CEE 335

Soils and Hydraulics Lab

Spring 2011

Course Coordinators:
Prof. Isao Ishibashi

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA 23529
Table of Contents
Page

Course Instructions ..........................................................................................................................1

Lab Schedule................................................................................................................................. 2

Experiment Design Lab

Common Lab Permeability Test................................................................................................ 3

Soils Lab #1 Hydrometer Test ................................................................................................. 6

Soils Lab #2 Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit Test ....................................................................... 10
Soils Lab #3 Compaction Test .................................................................................................. 12
Soils Lab #4 Consolidation Test ............................................................................................... 14
Soils Lab #5 Direct Shear Test.................................................................................................. 16
Soils Lab #6 Unconfined Compression Test ............................................................................. 17

Hydraulics Lab #1 Reynolds Experiment ............................................................................... 19

Hydraulics Lab #2
Hydraulics Lab #3
Hydraulics Lab #4
Hydraulics Lab #5
Hydraulics Lab #6
Venturi as a Flow Measurement Device .................................................. 21
Flow over Sharp Crested Weir …………………………..…………….. 29
Energy Head Loss due to a Hydraulic Jump ………..……................... 35
Impact of Jet on Vanes ............................................................................. 38
Steady Axisymmetric Unconfined Flow .................................................. 43

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 CEE 335 Soils and Hydraulics Lab Spring 2011

Lab Assistants: Soils Lab Hydraulics Lab

Amir Arablouei Alireza Shahvari
Office: Room 122 KH Office: Room 115 KH
Office Hours:_____________ Office Hours:____________________

Experiment Design Labs

There is a lab for which each group will design the experiment. The topics and requirements for
this lab are assigned at the beginning of the semester. A separate group report for the experiment design
is due on February 16 (Wednesday lab), 18 (Friday lab ). After the instructor has reviewed the reports
and provided some constructive feedback, each group will conduct the experiment at a later scheduled lab
session. The final group lab report is due two weeks after lab experiment is performed. Many of the
regular lab sessions may be concluded in a shorter time than scheduled 110 minutes. It is anticipated that
students will utilize this spare time effectively to work on the experiment design.

Laboratory Reports
Individual (not group, except for the experiment design lab) written reports shall be neat and in
professional quality. Lab reports are due at the beginning of the following lab class. Late lab report
may be accepted with deducted points only if the instructor accepts the reason for the delay. Reports shall
include the following information:
1. Cover page ...test date, course name, type of test, members in the lab group, reporter's name, etc.
2. Purpose and principles...a brief description of the test's purpose and no more than four to five
sentences concerning the physical principles used to develop the measurements.
3. Laboratory equipment...a listing of the principal apparatus used during the test.
4. Procedure...clear and reasonably complete statements of the test method.
5. References...references on the test, which should include the ASTM Standard where applicable.
6. Data...neat and well-organized raw data and corresponding computations.
7. Results...presentation of test results may include tables, graphs and figures, etc.
8. Discussions... (a) discuss your results. What is the engineering significance of the results? Do you think
they are accurate?, etc., (b) comment on any possible sources of errors, etc.
. Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. & 8. in the report shall be typed.
. Students are encouraged to create spreadsheets for analyzing data and graphical presentation.
Note:
1. The lab grade for the experiments missed will be an automatic zero, except for those made-up with
the permission of the instructor. Make-up of the test will be only granted for exceptional cases.
2. Students are not allowed to leave the laboratory until the experiment is successfully over, and the area
is cleaned and all tools are returned to the proper locations.

