)
8
Charging
Infrastructure
Analyses
education, income, hybrid vehicle
Charging ownership, multiple vehicle
ownership, and job locations (See
Infrastructure “Appendix 6: Spatial Analyses
Methodology” for variable details.)
Analyses Findings The following five datasets form the
basis of the spatial analyses: (1)
As the market expects additional education level, (2) median
EVs, municipalities are mobilizing to household income, (3) job density,
establish charging infrastructure. To (4) households with 2 or more
accelerate adoption, the vehicles, and (5) hybrid-vehicle
government provides financial registrations.
incentives for EV purchases and
charger installation (See “Appendix Based on key informant interviews,
4: Existing Policy Efforts”). Funding the most NYC public charging unit
majority of NYC’s existing public installations occur in response to
charging infrastructure, Federal parking garage owners’ requests.
stimulus money is available—though Thus, demand shaped most of NYC’s
limited—for additional units (See existing charging infrastructure. The
“Appendix 5: Current Electric Vehicle study juxtaposes the
Charger Infrastructure”) The limited aforementioned datasets with these
funding emphasizes the importance locations to reveal any patterns or
of installing subsequent chargers in “hotspots” (See”Appendix 6: Spatial
areas most effectively encouraging Analyses Methodology”.)
adoption. The Charging
Infrastructure Analyses aims to Spatial Analyses Findings
identify such locations. As
infrastructure development is time- Please refer to Appendix 9
sensitive, the recommendations are for Maps 1-5.
meant for implementing within the
next five years. Maps 1 & 2: Educational
Attainment and Median
The Charging Infrastructure Analyses
Household Income
draws upon studies commissioned by
other municipalities preparing for EV The distribution of individuals with at
demand. The Greater London least a bachelor’s degree closely
Authority, 13 Puget Sound Regional mirror that of median household
Council,14 and the Victoria income levels. Highest levels of
Department of Transportation15 income and educational attainment
identified similar demand predictors appear in downtown and midtown
based on demographic information. Manhattan. Areas in Brooklyn and
The recurrent socio-economic Queens (directly across the East
indicating variables include River from Manhattan) show similarly
10
high levels for both variables. Queens and the Bronx, and the
Additional hotspots are distributed in southern portions of Brooklyn display
bands running from northern to the highest levels of vehicle
southern Brooklyn, and from western availability per housing unit. As an
to eastern Queens. Within Queens, entire borough, Staten Island exhibits
the areas bordering Nassau County the highest vehicle availability levels.
also show high education and The distribution of vehicle ownership
income levels. Staten Island exhibits data mirrors that of education and
a band of higher median household income level data, with the
income levels, bisecting from the exceptions of Manhattan and
northeast to the southwest. However, downtown Brooklyn.
a similar counterpart band for
education levels does not appear in Map 5: Hybrid Vehicle
the same area. Additionally, Staten Registration Density
Island appears more homogeneous
than the other boroughs. The lower Hybrid vehicle registration in
resolution level from larger area downtown and midtown
census tracts could explain this issue. Manhattan, downtown Brooklyn,
The hotspots in the northwestern and and western Queens exhibit greater
eastern portions of the Bronx are less densities. The pattern of hybrid
prevalent than other boroughs. vehicle registration densities closely
mirrors educational attainment levels
Map 3: Job Density and median household income
levels in areas near downtown and
The highest job density areas appear midtown Manhattan, downtown
in downtown and midtown Brooklyn, and western Queens.
Manhattan. A small section of Hybrid vehicle registration densities
downtown Brooklyn displays the decline the further the distance from
second highest job density. these areas. The low population
Relatively low to medium job density densities associated with the city
spots are scattered throughout areas outskirts could explain this trend.
of Queens and Brooklyn, closer to
the East River and directly across A caveat with Map 5 regards the
from Manhattan. Of all the dataset used. The hybrid vehicle
boroughs, Staten Island displays the data contains some addresses with
lowest job density. multiple hybrid vehicle registrations—
perhaps a fleet owned by a
Map 4: Vehicle Availability government agency or business.
Thus, residential hybrid vehicle
Manhattan shows the lowest levels registration may not be accurately
of vehicle availability per housing reflected—possibly comprising Map
unit. Vehicle availability increases 5’s ability to anticipate potential EV
while moving outward from demand.
Manhattan. Eastern portions of
11
Relative Distribution of charging stations—resulting in the
cluster of EV charging stations
Electric Vehicle Charging displayed today. On the contrary,
Units the locations of charging spots in the
Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn do not
Public charging units are primarily display any particular pattern. These
located in downtown and midtown charging spots are located at
Manhattan—an area of higher several participating Nissan
income, education, and job density. dealership locations—scattered
These three variable patterns align throughout these outer boroughs—
with current charging spots, explaining the absence of any
supporting their relationship with patterns. The borough of Staten
potential EV demand. On July 14,th Island does not have any public EV
2010, this area housed NYC’s first charging stations.
public EV charging station at 451 9th
Avenue Edison Properties.16 Since
then, surrounding parking facilities Potential Locations of Future
installed their own Coulomb Electric Vehicle Charging
Infrastructure
Although Manhattan contains the
majority of NYC’s public charging
units, the EV market is merely
budding. The increasing EV demand
will likely expand public charging
infrastructure to the other four
boroughs in similar installation
patterns—locating to areas of higher
income, education, hybrid vehicle
density, multiple vehicle density, and
job density.
12
and Woodside) appear to be prime Providing chargers to individuals
candidates for the next wave of without access to home garages or
public EV charger units. parking facilities remains a challenge
in enhancing widespread EV
Downtown Brooklyn contains a high adoption. On-street chargers could
number of parking facilities—offering resolve this obstacle but the option is
opportunities for housing additional costly. Additionally, concerns with
EV charging stations. These areas vandalism and liabilities arise from
both address the demand of local damaged charging units. While
residents and individuals commuting there is no clear solution,
to downtown Brooklyn. Exhibiting the technological innovations will
highest vehicle availability levels, probably resolve this issue over time.
more residential and sprawled areas This could render on-street units safer
(light blue and dark blue areas in and financially feasible. For now,
Map 6) are likely to fulfill initial EV individuals without access to
demand by installing charging units charging infrastructure are
in home garages. marginalized in the EV adoption
movement, and equity issues to
As the demand grows and access will need to be addressed.
installation costs fall over time, public
institutions, office parking lots, As early adopters are associated
shopping districts, and transportation with higher incomes and
hubs are likely to install charging educational levels, locating
units—joining the expanding EV charging sites to these "hotspots"
charging network. Additionally, inherently precludes residents of
innovative approaches, such as lower incomes and educational
private-public partnerships can levels. Over time, a market for used
garner support to encourage EV EVs will eventually emerge and
adoption. Seattle demonstrates the become accessible to individuals of
effectiveness of private-public all socio-economic backgrounds.
partnerships in the role of Partnering with local environmental
encouraging EV adoption (See justice groups and engaging
“Appendix 13: Infrastructure Case community members is one
Study: Seattle.”) approach to ensure an equitable EV
charging infrastructure.
13
Map 6: General Trends and Recommendations
To interpret Map 6, the subsequent tables include descriptions and
recommendations for each zone.
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
14
Zone 1 (Light Green): Midtown and Downtown Manhattan
Education/ Vehicle
Job Density Hybrid Density
Income Availability
Policy Focus: With the high job density and existing charging units, Zone 1 should
continue to develop charging infrastructure in parking facilities. Incorporating the
demand of Zone 1’s residents and commuters (parking in garages, lots, or off-
street parking) into planning charger locations is key.
Vehicle
Education/Income Job Density Hybrid Density
Availability
Description: While exhibiting similar characteristics with Zone 1, the factors in Zone
2 are lower in magnitude. Zone 2 possesses lower job densities and lacks charging
units.
15
Zone 3 (Light Blue): Select Areas in Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx
Vehicle
Education/Income Job Density Hybrid Density
Availability
Description: All four EV adopter indicators exhibit relatively low to medium levels in
Zone 3. With only low to medium levels of education, income, vehicle availability,
and hybrid vehicle density, the EV demand in Zone 3 will likely be lower than other
zones.
Vehicle
Education/Income Job Density Hybrid Density
Availability
16
Further Research recommendations catered to
specific locations.
While New York and London are different in many ways, the two cities wish to compete
for the title of EV capital of the world, ” EVs are a good fit for London’s system, from our
surveys we see that most drivers drive about 10 miles a day, which is in perfect EV range.
The bigger issue is charging, since many residents do not have home charging access.
This was the prime issue we targeted, since if you have a car and no where to plug it into,
what good does that do?” Said Sean Conroy, Stakeholder & Partnership Manager at
Transportation for London (TFL), the city agency responsible for the London EV project.