Grading: (all lab reports including an experiment lab are equally weighted for grading purpose.)
A 90-100 (A-: 90-92.9)
B 80-89.9 (B-: 80-82.9, B+: 87-89.9)
C 70-79.9 (C-: 70-72.9, C+: 77-79.9)
D 60-69.9 (D-: 60-62.9, D+: 67-69.9)
F below 60

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CEE 335 Soils and Hydraulics Lab Schedule Spring 2011

Soils Lab (at Room 122 KH)

Soil-1. Hydrometer test
Soil-2. Liquid limit and plastic limit tests
Soil-3. Compaction test
Soil-4. Consolidation test
Soil-5. Direct shear test
Soil-6. Unconfined compression test

Hydraulics Lab (at Room 138 KH)

H-1. Reynolds experiment
H-2. Venturi as a Flow Measurement Device
H-3. Flow over sharp crested weir
H-4. Energy head loss due to a hydraulic jump
H-5. Impact of jet on vanes
H-6. Steady axisymmetric unconfined flow

Common Lab (all at 122 KH) – permeability test (Experiment Design)

Lab Schedule by Groups

Date Lab schedule

1/12, 1/14 Introduction and organization meeting at KH138
1/19, 1/21 S-1
1/26, 1/28 H-1
2/2, 2/5 S-2
2/9, 2/11 H-2
2/16, 2/18 S-3
2/23, 2/25 H-3
3/2, 3/4 Permeability test
Spring Break !!!
3/16/ 3/18 H-4
3/23, 3/25 S-4
3/30, 4/1 H-5
4/6, 4/8 S-5
4/13, 4/15 H-6
4/20, 4/22 S-6
4/27, 4/29 No lab, due for S-6 lab report

Soils lab sessions are divided into 3 groups (S-1, S-2, S-3).
Hydro lab sessions are divided into two groups (H-1, H-2).

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EXPERIMENT DESIGN
Effect of Gradation on Permeability (Common Lab: Permeability Test)

Permeability is the water flow capability of porous media (soil). The property will depend on
various parameters, such as soil type, gradation, void ratio, etc. Students are asked to design
laboratory experiment to determine the effect of gradation on soil’s permeability. The tasks will
include:
1. Literature survey on the subject of permeability and its influencing parameters.
2. Design laboratory experiment to determine the effect of soil’s gradation on permeability.
3. Submit group report including results of the literature survey and lab procedures by the
due day for review.
4. Conduct experiments.
5. Relate gradation parameters to permeability.
6. Compare the above relationship with readily available relations if any.
7. Prepare the final group report by the due day.

The following standard permeability testing procedures are provided for your reference. Group
may utilize a similar procedure to meet design criteria.

_____________________________________________
Standard Permeability Test Method

Purpose:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of soils by (1) constant head and (2) falling head
permeability tests in the laboratory.

References:
.ASTM D2434 Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)

Specimens:
Sandy specimens with various grain sizes

Equipment and tools:

Permeability tube and sets filled with sandy specimens, caliper, graduated cylinder, stopwatch,
thermometer

Procedures:
1. Measure the dimension of the specimens (specimen tube diameter D, length L) and other
dimensions in the permeability test sets (head difference Δh for the constant head test, and the
inner cross- sectional area of the burette "a" for the fall head test).
2. Record the water temperature during the test for the temperature correction of k.

Constant Head Test (Fig.1 a)

3
3. Run the water through the system until a steady condition is established.
4. For a given time interval "t", collect the amount of water flow Q through the system in a
graduated cylinder. Repeat several measurements for t and Q.

Falling Head Test (Fig. 1 b)

5. At time zero, read the water height h1 in the burette and at time "t" read the same as h2 .
Repeat this measurement for several times.

6. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Fig. 1 Permeability test (a) Constant head test (b) Falling (variable) head test

Report:
.Test procedures
.Calculated values of coefficient of permeability k with types of soils
.Comparison of k with empirical values such as the Hazen's formula

Notes:

4
Coefficient of permeability k
Constant head test: k = (Q L)/(A Δh t)
Falling head test: k = 2.303 (a L) log (h1/ h2 ) / {A (t2- t1)}

where Q: the amount of water collected during time period t in constant head test.
L: Length of soil specimen
A: Cross-sectional area of soil specimen
Δh: Hydraulic head loss in constant head test setup
a: Cross-sectional area of the burette in falling head test
h1: water height in the burette at time t1 in falling head test
h2: water height in the burette at time t2 in falling head test

Temperature correction for k

The value k is usually given at a test temperature of water at 20 oC. So that
k ( 20 oC) = k (T oC) x (ηT /η20 )
where ηT and η20 are viscosities of water at T oC and 20 oC, respectively and given in
Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Temperature correction for coefficient of permeability k

5
Soils Lab #1
Hydrometer Test

Purpose:
The hydrometer test is to determine the distribution of grain size of soils for the particle size less
than 75 μm (#200 sieve) based on the Stokes' law, while the sieve analysis mechanically
determines the grain size distribution of soils for larger than 75 μm (#200 sieve) particles.

References:
.ASTM D-422 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils.

Specimens:
Oven dried fine soil passing #200 sieve.

Equipment and tools:

.Balance
.Mixing beaker
.Distilled water
.Calgon solution with deflocculating agent
- 4 % solution with distilled water of sodium
hexametaphoshate (Calgon)
.Mixing cup and mixer
.Hydrometer cylinders (1000 cc) - need two.
.Rubber stopper
.Hydrometer (ASTM 152-H type)
.Thermometer
.Stopwatch
Fig. 1 Hydrometer in solution
Procedure:
1. Take exactly 50 g of oven-dry well-pulverized soil in a mixing beaker.
2. Mix thoroughly the soil with 125 cc of Calgon solution and allow to soak for at least 16 hours.
3. Using distilled water, transfer the soil-water-slurry completely into a mixing cup. The cup
shall be more than half full. Stir it with a mixer for a period of 1 minute.
4. Using distilled water, transfer the dispersed soil-water-slurry completely into a 1000 cc
hydrometer cylinder A to its 1000 cc mark exactly.
5. In another 1000 cc cylinder B, take 875 cc of distilled water and 125 cc of Calgon solution.
Read the temperature of the solution. Insert the hydrometer into the solution and read it at the top
of the meniscus as Rz (zero correction), and also observe the meniscus correction Rm.
6. For the cylinder A prepared in Step 4, using the palm of the hand over the open end of the
cylinder (or with a rubber stopper), turn the cylinder upside down and back for 1 minute to
complete the agitation of the slurry. At the end of 1 minute (t = 0), place it on a flat table and
insert the hydrometer immediately. Read the hydrometer (at the top of meniscus) as R at 0.25,
0.5, 1, and 2 minutes. After the 2 minutes reading remove the hydrometer gently and place it in
cylinder B.
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7. About 30 seconds before 4 minutes reading, inert the hydrometer gently into the soil-water
suspension. Take a reading exactly at 4 minutes after the initial time (t=0). Remove the
hydrometer gently and place it in cylinder B.
8. Repeat Step 7 for the elapsed times at approximately 8, 16, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hours
from the initial time. Record the exact times and the hydrometer readings. Record the
temperatures in cylinder B occasionally.
9. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures.
.Computation of hydrometer test data
.Grain size distribution curve

Theory:
It assumes that the soil particles are spheres and individual particles settle in the water solution
with the velocity v given by Stokes' law;

γs - γ w 2
v = D Eq.(1)
18 η

where γs is the unit weight of solid (=Gs γw) , γw is the unit weight of water, η is the viscosity of
water (which is equal to 1.0197 x 10-5 g sec/cm2 at 20 oC and varies with the temperature) and D
is the diameter of falling soil particle. When a hydrometer is suspended in the water, it measures
the specific gravity of the water-soil suspension at a depth L as seen in Fig. 1. Therefore, the
average velocity v of the particle with D diameter can be determined from a fallen distance L at a
time t from the beginning of the test as;