”The key to unlocking the charging issue was to bring in the business sector, such as retail
stores where you will spend more than two hours, or public garages that serve both
residents and commuters”. Since the majority of these locations, are located off street, TFL
has focused on creating a large-scale awareness campaign, which includes exposing all
the incentives available to EV customers, “ We believe that price and range anxiety are
the two biggest barriers, and we’re working on both fronts. Today, charging infrastructure
is subsidized by the central government to increase the number of locations. On the
incentives side, EV drivers will be exempt from the congestion charge, as well as other
discounts. For instance in some boroughs of the city reduced parking rates are offered to
zero emission vehicles, and these savings do add up.”
17
17
Charging Infrastructure companies, shopping centers,
business improvement districts are all
Recommendations viable options for potential pilot
Drawing upon the findings of the programs. The Mayor could take
spatial analyses, we propose the advantage of his visibility to launch
following recommendations to pilot programs in each of the target
enhance the EV adoption in NYC: areas. This recommendation is based
on Manhattan garages requesting
1. Prioritize the installation of public charging stations after seeing the
charging infrastructure in Mayor launch a program. Hopefully,
Northwest Brooklyn, North this will stimulate demand from
Brooklyn and Western Queens parking garages in the same manner
Current efforts for public charging occurring in lower Manhattan.
infrastructure have been focused on 4. Focus policy on facilitating the
lower Manhattan, and should placement of chargers in parking
continue to be encouraged, but facilities within the center of the
future efforts should prioritize the city and home garages around
target areas in Brooklyn and Queens. the outer areas of the city.
These target areas should expect
similar demand for electric vehicle 5. Share information with primary
as lower Manhattan and currently stakeholders
have no charging infrastructure.
Share the findings with both private
Other areas, on the periphery of
sector actors installing EV charging
New York City, where electric
infrastructure as well as garage
vehicle ownership is predicted
owners within these target areas.
should be areas where consumers
The goal is connecting these two
will have personal-private parking.
actors, so parking garages receive
2. Encourage the installation of free EV charging infrastructure while
chargers at major transportation federal stimulus money is still
hubs for EV drivers parking at train available.
or bus stations for their daily
6. Track EV registrations to identify
commute.
demand patterns and meet EV
3. Run a pilot program installing EV adopter needs.
chargers at shopping centers,
7. Conduct a voluntary study to
business improvement districts,
collect data on the
cultural and government
commuting/charging patterns of
institutions.
participating EV owners.
The Mayor’s Office should
8. Partner with counties in the New
encourage local businesses and the
York metropolitan region to
EV private sector to launch pilot
create a comprehensive regional
programs within the recommended
wide plan to integrate EVs.
target areas. Parking garage
18
Utilities
Analyses
programs—such as smart-grid
Utilities Best technologies. Without preparation,
utilities risk overtaxing grids—
Practices Findings potentially causing blackouts. 17
20
EV charging during off-peak periods, rate option, as no clear pattern
when electricity demand is low, by emerges. Utilities may prefer
reducing rates. On the contrary, customers using the whole-home
peak hours have higher rates to option to improve energy utilization.
discourage use during increased Other utilities may prefer EV-only
demand. Off-peak periods typically metering rates to obtain data about
occur between midnight and EV charging behavior. Utilities
6:00AM. While most EV customers offering free EV charging
have the option to remain entirely infrastructure, such as Michigan-
on the standard rate, some utilities— based DTE Energy and Consumers
such as California’s PG&E—mandate Energy, require customers to use a
TOU rate usage. separately metered rate option (see
“Appendix 12: Utility Case Study:
For most utilities offering EV-specific Michigan.”)
rates, there are generally two
options for customers. The first option
is a “whole-home TOU rate” where
Best Practice #2: Consumer
TOU rates apply to the entire home’s Education & Outreach
electricity usage. Designed to
encourage broad energy savings, Nearly all interviewed utilities
the whole-home TOU option benefits consider consumer education a
customers with the majority of their crucial component in the role of
energy consumption occurring utilities in the EV market. Many utilities
during these off-peak periods. developed websites, brochures, call
centers, and online chat functions to
The second option is an “EV-only engage consumers on EV issues.
TOU rate” requiring the installation of Outreach efforts include educating
a separate meter for billing EV local dealerships about special utility
electricity usage under TOU rates. rates to direct involvement with
Initial installation costs and effort— automakers. The following describes
such as permitting and other related three common areas of focus for
upgrades—are higher under this utilities’ consumer education and
option. However, unlike the whole- outreach efforts:
home TOU rate, the EV-only metering
option provides flexibility by applying Electric Vehicles 101
the standard rate for all other
electricity use. This alternative is Utilities’ websites often provide basic
appealing for customers reluctant to information about electric vehicles,
commit their entire electricity including the different categories of
consumption under TOU rates. EVs (PHEV, BEV, etc.), charging
protocols, available incentives, and
It is difficult to generalize if utilities the installation and permitting
prefer the whole-home TOU rate process. Many include external
option or the EV-only metering TOU
21
sources of information, providing programs. These collaborations are
users with additional resources. noted for their importance in data
collection, outreach, and
Rates and Options knowledge of regulatory issues.
Further, partnerships are increasingly
Utilities’ primary role as an educator important as customers move
is making rate options clear and between utility boundaries.
helping customers decide which Stakeholders such as local
rate plan is most appropriate. One municipalities, automakers, charging
method is direct interaction with unit manufacturers, and
customer representatives. Another environmental groups are working
approach is providing energy or rate closely with their respective Public
calculator tools on a website, Utility Commission, utilities and their
allowing potential EV owners to other partners to successfully
understand the vehicle fuel costs expedite charging infrastructure
and to determine which rate is processes and establish EV rate
suitable for their electricity use. structures. Examples of successful
statewide partnerships include the
Environmental & Social Benefits Michigan Plug-in Electric Vehicle
Preparedness Taskforce and the
Some outreach efforts focus on the California Plug-In Electric Vehicle
social and environmental benefits of Collaborative.
electrified transport. For example,
this may include information about
how off-peak charging enables the Best Practice #4:
system to avoid building new power Complementary Programs
plants. Another environmental
benefit discussed could be the Utilities across the U.S. are offering
advantage of wind energy and its complementary programs to
evening optimization. This type of advance EV adoption. These
information is particularly enticing to programs especially help utilities that
early adopters and market are unable to lower rates or offer
participants motivated primarily by financial incentives. The following
environmental concerns. describe some of the program
options utilities offer:
Best Practice #3:
Financial Incentives
Collaboration and
Partnerships Some utilities provide financial
incentives for EV consumers. For
Collaborations, partnerships, and example, Consumers Energy and
task forces are widely cited by DTE Energy both offer $2,500
interviewees as successful reimbursements toward Level II
approaches for initiating utilities’ EV- home charging stations for up to
22
2,500 participants18. Their programs Best Practice #5: Electric
require participants to sign up for a
separately metered rate19. Lansing Vehicle Data Collection
Board of Water & Light, a and Smart Charging
municipally-owned utility in
Michigan, offers a program to match Utilities are participating in a number
the federal incentive up to $7,500 of deployment and demonstration
and provides two free charging programs to gather data about EV
stations to each participant: one for consumers’ charging behavior as
the home and one for the well as anticipated locations of
workplace. Their program requires clustering. This information allows
participants to answer surveys and utilities to prepare for grid investment
collect charging data for 3 years. as adoption spreads to other cities
The DOE provides funding each of and regions. With a $200 million
these programs. grant from the DOE, Progress Energy
will deploy hundreds of smart
Green Power charging stations to gather real-
world data in preparation for large-
A major impetus for purchasing an scale adoption of EVs.23 This data
electric vehicle—for potential EV can help utilities leverage their
owners and especially the early involvement in the EV market into a
adopters—are the associated smart grid. Utilities incorporating
environmental benefits. Providing smart charging may be better
green electricity options enhances equipped in avoiding future grid
this choice. For example, New York’s problems while retaining greater
Con Edison offers customers the information and control of
option to buy 100% renewable infrastructure upgrades. 24 Smart
energy from the New York region20. charging issues undergoing
investigation and pilot projects
Fleet Demonstrations include:
23
Advanced Metering in the city. Additionally, this
Infrastructure (AMI) Integration prohibition prevents landlords from
charging different electricity rates to
Allows the utility to break-out EV different units within a building.
charging from the primary meter. Unfortunately, this restriction also
Utilities can use AMI data to predict prevents utilities like Con Edison from
local reliability issues, and help offering an EV-only rate.
utilities forecast future demand.26
Barrier to Adoption: New York
Demand Response (DR) State Public Service
Integration Commission (NYSPSC)
A utility can adjust the electricity Regulated utilities require approval
load by lowering air conditioners or by their State Public Utility
stopping EV charging as needed.27 Commission (PUC) or Public Service
The California Public Utilities Commission (PSC) before changing
Commission and the Michigan Public their rates or implementing metering
Service Commission both launched changes. Regulators must balance
studies to explore the utilities’ the interests of utilities with
potential role in this type of demand ratepayers. Rate requests may
management. require substantial time and financial
resources on the part of the utility.