L(cm) ( γ - γ ) (g/ cm3) D (mm) 2

v (cm/sec) = = s w [ ] Eq.(2)
t (min) x 60 18 η (g sec/ cm2 ) 10

and by solving Eq. (2) for D,

30 η L (cm) L (cm)
D (mm) = = A Eq. (3)
γs - γ w t (min) t (min)

where the parameter A is a function of the viscosity of water (hence the temperature) and Gs ,
and given in Table 1. The ASTM 152-H hydrometer is calibrated at 20 oC for Gs = 2.65 particles
and those relationships between L and the reading R are given in Fig. 2. A hydrometer reading
of, say 30 at a time t means that 30 g of soil solids (with Gs = 2.65) in suspension are at the depth
L of 1000 cc of soil-water mixture at 20 oC. Therefore, the percent finer of a soil can be
calculated based on those measured values with the corresponding particle diameter D as;
7
  R cP
Percent finer by weight (%) = x 100 Eq. (4)
M soil

where Msoil is oven-dry mass of soil in a total test sample and α ={Gs x 1.65}/{(Gs -1) x 2.65} is
the correction for specific gravity for other than Gs = 2.65, and RcP = R + RT - Rz (corrected
hydrometer reading for percent finer computation). RT , and Rz corrections are given in the
following additional corrections.

Corrections:
Since the ASTM 152-H hydrometer was calibrated at 20 oC for Gs = 2.65 particles, the
following corrections are needed.
Temperature correction (positive or negative), RT = -4.85 + 0.25T, where T is the average test
temperature (oC).
Meniscus correction Rm (always positive) is the difference in upper and lower meniscus of the
suspension. This correction is needed since the readings will be done at the upper meniscus.
Zero correction Rz (positive or negative) is needed since the deflocculating agent is added to the
solution (not pure water).

Computations:

Description of soil:________________________ Sample No.:____________ Depth:__________

Gs:____________________, Hydrometer type: ASTM 152-H or others____
Dry weight of soil Wsoil :______________, Average temperature of test_____________oC
Meniscus correction, Rm :____________, Zero correction, Rz :_______________
Temperature correction, RT:___________

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Time Hydrometer RcP Percent finer RcL L A D
t (min) reading, R (%) (cm) (mm)

Create your own spreadsheet here.

__________________________________
Columns (1) and (2): readings during tests
Column (3): RcP = R + RT - Rz
Column (4): from Eq. (4)
Column (5): RcL = R + Rm , correction for L determination
Column (6): from the values in Column (5) and Fig. 2
Column (7): from Table 1
Column (8): from Eq. (3)

8
Table 1 "A" values in Eq. (3) as a function of Gs and Temperature

Fig. 2 Length L as a function of hydrometer reading (ASTM 152-H)

9
Soils Lab #2
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit Test

Purpose:
To determine the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) of Atterberg Limits (LL, and PL and
shrinkage limit) of a fine grained soil.

References:
.ASTM D4318 Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of
Soils.

Specimens:
Air-dried fine soils, passed No. 40 Sieve (0.425 mm)

Equipment and tools:

.Balance
.Mixing cup
.Spatula
.Distilled water
.Glass plate
.Liquid limit device
.Disposable aluminum cans for moisture content determination

Procedures:

1. Prepare several (say 8) moisture content cans (mark can ID # and measure tare weight).
Liquid Limit:
2. Mix about 250 g of soil and distilled water to make a uniform paste in the mixing cup.
3. Fill the portion of the liquid limit cup with the paste. Make a smooth surface with a spatula
and its maximum depth is about 8 mm.
4. Cut the groove along the center line of the fill with the grooving tool. When grooving keep
the grooving tool position normal to the inner surface of the cup.
5. Turn the crank at the rate of about 2 turns per second until the opening of the groove closes
for 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) length. Record that number of turns at the 1/2" groove closing as the
number of blow, N.
6. Take a part of the mix at the end of each blow test for moisture content determination using
previously prepared cans.
7. Bring the soil back to the mixing cup and add a small amount of distilled water and re-mix
the specimen thoroughly.
8. Repeat Steps 3 through 7. The targeted initial number of blow N is between 30 and 40 and
the smallest N shall be around 20 or less. Take moisture contents only for those N values.
9. Plot log N versus moisture content (w) relations (flow curve). Read the w value
corresponding to N = 25 from the flow curve to determine Liquid Limit, which is always
expressed as a percentage of the moisture content.

10
Plastic Limit:
10. Mix about 20 g of the specimen with a small amount of water in the mixing cup to make
rather hard paste.
11. Make the past into a small ball by hand and mix thoroughly. Then make it to a long thread
by rolling on a glass plate with your palm. If you can roll it into a less than 1/8 inch (3.13
mm) diameter thread without any break, that moisture content is still higher than the plastic
limit.
12. With a drier or by rolling the whole specimen in your hand for a while, make the specimen
with less moisture content than the previous try. Then repeat Step 11. When you can barely
roll into a 1/8" thread with several breaks (i.e., crumbled thread with 1/8" diameter), collect
those crumbled specimen for the moisture content determination. That moisture content is
defined as Liquid Limit, which is also expressed as a percentage of moisture content.

13. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
. Test procedures
. Liquid limit and plastic limit
. Plasticity index

Note:
Moisture content (water content) determination

moisture content, w = weight of water / weight of solid

Computation Table

Can ID No._________________ (1) marked at beginning of the test

Wt. of wet in can____________ (2) measured immediately after the test
Wt. of oven dry in can________ (3) measured after 24 hours of oven dry
Wt. of can__________________ (4) measured at beginning of the test
Wt. of water________________ (5) = (2)-(3)
Wt. of solid ________________ (6) = (3)-(4)
m.c., w(%)__________________ (7) = (5)/(6) x 100

11
Soils Lab #3
Compaction Test

Purpose:
To determine the maximum dry density of a soil and its optimum water content under a standard
compaction energy.

References:
.ASTM D698 Standard Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using
Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3 ))

Specimens:
Air dried soil specimen, passing No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve

Equipment and tools:

.Mixing pan
.Scoop
.Compaction mold
.Compaction hammer (or automatic compaction machine)
.Steel straight edge
.Specimen ejection jack
.Balance
.Moisture content determination cans

Procedures:
1. Prepare several (4) moisture content cans (mark can ID # and measure tare weight).
2. Weigh the compaction mold + base but without the extension collar as W1.
3. Obtain about 6 lb of air dried specimen without lumps (passing No.4 sieve) in a mixing pan.
4. Add about 5 % water to the soil and mix them thoroughly.
5. Pour the mixed soil into the mold with an extended collar in three equal layers. Each layer is
compacted with 25 drops of the hammer (5.5 lb weight and 12" drop). The final height of the
specimen shall be slightly above the top edge of the mold without the collar.
6. Remove the extended collar carefully from the mold. Using a steel straight edge, level the
surface of the soil along the top of the mold, so that the volume of the specimen is exactly
equal to the internal volume of the mold (1/30 ft3 ). Weigh the compacted soil + mold + base
with the balance as W2 .
7. Eject the compacted soil from the mold by a jack, and take representative specimen for
moister content determination.
8. Bring the soil back into the mixing pan and break the soil lumps.
9. Add additional 2 % water to the soil and mix it thoroughly.
10. Repeat Steps 5 through 9 until the water content exceeds its optimum water content (o.w.c.).
When you push the surface of compacted soils with the thumb, it will be very hard below or at
o.w.c. It become spongy and water starts to bleed out at higher than o.w.c..
11. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

12
Report:
. Test procedures
. Compaction curve (water content versus dry density of soil)
. Maximum dry density
. Optimum water content
. Zero-air-void curve in the compaction curve

Notes:

Compaction Energy = (Weight of Hummer) x (Height of Hammer Drop) x (Number of Drops)

x (Number of Layers) / (Volume of Mold)

for Standard (Proctor) Compaction

Compaction Energy = 5.5 lb x 1 ft x 25 drops x 3 layers / (1/30 ft3 ) = 12400 ft-lbf/ft3

Wet density of soil, γwet = Wwet /V = (W2 -W1 )/ (1/30 ft3 )

Dry (computed) density of soil, γdry = γwet /(1 + w)

Zero-air-void curve, γzav = Gs γwat /(1 + wGs )

where W1 and W2 are measured during the test, γwat is the unit weight of water (62.4 pcf) , w is
the measured water content, Gs is the specific gravity of solid, and γzav is the (computed) dry
density of soil for zero-air-void (fully saturated) for a given water content and a specific gravity
of solid.