Furthermore, initially obtaining a
Barriers to Applying Utilities correct rate may be critical in
Best Practices in New York obtaining approval—as defending
City rates or re-filing rate requests often
subjects utilities to greater regulatory
Our analysis found five nation-wide scrutiny.28 Utilities obtaining approval
best practices for Con Edison, NYC’s for EV rates found the process similar
electricity provider, to adopt and to other rate requests, taking
fully engage in the EV market. While approximately 4 – 10 months.
some best practices are already
implemented, two NYC-unique In addition, some utilities note
barriers prevent Con Edison from fully current or impending restrictions on
adopting the identified best education and outreach efforts by
practices. their Public Utility Commission. In
these cases, education is limited to
Barrier to Adoption: NYC off-peak charging and rate options
Building Code information, excluding
environmental and social benefits.
Current building codes in NYC Since ratepayers fund these
prohibits the installation of a second educational programs, the restriction
meter to prevent illegal apartments
24
stems from concerns with ratepayers dollars. Currently, there are no
subsidizing EV programs. approved dual channel meters.
Utilities are conducting studies and
piloting these meters, but the
Recommendations for technology requires further research
Applying Utilities Best and development before
Practices in New York City deployment begins. Moreover, these
meters require the Public Utility
Recommendation to NYC Commission’s approval. Con Edison
Government: Change Building could pursue this option while also
working with NYC on the second
Code for Second Meter
meter building code change.
Exception for Electric Vehicles
The New York City government
Recommendation to both NYC
should amend the local building Government & Con Edison:
code restriction on second meter Collaborate on Regulatory
installations. Utilities from other states Efforts with NYSPSC
note that second meters do not
pose serious problems as they are Collaborative efforts by Con Edison,
easy to monitor: the load from an the NYC government, and other
electric vehicle is drastically different relevant stakeholders provide added
from an apartment load—making it resources and allies in the regulatory
detectable when the second meter approval process for an EV-
is inappropriately used. Requiring an accommodating rate structure and
EV proof of purchase for a second dual channel meters. This partnership
meter permit should reduce could collectively appeal to the
instances of illegal use. NYSPSC to approve of utilities
practices accommodating EV use.
Recommendation to Con
Edison: Invest in Dual Channel Next Steps for Future
Smart Meter Technology Analysis
Some utilities including, Con Edison, In addition to the NYC-specific
are researching dual channel recommendations derived from the
meters. These are advanced best practices analysis, key
technology smart meters allowing for informant interviews also unveiled
separate billing for the EV within the additional findings. These findings
primary meter—removing the need pose additional questions to be
for a second meter. These dual addressed before EV adoption
channel meters are expected to be occurs beyond early adopters.
more cost-effective than second
meters—costing a few hundred
dollars instead of thousands of
25
Notification Standardization charging station operator is not
selling electricity. Instead, the
Utilities do not have a standardized operator is selling parking or
notification system to track their charging services, for which
customers purchasing EVs. In some customers pay a separate fee. The
areas, electricians are required to electricity price and all other fees
notify the utility when any upgrade associated with the charging
or new load is added to a home. In operator are delineated clearly in
other areas, utilities are notified by the receipt.
customers on a voluntary basis.
Sometimes automakers provide data Electric Vehicles Cost
on new EV owners to utilities. While
Analysis Findings
adequate for now, these notification
modes are neither sustainable nor
Electric Vehicle Costs
efficient with the anticipated sales of
EVs. Utilities prioritize standardizing Currently, electric vehicles cost more
this process as it enables them to to purchase than comparable
prepare adequately for load hybrid and conventional vehicles.
increases. With customer privacy However, in comparison to its
concerns, utilities such as PG&E alternatives, electric vehicle usage
ensure that the information obtained presents substantial annual savings in
is solely used for grid preparation, two ways: (1) lower vehicle
not for marketing purposes. maintenance costs and (2) fuel
savings. A vehicle’s lifetime cost is
Third-Party Charging Station probably considered during the
Regulation decision-making process surrounding
its purchase. For electric vehicles to
Public Utility Commissions are be cost-effective its annual savings
investigating and discussing must recoup the purchase premium
regulations of third-party charging or the extra initial costs paid.
station operators. A primary concern
focuses on operators “re-selling” Discovering that an EV-only TOU rate
electricity—an action prohibited is a best practice amongst utilities
throughout most of the country. nationwide, the analysis
Entities selling electricity are subject subsequently examines the impact
to utility regulation. The California of a reduced EV rate in NYC. A cost
Public Utilities Commission issued a analysis model is used to illustrate
preliminary ruling that these how different variables, such as
operators are not utilities and will not electricity price, gasoline price, and
be regulated. According to several miles traveled, impact the payback
interviewed utilities, a way to period of the purchase premium. This
overcome this issue is making explicit analysis also illustrates the sensitivity
business models, such that the
26
of variable changes in comparison owner to recover the upfront costs,
to hybrid and conventional vehicles. relative to the Prius (at a gasoline
price of $3.50/gallon). However, with
Cost Model Analysis a discounted rate of 13.5 cents/kWh
and $4.00/gallon gasoline, the
The electric vehicle in this model is a payback period reduces to less than
standard 2011 Nissan Leaf, the hybrid 4 years, approximately the average
vehicle is a 2011 Toyota Prius II, and turnover period of a new vehicle.
the conventional vehicle is a 2011 Another cost model result supports
standard Toyota Camry. All the finding of electricity price
assumptions in the model are sensitivity and payback periods.
detailed in “Appendix 10: Electric While maintaining the current price
Vehicle Cost Model Assumptions.” of 27 cents/kWh but lowering the
gasoline price to $2.50/gallon, it still
Based on the model, the electric costs more to fuel the EV in NYC than
vehicle has a purchase premium of the hybrid car.
$3,330 over the hybrid and $6,560
over the conventional vehicle, after By comparing NYC, Boston, and
adjusting for eligible tax credits. The Philadelphia—the three largest cities
calculations for these premiums are of Northeastern United States—NYC
detailed below: faces high electricity prices.
However, Boston and Philadelphia
Leaf: $32,780 (base price of Leaf29) + may not find electricity prices as
$2,200 (charging unit estimate30) - barriers to EV adoption since their
$7,500 (tax credit) - $1,100 (tax electricity rates are fairly low.
credit) = $26,380
27
Table 1: Payback Period for EV Premium in Northeast U.S. Cities
Comparison to Comparison to
New York City - Flat Rate
Hybrid Vehicle: Conventional Vehicle:
$0.27/kWh
EV Premium: $3,330 EV Premium: $6,560
Cost Payback
Electricity Cost per Gallon Miles Driven Payback Cost Savings
Savings Period
Price Gasoline per Day Period (Years) per Year
per Year (Years)
$0.27 $3.50 40 $255.18 13.05 $1,567.15 4.19
$0.135 $3.50 40 $728.22 4.57 $2,040.19 3.22
$0.0675 $3.50 40 $964.74 3.45 $2,276.71 2.88
Comparison to Comparison to
Boston - Flat Rate
Hybrid Vehicle: Conventional Vehicle:
$0.07718/kWh
EV Premium: $3,330 EV Premium: $6,560
Cost
Electricity Cost per Gallon Miles Driven Payback Cost Savings Payback
Savings
Price Gasoline per Day Period per Year Period
per Year
$0.077 $3.50 40 $931.45 3.58 $2,243.42 2.92
$0.0385 $3.50 40 $1,066.36 3.12 $2,378.32 2.76
28
Comparison to Comparison to
Philadelphia- Flat Rate
Hybrid Vehicle: Conventional Vehicle:
$0.0999/kWh
EV Premium: $3,330 EV Premium: $6,560
Cost
Electricity Cost per Gallon Miles Driven Payback Cost Savings Payback
Savings
Price Gasoline per Day Period per Year Period
per Year
$0.0999 $3.50 40 $851.21 3.91 $2,163.18 3.03
$0.050 $3.50 40 $1,026.06 3.25 $2,338.03 2.81
1 http://www.coned.com/customercentral/calculators/EC_res_Appliance_Calculator.html
2 http://www.nstaronline.com/residential/rates_tariffs/basic_service.asp
3 http://www.papowerswitch.com/shop-for-electricity/shop-for-your-home/by-distributor/peco-energy/rs/
Since Con Edison, is a regulated utility, any rate change requires approval from
the Public Utilities Commission, which we believe should be coordinated with city
policymakers. In terms of city government policies, the biggest stumbling block to
EV implementation is the ban on second meter, which inhibits the ability to get
the aforementioned EV rate.