13
Soils Lab #4
Consolidation Test

Purpose:
Students will observe a demonstration of a complete laboratory one-dimensional consolidation
test and a set of actual lab data will be given. Students will analyze the data to determine
consolidation parameters (coefficient of consolidation, e-log P curve, preconsolidation pressure,
etc.).

References:
.ASTM D-2435 Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils
.Text book (Chapter 9. Settlements) and class notes

Specimens:
Undisturbed cohesive soil in sampling tube

Equipment and tools:

.One-dimensional consolidation device - consolidation ring, loading unit, weights
.Porous stones and filter paper
.Wire saw
.Balance
.Water content cans
.Stopwatch

Procedures:
1. Measure the inner diameter and height of a clean dry consolidation ring and weigh it.
2. Eject the specimen from the sampling tube and trim it to fit exactly into the inside dimension
of the consolidation ring. Weigh the specimen in the ring. Take a small quantity of remaining
soil in a can for an auxiliary initial water content determination.
3. Place the ring with the specimen in the consolidation device.
4. Put the loading plate and loading piston in position.
5. Make the loading arm in balance by adjusting the counter weight of the arm.
6. Set the vertical dial gage at zero and be ready for loading.
7. Carefully put the initial load at the zero time and record the vertical dial gage at the time
intervals of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min., and 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hours.
8. At the end of approximately 24 hours, read the final dial gage reading for that load
application, and increase the load to the next level at the new zero time. Record the vertical
dial gage at the same (similar) time intervals.
9. Usually before the second load application, or sometimes during the middle of the first load
application, the water is poured into the device to fill above the top of the ring and it is kept
at that level until the end of the test.
10. Repeat Step 8 until the maximum pressure is attained. A typical sequence of consolidation
pressure is 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, (16) kgf/cm2 (24, 48, 98, 196, 391, 792, (1584) kPa).
11. After the final reading is completed under the maximum load, the specimen is reloading. The
load is reduced with several steps (typically 4, 1, 0.25 kgf/cm2 ). During each unloading step, the
14
initial dial gage (just before the unloading) and the final reading (typically after one to two hours
after the unloading) are needed to measure the rebounds. Therefore, this entire unloading process
usually takes one day.
12. At the end of the unloading process, remove the specimen in the ring and weigh it. The
specimen in the ring is then placed in the oven for water content determination.
13. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Computation of consolidation data
.Plot of log (t) vs. δ curve for t50 and Cv determination by log t method
.Plot of root (t) vs. δ curve for t90 and Cv determination by root t method
.Plot of e-lop p curve
.Determination of preconsolidation pressure Pc by Casagrande method
.Determination of compression index Cc

Note: e-log p curve computation table

Description of Soil________________________, Location______________________________

Specimen diameter D,__________________, Initial specimen height Ho
,_____________________
Water contents: beginning of test (whole specimen)_________________
beginning of test (auxiliary specimen)_______________
end of test (whole specimen)______________________
Weight of dry specimen Ws _________________, Height of solid Hs ,____________________
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
pressure final change in final heigh final avg. fitting time Cv from
dial specimen specime t of void specimen ht.
reading height n height void ratio during test
t50 t90 t50 t90
pi δi Δδi Htf,i Hv,i e Htavg,i

lb/ft2 inch inch inch inch inch sec sec in2/s in2/s

Create your own spreadsheet here.