29
29
Cost Model Analysis Conclusion & Recommendation
Based on these findings, a reduced EV-charging solution for NYC
electricity rate is essential to the residents. Whether a second meter
widespread adoption of electric building code amendment or dual
vehicles as the lifetime cost likely channel meter, enhancing the
dictates the purchase decision- feasibility of EV adoption depends
making. This finding supports the on electricity rate structure options
recommendations for Con Edison available to NYC residents.
and NYC government to collaborate
and implement an
Charging Infrastructure
30
Utilities Best Practices
31
• Possibly grant second meter consumers. Even without the tax
waiver to electric vehicle credits, municipal fleets are still an
owners upon vehicle option for EV adoption—especially
registration. since nearly all fleet vehicles have
pre-determined parking lots or
3. Promotion of Electric Vehicle garages to park overnight. This
Fleets for Government Sector provides the ideal matchup of
charging accessibility with low
We recommend that the City electricity prices—an option NYC’s
consider purchasing electric vehicles private car owners do not have. City
as it replaces older fleet vehicles, agencies with substantial fleets
which total over 26,000 vehicles.33 include:
Currently, NYC’s fleet includes 339
electric vehicles. The Department of • Department of Transportation
Citywide Administrative Services • Department of Sanitation
(DCAS), the agency charged with
implementing a cleaner fleet, • NYC Taxis & Limousines
committed to purchasing at least 60 • New York Police Department
additional electric vehicles and
• New York City Housing
installing 42 chargers with DOE
Authority
funding.34 We advise the City to
continue and expand these efforts.
32
North East
Regional
Vehicle
Partnership
Northeast Regional Electric Vehicle
Electric Vehicles Partnership (NREVP).”
34
could not easily drive an electric and is exploring dynamic rates. As
vehicle. As this study has the cost model shows, and assuming
demonstrated, Boston should seek to an average of 40 driving miles per
understand location and driving day, the $0.077 per kWh rate will
needs of these residents. As already offer electric vehicle
previously concluded, high income consumers a payback period of 3.58
and education are strongly years over a hybrid and 2.92 years
correlated with EV interest. In Boston, over a comparable gasoline vehicle.
high income and education are
most prevalent along Interstate 9036 Should NSTAR cut the electricity rate
(The Massachusetts Turnpike) in a line in half and offer $0.038 per kWh, and
that ends in the downtown Boston assuming gasoline prices remain
area. Census data showing housing high, the payback period of an EV
units with attached parking may be over a hybrid is only 2.75 years,
plotted geographically showing which is well within the policy
where income, education and lack window to incentivize consumers.
of parking for housing units correlate, That reduced rate also offers a
more accurately predicting where payback period of 2.42 years over a
public charging infrastructure should comparable gasoline vehicle. There
be focused. Hybrid vehicle are no known restrictions of second
ownership data generally supports
37 meters, but approving dual metering
the conclusion that downtown areas technology will ease electric vehicle
are likely to have high demand for electricity rates.
electric vehicles but lack charging
options in parking facilities; these The current major policy initiative for
areas should be primary target areas electric vehicles is a promotional-
for public infrastructure. There are pilot program of electric vehicle
also pockets of hybrid ownership in chargers outside City Hall in
Jamaica Plain, Allston/Brighton, downtown Boston. It is
Roslindale and the South End; these recommended that the city
areas should be secondary target collaborate with colleges and
areas for charging infrastructure. universities in the greater Boston
area as well. Boston is well poised to
Utility Policy increase the rate of electric vehicle
adoption, leveraging commercial
Boston’s electric utility, NSTAR, offers entities as they are already receiving
a flat rate for electricity of $0.077 per reduced electricity rates between
kWh, which is almost a one-fourth of $0.037 and $0.058 per kWh.
the rate offered in New York City.
Although currently there is no Time-
Of-Use rate offered for individual
households, as of March 2010, NSTAR
has partnered with Tendril38 to build
the capacity to use smart metering,
35
Philadelphia a Time-Of-Use rate in 2012. Currently
there are no plans to establish a rate
specific to electric vehicles.
Charging Infrastructure
Assuming the Time-Of-Use rate is half
The greater Philadelphia area has of the current flat rate, a rate of
roughly 6.1 million people, with $0.081 per kWh will decrease the
approximately 1.5 million living within payback period of the electric
the proper city boundaries.39 As with vehicle premium over a hybrid to
Boston, it appears that Philadelphia 3.64 years. Using Time-Of-Use
has fewer areas in need of public pricing, the payback period for a
electric vehicle charging. Much of comparable gasoline vehicle would
the greater Philadelphia population decrease the payback period to
has parking attached to housing 2.94 years. Using this model, current
units. This census data needs to be and projected pricing for electric
plotted, along with hybrid ownership, vehicles will not incentivize early
in order to confirm this projection. adopters to purchase electric
High income and education vehicles. It is strongly recommended
converge in an east-west swath in that PECO offer electric vehicle
Center City along Market, Chestnut specific rates, which provide EV
and Walnut Streets. The highest customers a wide range of options,
convergence of income and enhancing the EV purchase.
education occurs along the eastern
waterfront area and in Old City.40 Currently, private vehicle sharing
Public charging infrastructure should companies (PhillyCarShare and
focus on these three streets in Center Zipcar) are planning to add a total
City and along the waterfront. of 18 electric vehicles to their
collective fleets. These will be
supported by electric vehicle
Utility Policy
charging stations paid for by the
PECO, Philadelphia’s electric utility American Recovery and
offers a flat rate of $0.163 per kWh, Reinvestment Act of 2009
but does not offer a Time-Of-Use rate (commonly known as “the stimulus”).
to either individuals or commercial Beyond, only small pilot programs
entities. Assuming an average of 40 exist, consisting of one or two
driving miles per day, the payback electric vehicles (PECO will add two
period for the premium of an electric Chevrolet Volts to its fleet). PECO’s
vehicle, over a hybrid, is 5.28 years electric vehicle policy across the
and for a comparable gasoline cities they provide do not appear to
vehicle is 3.38 years. be robust, which suggests their
incentive structure should be
As part of the Exelon 2020 program researched further.
and following Pennsylvania
regulations, PECO will begin offering
36
Next Steps Project get ready: ”EVs require long
term planning and commitment.”
The Northeast Regional Electric
Vehicle Partnership is still nascent, Project Get Ready is an electric car
but it is clear these three cities and coalition working out of the Rocky
other municipalities will benefit from Mountain Institute. The organization seeks
this type of benchmarking. The more to facilitate a knowledge-sharing
these types of analyses are applied network, from which cities can learn best
to other cities the more feasible it will practices and benchmark their progress.
become to understand the barriers In interviews we conducted with Project
and to ascertain whether these Get Ready, the following issues arose as
barriers should be addressed by critical factors:
government policy or should be left
to the private sector. This allows • Ease of use, if a transition to EV is
cities and municipalities to make complicated people will stick with
more informed, efficient and cost- current technology
saving policy decisions for electric • Incentives: Is cheap electricity
vehicles.
enough, should we use tax credits or
rebates?
37
Conclusion
Electric vehicles represent a great opportunity for New York City to meet its
sustainability goals outlined in PlaNYC. By facilitating the electrification of its
transportation sector, New York City demonstrates to the nation how a modern,
cutting-edge city enhances electric vehicle feasibility. Promoting business
partnerships, utility best practices, the expansion of public charging
infrastructure, and cost-effective electricity rates, New York City enables its
residents to take full advantage of electric vehicles’ unique benefits. With
growing consumer interest, private companies and non-profits are mobilizing to
ensure electric vehicles and charging technologies enter the market. New York
City must reach out to these stakeholders to facilitate cooperation and spur
interest in electric vehicle demand. Additionally, as partnerships across
municipalities offer access to additional resources and information, the
Northeast Regional Electric Vehicle Partnership will serve to bolster each city’s
electric vehicle initiatives. As demonstrated by successful regional electric
vehicle partnerships in the Seattle Puget Sound region and the San Francisco
Bay Area, the partnership between Boston, Philadelphia, and New York City
shows great promise in the Northeast—reflecting the country’s growing interest
not only in electric vehicles but also long-term urban sustainability.
38
Glossary
charging station: a public location energy production accumulate in
with installed EVSE for plug-in electric the atmosphere (aka “global
vehicle recharging; most commonly warming”; see “greenhouse gas”
uses Level 2 EVSE (see “Level 2 and “carbon dioxide”).
charging” and “electric vehicle
supply equipment”). greenhouse gas (GHG): gas which
traps outgoing solar radiation in the
conventional gas vehicle: vehicle atmosphere causing global
driven by an internal combustion temperature to rise (see “global
engine powered by gasoline or climate change”)
diesel fuel.
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV): vehicle
dual channel smart meter: electricity powered partially by electricity; an
billing meter capable of tracking electric motor and battery pack are
two different levels of electricity used for low speed driving with a
usage at two different price rates. gasoline powered internal
combustion engine for high speed
early adopters: consumers driving (aka “hybrid”).
purchasing new products or
technology very early in its kilowatt-hour (kWh): standard billing
availability, willing to pay higher unit for electricity suppliers (see
costs to have the product before it “utility”)
enters the mainstream market.
Level 1 charging: plug-in electric
electric vehicle (EV): vehicle vehicle recharging method using 120
powered 100% by electricity, driven volt AC electricity; the most simple
by an electric motor with electricity and slowest charging method.
stored in rechargeable batteries
(aka “plug-in” or “battery electric Level 2 charging: plug-in electric
vehicle”). vehicle recharging method using 240
volt AC electricity; faster recharging
electric vehicle supply equipment method than Level 1, requires
(EVSE): electric appliance used to installed EVSE (see “charging
recharge plug-in electric or hybrid station”).
electric vehicles.
Level 3 charging: plug-in electric
global climate change: changes in vehicle recharging method using 300
global weather patterns caused by volt or higher DC electricity; fastest
increasing global temperatures as recharging method, requires
greenhouse gas emissions from
39
installed EVSE (see “charging renewable energy: electricity
station”). generated from a naturally
occurring resource and produces no
off-peak: the time of day when direct emissions (wind, solar, tidal,
electricity demand and costs are geothermal).
lowest; typically during the evening.
smart-grid: electricity delivery
on-peak: the time of day when technology designed to supply
electricity demand and costs are electricity to specific places on the
highest; typically during the grid in order to regulate on-peak
afternoon. demand loads.
40
Appendix 1: New York City’s Home and
Public Parking Spots
Table 2: The Number of Home and Public Parking Spots in New York City 200941
At Home Public
Borough
(home garage or assigned lot) (on street or unassigned lot)
44% 56%
Bronx
(roughly 78,760 parking spots) (roughly 100,240 parking spots)
42% 58%
Brooklyn
(roughly 159,180 parking spots) (roughly 219,820 parking spots)
46% 54%
Manhattan
(roughly 75,900 parking spots) (roughly 89,100 parking spots)
54% 46%
Queens
(roughly 262,440 parking spots) (roughly 223,560 parking spots)
77% 23%
Staten Island
(roughly 98,560 parking spots) (roughly 29,440 parking spots)
41
Appendix 2: Expert Interview Questions
I. CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE f. When might electric vehicles
QUESTIONS become competitive with
conventional forms of
1. INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS transportation?
a. Why have electric vehicles not yet
II: UTILITY RATE STRUCTURE
been widely adopted?
b. From a consumer's perspective,
what are the most important factors 3. INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS
influencing the decision to a. Why have electric vehicles not yet
purchase an electric vehicle? been widely adopted?
c. How can the adoption of the b. From a consumer's perspective,
electric vehicle be accelerated in what are the most important factors
New York City? when choosing to purchase an
(Alternatively Asked: What is Nissan electric vehicle?
doing to bring the leaf to NYC?) c. How can the adoption of the
d. What are the most important electric vehicle be accelerated in
factors to adopting electric vehicles New York City?
in New York City? d. What are the most important
issues to adopting electric vehicles in
2. SPECIFIC CHARGING New York City?
INFRASTRUCTURE QUESTIONS e. When could electric vehicles
a. In your opinion, what is the most become competitive with
critical factor for implementing conventional forms of
electric vehicles in New York City, transportation?
related to charging EVs? f. Is it better to incentivize the
b. In your opinion, will the placement consumers, or producers of electric
of charging stations in private vehicles; both?
parking garages increase the
feasibility of EV in New York City? 4. SPECIFIC UTILITY RATE STRUCTURE
c. How can the implementation of QUESTIONS
this charging infrastructure be a. In your opinion, what is the most
accelerated? critical factor for implementing
d. Other than home charging and electric vehicles in New York City,
private parking garages, what related to electric utility rates? Other
alternative parking locations do you factors?
feel should be considered? b. In your opinion, will a reduced off-
e. Who would you consider the most peak electricity rate, specific to
relevant stakeholders for charging electric vehicles, increase the
infrastructure? possibility of widespread adoption in
New York City?
42
c. Other than an off-peak electricity c. With existing technology, can an
rate, what other alternative policies electric vehicle charging rate be
do you feel deserves consideration? applied only to electric vehicles?
d. Who would you consider the most d. Are there sufficient safeguards,
relevant stakeholders for charging against misuse, incorporated in
electric vehicles? current charging technology?
e. When might electric vehicles e. To bring further insight to our study,
become competitive with would you be able to recommend
conventional forms of any colleagues with pertinent
transportation? experience within electrical
infrastructure and utilities?
III: SUB-CATEGORIES f. Are there sufficient safeguards,
against misuse, incorporated in
5. CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE current charging technology?
g. What Factors or data would you
a. Currently, one hour of an open
use to gauge the potential location
gas pump can provide 8,000 miles of
of EV charging Stations (relating to
driving. When will electricity be able
the locations of likely EV adopters)?
to meet that standard? What are the
barriers to providing this standard in
7. CAR MANUFACTURERS
electricity?
b. If there is a lower rate for charging a. What are the expected lifetime
electric vehicles, is it possible to alter maintenance costs for the electric
the charging station to power other vehicle?
devices? b. Are there specific technological
c. How will Level 3 480 volt quick- breakthroughs you foresee that will
charging technologies be utilized? accelerate the popularity of electric
d. How would battery-swapping vehicles?
affect charging technology? c. What other types of transportation
e. To bring further insight to our study, are the biggest competitors for
would you be able to recommend electric vehicles in New York City?
any colleagues with pertinent (public transport, bike-renting, etc.)?
experience with electrical d. To bring further insight to our study,
infrastructure and integration with EV would you be able to recommend
charging technology? EV charging any colleagues with pertinent
in general? experience within EV
manufacturing?
6. UTILITIES e. How important is public charging
away from home? Where does it fit
a. Will an off-peak electric vehicle
into Nissan’s model (vs. overnight)?
charging rate change regular
e. What happens to an EV’s range
electricity rates in New York City?
when in congestion?
b. Will upgrades to the New York
electric grid be necessary if electric
vehicles are widely adopted?
43
8. BATTERIES IV. INTERVIEWS OF OTHER
STAKEHOLDERS
a. What is the expected lifespan of a
typical electric vehicle battery?
10. CURRENT EV CONSUMERS
b. Does the type of charging affect
the lifespan of the battery? a. How would you convince another
c. What are the expected consumer that this car can work?
maintenance costs for a typical b. What initially attracted you to an
battery? electric car?
d. Do existing recycling programs in c. What are the biggest benefits of
New York City cover electric vehicle purchasing an electric car?
batteries? d. What are the added operating
e. When will battery technology be costs that you experience?
advanced enough that range and e. What are the expected costs to
mass will no longer be constricting EV owner for installing/maintaining
factors? home charging units?
f. Do you expect a breakthrough in f. How many EVs do you expect to
the battery technology? Is it sell in coming years?
necessary for the popularity of g. What’s your opinion of stop and
electric vehicles? go traffic in NYC; does it help or hurt
g. To bring further insight to our study, the EV?
would you be able to recommend
any colleagues with pertinent 11. GARAGE OWNERS
experience with EV batteries or
a. What are your biggest concerns
charging?
about installing electric vehicle
chargers in your garage?
9. POLICY
b. What are your suggestions to
a. What can New York City learn Mayor Bloomberg for alleviating
from your city’s experience these concerns?
implementing electric vehicles? c. Do you believe the installation of
b. What program and/or policies EV charging stations will increase
were particularly helpful in revenue at your garage?
encouraging electric vehicles? d. Do attendants receive training to
c. How has a commitment to electric operate stations?
vehicles benefitted your city? e. Do EV drivers pay a premium to
d. To bring further insight to our study, the garage owner for charging
would you be able to recommend service?
any colleagues with pertinent f. Is there a combined tariff?
experience related these policy or
management issues?
44
12. ELECTRIC VEHICLE FLEETS e. How has (or how will) the EV rate
affect other ratepayers? If
a. Would you consider transitioning
infrastructure upgrades, such as
your fleet to electric?
replacing a neighborhood
b. What internal obstacles are there
transformer, are necessary, will the
to this?
costs be spread to all ratepayers?
c. How would your physical plant
f. Are you concerned at all with the
need to change?
charging station model and re-
d. Would you invest in high speed
selling electricity?
DC charging?
SECTION 1.B: NOT offering specific
Electric Vehicle Electricity Rate
Addendum to Interview Guide: Utility
Analysis Questions a. Do you anticipate adopting an
EV-rate in the future?
SECTION 1.A: Offering specific b. What are the driving factors in
Electric Vehicle Electricity Rate your decision-making process to
adopting an EV rate?
a. Is this rate distinct from a broadly
c. Do you see any obstacles to
offered Time of Use rate?
implementation of the EV rate?
b. How was the actual EV rate(s)
d. Do you expect there is a minimum
determined?
number of consumers who need to
c. What were the driving factors in
opt into the EV rate to make it
adopting the rate?
economical from the utility
d. Can you provide a brief overview
perspective?
of the process to implement the EV-
e. How will an EV rate affect other
rate? What was the timeline? Key
ratepayers? If infrastructure
milestones?
upgrades, such as replacing a
i. What were the obstacles to neighborhood transformer, are
implementation of the EV rate? necessary, will the costs be spread to
ii. What stakeholders were the all ratepayers?
most important in the process?
iii. What was the involvement
of the Public Utility/Service SECTION 1.C: Questions for Public
Commission in the process? Utilities Commissions/Policymakers
iv. Have you seen an increase
in EV owners due to the rate? a. Does your utility offer an EV –
v. Is there a minimum number specific rate? Is that distinct from a
of consumers opting into the broad or whole home Time of Use
EV rate required to make it rate?
economical from the utility b. How does your utility feel about
perspective? sub-metering?