Height of solid Hs =Ws /(γwat Gs ASpecimen )= Ws /(γwat Gs πD2/4)
C.1: Applied consolidation pressure
C.2: Final vertical dial reading for the end of each pressure pi
C.3: Δδi = δi - δi-1 (positive number for loading and negative number for unloading)
C.4: Htf,i = Htf,i-1 - Δδi
C.5: Hv,i = Htf,i - Hs
C.6: e = Hv,i / Hs
C.7: Htavg,i = (Htf,i-1+ Htf,i )/2
C.8: fitting times determined by log t and root t methods
C.9: Cv = (T50 Htavg, i2)/(4t50) and Cv = (T90 Htavg, i2)/(4t90)

15
Soils Lab #5
Direct Shear Test

Purpose:
To determine the angle of internal friction of granular soils by using a direct shear device.

References:
.ASTM D 3080 Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated
Drained Conditions.
.Text book (Chapter 11. Shear strength of soils) and class notes.

Specimens:
Air-dried granular soil

Equipment and tools:

.Direct shear device, .Balance, .Caliper

Procedures:
1. Measure the dimensions of shear box components.
2. Weigh the desired amount of dry granular soil.
3. Assemble the shear boxes. The upper and lower shear boxes are tighten together by two bolts.
At this stage the four corner bolts (with Teflon on the tips) are lowered as to just touch the
surface of the lower shear box.
4. Pore the entire amount of soil into the space in the shear box. Compact as directed.
5. Place the top loading plate and apply the desired vertical stress by loading piston.
6. Measure the specimen height.
7. Remove two tightened bolts from the shear boxes and turn the four corner bolts clockwise
with about a quarter turn to separate the upper and lower boxes.
8. Place the vertical and horizontal dial gages and adjust those to zero positions.
9. Start the shearing with a constant shearing speed. Record time, vertical and horizontal dial
gages, and shear force at time intervals as directed.
10. Stop the test after attaining the desired shear deformation.
11. Remove the vertical load.
12. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Density of the specimen
.Shear force and shear deformation curve and determination of shear strength
.Plot of vertical deformation versus shear deformation to see the volumetric behavior
.Plot of shear strength versus normal stress to determine the angle of internal friction (exchange
data with other groups to draw this τf versus σN curve)

16
Soils Lab #6
Unconfined Compression Test

Purpose:
To determine undrained strength of undisturbed cohesive soil by the unconfined compression
test.

References:
.ASTM D-2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil
.Text book (Chapter 11. Shear Strength of soils) and class notes

Specimens:
Undisturbed cohesive soil

Equipment and tools:

.Specimen trimming device
.Wire saw
.Balance
.Water content cans
.Caliper (and Pi-tape)
.Unconfined compression loader

Procedures:
1. Trim an undisturbed specimen into a cylindrical specimen of a desired dimension. Make sure
that the bottom and top surfaces shall be perpendicular to the specimen axis. The height to
the diameter ratio shall be about 2 or more.
2. Take a small quantity of remaining soil for water content determination.
3. Measure the diameter and height of the specimen and weigh it.
4. Place the specimen in the unconfined compression loader and bring the loading plate to just
contact with the specimen. Set the vertical deformation gage reading to the zero position..
5. Load the loader with a constant speed as directed until the specimen fails. Record the vertical
dial gage reading and vertical load at time intervals as directed.
6. Observe and sketch the shape at failure. If the failure planes are observed, measure those
angles with a protractor.
6. Remove the specimen and place it in the oven for water content determination.
7. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Stress versus strain curve
.Determination of unconfined compression strength qu
.Computation of cohesion as Cu = qu /2

17
Note:

Corrected specimen area

Since this is an undrained test (no volume change during the test), the specimen area shall be
corrected by assuming a constant volume during shear; (Initial volume) Ho x Ao = H x A (during
shear) = (Ho - ΔH) x A = constant. Therefore, A = (Ho x Ao)/(Ho - ΔH) = Ao /(1- ΔH/Ho) = Ao
/(1-εv ), where Ho is the initial specimen height, H is specimen height during the test, Ao is the
initial specimen area, A is corrected specimen area, ΔH is the vertical deformation, and ΔH/Ho
(=εv ) is the

18
HYDRAULICS LAB #1
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

PURPOSE
To determine the Reynolds number at which flow through a smooth pipe changes from
laminar to transitional flow and also from transitional flow to turbulent flow.