45
c. Do you believe an Electric Vehicle
electricity rate will encourage EV
adoption?
d. What is your involvement, if any, in
the process of implementing such
rates? Was there collaboration with
utilities in establishing the rate
structure?
e. Have you seen an increase in EV
owners where utilities offer an EV
rate?
f. Is there a minimum number of
consumers opting into the EV rate
required to make it economical from
the utility perspective?
g. How has (or how will) the EV rate
affect other ratepayers? If
infrastructure upgrades, such as
replacing a neighborhood
transformer, are necessary, will the
costs be spread to all ratepayers?
46
Appendix 3:
Summary of Expert Interviews
Between February and March 2011, public charging infrastructure.
the group conducted nearly forty Several interviewees mention
interviews to develop general electrifying NYC’s vehicle fleets as a
knowledge of electric vehicles while way to reduce range anxiety
answering key questions formulated amongst New Yorkers. Congestion is
from the study’s methodology. consistently identified as an issue for
Interviewees were categorized into NYC. Additionally, EV initiatives
the two research tracks: Utilities Best should strive to replace existing
Practices and Charging gasoline cars, rather than add new
Infrastructure. Scholarly works and vehicles to NYC. Interviewees
policy writings found in the literature believe multi-dwelling unit residents
review identified interviewees. The face the largest infrastructure barrier
interview process also identified due to lack of available parking.
additional references and Some buildings have parking
interviewees. Respondents tend to garages, while others do not. There
be directly involved with EVs or is no clear solution to this issue.
companion technologies. The
interviewees are not a Utilities Best Practices
comprehensive sample of experts in Interviewees identified electricity
the EV field—rather people with rates as the key issue related to
relevant knowledge relating to our utilities. There are varying opinions of
study. implementing EV-specific rates or
Time-of-Use rates. Both solutions
Charging Infrastructure present additional issues for NYC.
Interviewees generally agree Currently, NYC does not allow
population density presents second meter installation—a
difficulties to EV adoption, as necessity for having EV-specific
potential owners may not have rates. Upgrades to NYC’s electric
private parking attached to their grid are likely to occur as demand
house or apartment. Overcoming for EVs increase. However, Con
range anxiety with proper charging Edison claims they are prepared.
infrastructure is a primary concern,
as range limitations remain an issue
for the general public. Pilot projects
and awareness campaigns are
consistently mentioned as possible
tools for increasing EV demand and
47
Appendix 4: Existing Policy
Introduction for the installation of a planned 200
free chargers within New York City. 47
In his State of the Union Address on
January 25, 2011, President Obama State Policy Efforts
pledged to “break [America’s]
From financial assistance to special
dependence on oil…and become
privileges, the State of New York is
the first country to have a million developing additional programs and
electric vehicles on the road by incentives to encourage EV use.
2015.”42 President Obama’s plan Under the Clean Pass Program, the
echoes the growing interest of State provides non-commercial EV
government agencies, consumers, drivers with unrestricted access to
and industries across America in “high occupancy vehicle (HOV)”
promoting electric vehicles in the lanes.48 In October 2010, the NY
United States. 43 Various federal State Power Authority announced its
programs and policy initiatives partnership with Ford Motor
already encourage and support EV Company to render the State of
use.44
New York “EV-ready”—by
Federal Policy Efforts developing consumer outreach
strategies as well as coordinating
Federal efforts to promote EV efforts with utilities.49 In addition, the
adoption target both consumers New York State Energy Research and
and industry. Presently, a federal tax Development Authority (NYSERDA)
credit of up to $7,500 is available for administers the Alternative-Fuel
the purchase of qualifying plug-in Vehicle Program. The goal of this
electric drive motor vehicles. This program is to encourage both public
credit will phase out after the sales of and private fleets to purchase
qualifying vehicles in the United alternative-fuel vehicles (electric
States reach 200,000 units.45 In vehicles included) and to install the
addition, federal legislation such as supporting fueling or charging
the American Recovery and stations. To do so, NYSERDA provides
Reinvestment Act of 2009 promotes financial assistance and technical
EV adoption through manufacturing information to program
investments, financial incentives, participants.50
and consumer education.46 Stimulus
funds are also available for New York City Efforts
supporting the installation of
Currently, there are nearly fifty
charging infrastructure. The
charging stations in publicly
ChargePoint America program is accessible parking garages mainly in
supported by $15 million in stimulus
lower Manhattan, the first of which
funding granted by the Department
was publically announced by Mayor
of Energy; this program is responsible
48
Bloomberg in July 2010. These
charging stations have primarily
been installed by Ecotality and
Coulomb Technologies under the
Federal Stimulus Act of 2010, which is
aimed at incentivizing the
implementation of infrastructure for
electric vehicles in order to meet
President Obama’s goal of one
million electric vehicles on the road
by 2015. Under the stimulus act, the
cost of installing charging stations in
public facilities is paid by the federal
government through distributors and
manufacturers of electric vehicle
charging stations.
49
Appendix 5: Current Electric Vehicle
Charger Infrastructure
NYC’s EV charging infrastructure is luxury apartments. Seward Park Co-
still nascent. Current NYC locations op contains 4 charging locations.
of EV charging sites are listed in the
table below and displayed on all The rental car industry is mobilizing
spatial analyses maps. With the by offering EV rentals and installing
exception of Nissan dealerships, the the necessary charging
charging stations listed are known as infrastructure. Hertz Rent-a-Car plans
“Coulomb Charge Point stations” as to add 15 to 20 EVs to its fleet within
they are made by Coulomb the year. Additionally, Hertz currently
Technologies. Each station contains has one charging location in
both Level-1 120 volt and Level-2 240 Manhattan.55
volt charging positions. The listed
Nissan dealerships house two Level-2 While all care was taken to ensure
240 volt AeroVironment chargers.53 that this data is complete and
While these chargers become accurate, it is possible for some
available to Nissan customers, each charging stations to be excluded in
dealership ultimately determines if the analysis. The data presented
non-Nissan EV users will have access. here represents the information we
54 consider to be the most easily
accessible by the general public.
Several parking garages are
accommodating EVs. From midtown
to downtown Manhattan, nine
garages of Edison Park Fast are
equipped with a charging station.
Beam Charging LLC installed four
charge points in Manhattan and one
in Forest Hills (Queens). Car Charging
is under an agreement to install
charge points in Icon Parking
Systems-owned garages.
50
Table 3: Current Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in NYC
Chargers
Location Name Address
Available
EDISONPARKFAST LOT 250 451 9th Ave., NY, NY 10018 1x 120v, 1x 240v
EDISONPARKFAST LOT 280 260 Spring St., NY, NY 10013 1x 120v, 1x 240v
51
EDISONPARKFAST LOT 30 167 Essex St., NY, NY 10002 1x 120v, 1x 240v
SEWARD PARK CO-OP 413 Grand St., NY, NY 10002 4x 120v, 4x 240v
Sources: http://www.mychargepoint.net/find-stations.php,
http://beamcharging.com/locations.html, and http://electric.carstations.com
52
Appendix 6:
Spatial Analyses Methodology
Connecting Job Density
53
is categorized with ten classes. Class Education Data
ranges use the natural breaks (Jenks)
The education level map uses the
classification in the ArcMap 2005-2009 American Community
Software. Light grey areas indicate Survey 5-Year Estimates “Sex by Age
census tracts with unavailable data. by Educational Attainment for the
Creating the Base Maps Population 18 Years and Over”
dataset obtained from the United
The NYC Counties and the Census States Census Bureau American
2000 Census Tract shapefiles form FactFinder.74 The information
the layers of the base maps. Both collected is limited to NYC residents
shapefiles were obtained from the age 18 or older. Additionally, this
Columbia University Spatial Data information only includes individuals
Catalog. with at least a Bachelor’s degree
within NYC’s five counties.
Current Electric Vehicle
Charging Infrastructure Data Since the educational data presents
Websites for ChargePoint America,69 information for males and females
Beam Charging LLC,70 and Electric separately, the number of educated
Car Stations71 provide information females and educated males are
regarding the locations of existing EV first combined to find the “general”
chargers in NYC. Using BatchGeo,72 number of educated individuals. This
a program converting addresses to combined gender education data is
XY coordinates, the EV charger then used to calculate the
addresses were converted to a percentage of educated individuals.
compatible GIS format and mapped The number of educated individuals
using the ArcMap software. is divided by the general population
data within a census tract. Linking
Median Household Income Data this education population data with
The median household income map the Census 2000 Census Tract
is based on the 2005-2009 American shapefile generated the education
Community Survey 5-Year Estimates map.
“Median Household Income” Data
for the counties of NYC: Bronx Job Density Data
County, Kings County, New York The job density map is based on the
County, Queens County, and U.S. Census Bureau’s Longitudinal
Richmond County. Gathering the Employer-Household Dynamics
income data from the United States (LEHD) data obtained from the LEHD
Census Bureau American OnTheMap website.75 This data
FactFinder and linking it with the
73 details the number of workers and
census tract numbers in the Census their respective work locations (per
2000 Census Tract shapefile census tract) in 2009. Using the
generated the median household census tract numbers, these values
income map. are linked to the Census 2000 census
54
tract shapefile. To determine the roughly 23,000 registration addresses
number of jobs per square mile, (2011) of all hybrid vehicles in NYC.
these values were divided by the The hybrid vehicle types ranged from
areas of the census tracts. small hatchbacks (i.e., the Toyota
Prius, etc.) medium-sized sedans (i.e.,
Vehicle Availability Data the Toyota Camry hybrid, etc.), to
large SUVs (i.e., GMC Yukon Hybrid,
The vehicle availability map was
etc.) BatchGeo78, an online tool that
generated using the 2005-2009
American Community Survey 5-Year converts addresses to XY
Estimates “Tenure by Vehicles coordinates, converted the EV
Available” data. This data was charger addresses to a GIS-
obtained at the United States compatible format, which were then
Census Bureau American FactFinder mapped using the ArcMap software.
website76. Combining the owner A spatial location join command is
used to calculate the number of
occupied housing units data and
renter occupied housing unit data registered hybrid vehicles located
within each census tract. To
created one index of occupied
housing units. Data categories for determine the number of hybrid
vehicle registrations per square mile,
two vehicles, three vehicles, four
vehicles, and five or more vehicles this calculated value was divided by
available were combined to create census tract areas.
the two or more vehicles category.
The number of occupied housing
units with two or more vehicles was
divided by the total population of
occupied housing units within a
census tract. This generated the
percentage of occupied housing
units with two or more vehicles
available. These values were linked
to the Census 2000 census tract
shapefile using the census tract
numbers.
55
Appendix 7: Traffic Analysis
Electric vehicle adoption poses opportunity for EVs in NYC. While
implications on commuting patterns public transit can alleviate the
for New York City and the potential congestion resulting from
surrounding metropolitan region. The the increases in commuter traffic,
following traffic analysis provides a there is still a role for EVs to play.
brief overview of commuting Many will use an electric vehicle as a
patterns, and presents approaches 2nd or 3rd car (a “commuter car”) to
to incorporate EVs into the drive the 10-15 miles from home to a
transportation portfolio of the NYC mass transit platform on the edge of
metropolitan region. the City – which will then transport
them to their ultimate destination.
According to the New York Others will choose the EV to save
Metropolitan Transportation Council money on ever-increasing fuel costs
(NYMTC), the greater NYC area as they make their way into the City.
population expects to increase from
roughly 12.5 million people in 2010 to With this in mind, we chose to look at
14.4 million by 2035. The existing traffic patterns and deduce
corresponding job growth is where commuter destinations begin
projected to increase by 1.5 million. and end. In doing so, we can
As jobs and commuting are determine where initial charging
interrelated, many employees will stations should be introduced for
travel from outside the five maximum effectiveness and
boroughs. Commuting rates from efficiency. There are two areas we
the surrounding areas are likely to have chosen to look at: Inter-City
increase, as the size of the labor commuting (that is, within the five
force living within NYC is projected to boroughs), and Regional commuting
increase at a slower rate that the (those drivers who come from
supply of jobs (only 800,000 more outside NYC to work, and then leave
residents will be present to fill 1.5 NYC once work is completed for the
million additional jobs). This points day).
not only to increased commuting
from the boroughs outside Inter-City Commuting
Manhattan, but also a continued
reliance on New Jersey, While midtown and downtown
Southwestern Connecticut, Long Manhattan will continue to be the
Island, and various tri-state suburbs top destination for commuters due
to supply workers to firms located to its high job density, the City should
within the NYMTC region.79 focus initial charging infrastructure
These projected labor and sitting efforts at public garages near
commuter patterns are a great large centers of employment in
Brooklyn and Queens. When
56
excluding Manhattan traffic, we see Brooklyn. The next highest number of
from Table 2 that the largest amount automobile commuters live in
of outer-borough commuters are Brooklyn and travel to work in
those travelling from Queens to Queens.
Source: New York City Department of City Planning Peripheral Travel Study, 2010
57
demographic characteristics and commuting with EVs. As Figure 1
optimal driving ranges lead us to illustrates, the formal NYC
believe a portion of this 13 percent metropolitan region incorporates
of regional commuters will be prime two states and includes 31 counties.
candidates for purchasing and
58
While not directly within NYC’s questions about travel in the region.
purview, we believe the significant Through targeted surveying, they are
influence the City carries as a gathering data on how people of
magnet for residents of the the area move around, reasons they
surrounding area can help influence travel, and who uses the
these local governments to begin transportation system today. We
adoption and implementation of believe once this survey is complete
strong EV policies and infrastructure. (projected by next year – 2012), it will
By increasing regional community be essential for future EV planners to
acceptance and implementation of study the information and identify
charging infrastructure for external most likely areas for EV use and 2nd
commuters, we believe NYC and its generation charging infrastructure
EV owners receive a mutual benefit. sitting.
NYC alleviates much of the
congestion and pollution these
commuters bring with them to the
city, and City EV owners now extend
their driving range when travelling
throughout the greater metropolitan
area.
59
Appendix 8: Sample Questionnaire for
Parking Facility Representatives
1. How many parking facilities does 5. Several electric vehicles can be
your company operate in NYC? charged using a standard 110V
outlet. Your customers may want to
2. Approximately how many NYC plug into a 110V outlet while parking
customers do you serve annually? their electric car at your facilities. Is
3. In which boroughs are your this something you would be willing
facilities located? How many to do?
facilities are in each one? And are If yes, would you be willing to have
there plans to expand to other your facility/facilities listed as “plug-in
boroughs? electric vehicle friendly” on a public
4. Are you in the process of (or have website? If yes, which ones?
plans for) installing electric vehicle 6. Have you heard about other
charging stations in any of your companies installing EV chargers in
facilities? their parking facilities? If so, which
If yes, which facilities are/will these companies are they and how did
installations take place? you hear about this?
60
Appendix 9: Spatial Analysis Maps
61
Map 1: Educational Attainment
#
LEGEND BRONX
! Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Parking Facilities
# Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Nissan Dealerships
# BROOKLYN
STATEN ISLAND
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
¯
Miles Data Source: 2005-2009 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates (B15001 Sex by Age
by Educational Attainment for the Population 18 Years and Over)
Map 2: Median Household Income
#
LEGEND BRONX
! Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Parking Facilities
# Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Nissan Dealerships
# BROOKLYN
STATEN ISLAND
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
¯
Miles Data Source: 2005-2009 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates (B19013 Median Household Income)
Map 3: Job Density
#
LEGEND BRONX
! Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Parking Facilities
# Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Nissan Dealerships
# BROOKLYN
STATEN ISLAND
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
¯
Miles Data Source: U.S. Census Bureau Longitudinal Employer-Household Dynamics (OnTheMap 2009)
Map 4: Vehicle Availability
#
LEGEND BRONX
! Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Parking Facilities
# Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Nissan Dealerships
# BROOKLYN
STATEN ISLAND
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
¯
Miles Data Source: 2005-2009 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates (B25044 Tenure by Vehicles Available)
Map 5: Hybrid Vehicle Registration Density
#
LEGEND BRONX
! Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Parking Garages/Lots
# Electric Vehicle Charging Stations - Nissan Dealerships
157 - 277 #! !
#
278 - 479 ! !
!! #
!! ! !
480 - 816
QUEENS
! !
817 - 1,402
! ! !
1,403 - 2,142 !! ! !
!
2,143 - 3,537 #
3,538 - 8,714
# BROOKLYN
STATEN ISLAND
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
¯
Miles Data Source: New York State Department of Motor Vehicles Freedom of Information Act Request
Appendix 10: Electric Vehicle Cost
Model Assumptions
The electric vehicle represented in costs for the Prius and Camry were
the model is a standard model 2011 determined from a Motor Trend
Nissan Leaf, the hybrid vehicle is a analysis of the 2011 models, while
2011 Toyota Prius II and the the Leaf estimate is based on an
conventional vehicle is a 2011 economic study from Project EVIE.
standard Toyota Camry. The model The maintenance costs were
has been built to enable comparison estimated at $169.50 , $368.8083,
82
of any electric vehicle to any and $360.0084, for the Leaf, Prius, and
traditional vehicle. We chose these Camry, respectively. The base
three as representative vehicles. All electricity rate for NYC is 27
costs and fuel efficiencies for these cents/kWh as assessed from Con
vehicles are taken from the Edison’s website in February 201185.
manufacturers’ websites. We have The Boston current base rate is 7.718
assumed that Nissan’s preferred cents/kWh assessed on NSTAR’s
partner, AeroVironment, will provide website for their residential basic
the charging unit. We have assumed service fixed rate in April 201186. The
federal tax credits of $7,500 for Philadelphia base rate is 9.999
vehicle purchase and 50% of the cents/kWh from PECO for residential
cost of the charging unit (with a service for the second quarter of
maximum of $2000). While we 201187.
included the ability to add State
subsidies or tax credits, we have
assumed none in this analysis, as
New York State currently does not
offer any. Further, assumed that
there are no service upgrade
requirements or second meter
installations. Though we have built
the ability to account for these into
the model, these costs will depend
on each individual home and
cannot be attributed generally to all
EVs. We have assumed that the fuel
efficiency of the electric vehicle is
4.17 miles per kWh (based upon the
stated range of 100 miles and a
battery capacity of 24 kWh). Finally,
annual maintenance and repair
67
Appendix 11: Quick Matrix of Utilities Best Practices
Table 5: Summary of Utilities Best Practices
City / Region Utility Ownership Best Practices Electric Vehicle Rate Options Rate Notes
Three EV Options:
Option 1 - Residential Home and Plug-in Electric Vehicle Time-of-Day Rate (REV-1) - Single
EV Rates, Education & Outreach, EV Meter (off-peak $0.06/kWh) The REV-3 Rate is limited to 250
MI Consumers Energy Investor-Owned Calculator, Collaboration & Partnerships, Option 2 - Residential Plug-in Electric Vehicle Only Time-of-Day Rate (REV-2) - Separate customers.
Financial Incentives Meter (off-peak $0.06/kWh)
Option 3 - Residential Plug-in Electric Vehicle Only Monthly Rate (REV-3) - Monthly fee for
up to 300 kWh - Separate Meter
EV Rate, Education & Outreach, One Option: Developing additional plans and
TX Reliant Energy Investor-Owned
Collaboration & Partnerships, Reliant EV Owner’s Plan (Time-of-Use): Whole Home Option - Single Meter options for EV owners
Appendix 12: Geographically Weighted
Regression
The analysis provided in the report regression is statistically significant
makes note that income and and robust, which supports the
education and car availability are predictions made in this report’s
closely related to the hybrid charging infrastructure analysis.
ownership data. Hybrid vehicle
ownership, as mentioned above in The results of the Geographically
the qualitative analysis, is generally Weighted Regression are not
considered a good predictor of comprehensive; as they do not
future electric vehicle ownership. As show, with 100% accuracy, that
an example, London’s 2009 “Turning these three explanatory variables
London Electric,” hypothesized that alone can explain hybrid vehicle
early adopters of electric vehicles ownership. There could be other
share many characteristics with variables that could be used to
hybrid owners. In fact, different cities reach even more accurate results
have used current hybrid ownership The results confirm that these
data to predict areas where there variables (income, education and
will be higher electric vehicle multiple car ownership) are good
ownership. predictors for future EV ownership
and therefore provide a good
Based on these two assumptions the estimation where electric vehicles
predictions for the occurrence of will be located and what there
electric vehicles in New York City relation is expected to be with
have chiefly relied on income, respect to the average number of
education, households with 2 or future EVs in the city. By using this
more vehicles and job density. Job regression the number of vehicles
density has been dropped from the can be predicted, see Map 7. It is
explanatory variables when important to recognize relationship
computing the statistical analysis between the predicted numbers
because we are focusing on at rather than their nominal value, as
overnight charging. Manufacturers the latter may be influenced by
foresee electric vehicles being information outside the model, i.e.
charged overnight near the owners’ inflation. The results of the regression
residence. For this reason, the analysis indicate hotspots for electric
Geographically Weighted vehicles, where the predicted
Regression was done using income, number of cars is at least 50% higher
education and households with 2 or than the average number of
more vehicles as predictors for vehicles throughout the city.
electric vehicle ownership. This
69
Detailed description of the GIS meaning weighted the equally in the
spatial analysis methodology regression.
The statistical tool used for predicting For greater statistical precision
concentration of EV ownership in outliers were excluded from the
New York City is the Geographically analysis. Areas (census tracts) where
Weighted Regression of GIS. This more than 150 hybrid vehicles are
regression uses data that reflects registered are considered outliers, as
aggregated information on census explained above these areas
level track. This provides a probably reflect the presence of
comparison between the different hybrid fleets (i.e. taxi cabs or other
variables and prevents individual governmental or commercial fleets)
households from being identified. rather than personal transportation
The variables follow those of the vehicles. The exclusion of these areas
qualitative analysis. The dependent is to ensure that current hybrid fleets
variable of the regression is hybrid do not create bias in the analysis.
vehicle ownership. The main
assumption here is that hybrid The first step of the regression consist
vehicle ownership is a good an Ordinary Least Squares regression
indicator for future electric vehicle (OLS) that verifies that explanatory
ownership. The same assumption relationship between the variables
was made in other cities planning for and shows statistical significance.
electric vehicles, as the interviews When checking for Spatial
with experts show. The only Autocorrelation, the results show that
difference between this quantitative “There is less than 1% likelihood that
and the previously explained this clustered pattern could be the
qualitative analysis is that hybrid result of random chance”. This
vehicle ownership data is presented means that there is a spatial bias is
in reflection to census track rather present in the OLS.
than per square mile for greater
accuracy. This shows that correct results can be
provided only with Geographically
Following the assumptions from this Weighted Regression, that
report’s analysis, the explantory encounters with the spatial
variables for vehicle ownership in this distribution of data in the dataset
model are median household describing the model’s variables
income, educational attainment throughout New York City. Running
and vehicle availability (2 or more the Geographically Weighted
cars per housing unit). The Regression with the GIS software
explanatory variables are provides the following results:
considered on an equal basis,
70
Table 5: Results of geographically weighted regression
Neighbours 194
ResidualSquares 224295.79737646185
EffectiveNumber 151.8720343933817
Sigma 10.464826306011483
AICc 16658.634653650046
R2 0.3328618001864845
R2Adjusted 0.28371814358024683
71
Map 7: Predicted electric vehicle ownership in New York City
72
Appendix 13:
Utility Case Study: Michigan
In our search for best practices for rate. The EV rate is distinct from the
New York City benchmark, through broadly offered TOU rate and was
interviews with two Michigan electric created through a collaborative
utilities have created an EV rate process with the MPSC. The rate
through, we were able to learn how offered by DTE is $0.08/kWh, about
through collaboration with the half the normal standard flat rate.
Michigan Public Service Commission After purchasing an EV, the owner
(MPSC), an EV rate has been simply contacts DTE and within 2-3
created and implemented. The days, DTE will which coordinates the
Lansing Board of Water & Light, a permitting and installation of a
publicly owned utility, is currently charger in the owner’s home within
working on the implementation of two to three days. DTE also offers a
sponsoring a DOE funded program- financial incentive of $2,500 for the
funded by the DOE which has EV owner to offset the upfront
providing allocated for 27 EV purchase of the charger.89
customers a matching rebate of
$7,500 incentive, matching the
federal rebate. This provides funds
for the purchase of two free
charging stations per car, at the
owner’s home and workplace. The
charging unit is installed on a
separately metered circuit, allowing
the EV to recharge using the lower
rates offered by the utility. The
Lansing Board of Water & Light
launched the EV rate on March 1,
2011. This rate is a separate TOU rate
designed specifically for the
separate EV meter. The Board, not
the MPSC, oversaw the process of
creating an EV rate.88
73
Appendix 14:
Infrastructure Case Study: Seattle
In 2009, the City of Seattle drivers in Seattle are likely to charge
developed a plan to introduce first- at single-family homes with an
generation charging infrastructure attached private garage, the city
throughout the city. Known as ‘The has opted to expand the locations
Plug-In Project’, the effort was of public chargers to local hotels,
coordinated by the City’s Office of restaurants, sports venues,
Sustainability and Environment, government buildings, tourist
working with staff from Seattle City destinations, libraries, and similarly
Light, Seattle Department of visible locations. Most of these first
Transportation, Department of generation chargers have been
Planning and Development, Fleets placed at their current locations
and Facilities Department, and the based on request from the private
Mayor’s Office.”90 As a partner in business owners and concurrence
The EV Project – a “$230 million from charging network companies
public-private initiative funded with (Coulomb Technologies, etc). The
a $114.8 million grant from the U.S. city’s primary role has been to
Department of Energy,”91 Seattle identify potential problems and
received financing and construction streamline existing laws, ordinances,
assistance to help facilitate the or procedures that would
process. discourage EV purchasing and use.
They have also helped facilitate
Seattle analyzed current and private investment through the
projected traffic patterns from the sharing of public data analysis that
Puget Sound Regional Council help vested parties best plan where
(PSRC), regional commuting to install and maintain charging
corridors, locations of existing hybrid units. In doing so, Seattle has
owners, and various related become a recognized leader in city-
demographics to determine the level EV policy and is well prepared
ideal sitting locations for first to meet the increased demand for
generation public EV chargers. electric vehicles throughout the
While the predominance of EV region.
74
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<http://timenewsfeed.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/42-20216645.jpg%3Fw%3D455>.
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