APPARATUS
Reynolds apparatus, consisting of head tank, 10 mm internal diameter glass tubing and
valves to control the flow rate of the water and dye.

PROCEDURE
After observing the various components of the apparatus and how to control the flow rate of
the water and dye, the following should done:

1. Fill the tank up to overflow pipe.

2. Open the tank outlet valve and adjust the inlet valve so as to maintain a constant head at
overflow.
3. Open the dye needle valve and readjust discharge valve (outlet valve) and dye valve until a
thin line of dye is observed flowing in the glass tube. This is laminar flow. Since this is a
very low flow rate, measure the flow rate using a graduated cylinder and stopwatch.
4. Increase the flow by adjusting the outlet valve until the dye starts to waver. This is the
beginning of transition and occurs at the critical Reynolds number. Measure the flow rate
using the collection method (by collecting water in the hydraulic bench, using a stopwatch).
Judgment must be made to decide when the dye line begins to oscillate.
5. Increase the flow until a more pronounced wavering occurs. This is the middle of the
transition. Measure the flow rate.
6. Increase the flow until the dye starts to break up at the tube entrance. The flow is now at the
beginning of the turbulent region. Measure the flow rate using the collection method.
7. Increase flow until full turbulence is observed (dye is completely mixed). Measure the flow
rate.
8. Decrease flow in an opposite manner to the above, again measuring the flow rate when
turbulence just changes to transition and transition changes to laminar.
9. Shut off dye, inlet and outlet valves.
10. Record the temperature of water.

ANALYSIS

1. Sketch the appearance of the dye line in the tube, when the flow is in the laminar, transitional
and turbulent region.
2. Calculate the Reynolds number for each of the flow measurements taken. The Reynolds
number is given by the expression:

Vd 4Q
ℝ= OR ℝ =
v  dv
19
3. Define the three flow regimes based on the experimental values of the Reynolds number.
Make a comparison with the textbook definition of these flow regimes.

DATA

Internal Diameter of the flow visualization pipe, d = ______mm

Temperature of the water = ______ ° C
Kinematic viscosity of water,  = _________ m2/s
Visual dye Volume of water Time taken Q Reynolds No.
condition collected (ml) (sec) (m3/s) =4Q/(πd

20
HYDRAULICS LAB #2
VENTURI AS A FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICE

OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this experiment are to study the axial distributions of pressure and
velocity of a fluid flowing through a venturi meter and to determine the discharge coefficient of
the venturi meter.

INTRODUCTION
A venturi is a converging-diverging nozzle of circular cross section. When connected to a
flow passage, a venturi can be used as a flow measurement device.1 Clemens Herchel, a
hydraulic engineer, described the first practical venturi meter in a paper (ref. 3) in 1887. The
principle of the venturi meter is that when a fluid flows through the venturi meter, it accelerates
in the convergent section and decelerates in the divergent section, resulting in a drop in the static
pressure followed by a pressure recovery in the flow direction. By measuring the difference in
the pressures at an axial station upstream of convergent section and at the throat, the volumetric
flow rate can be established.
Bernoulli’s equation can be written between sections 1, 2 and any section n as

V12 V2 V2
z1  h1   z2  h 2  2  zn  h n  n (1)
2g 2g 2g

Where h1, h2 and hn are pressure heads, V1, V2, and Vn are the average velocities at sections 1, 2,
and any other section n. As the axis of the venturi is the same level at all the sections above the
datum, it implies z1=z2=zn.

By rearranging equation 1, the velocity at any section n can be calculated when the velocity at
section one is known and the pressure heads are known at various points n along the pipe, as
follows:

Vn  2 g (h1  hn )  (V1 ) 2 (2)

Since, from the continuity equation,

V1 A1 = V2 A2 (3)

where A1 and A2 are the cross sectional areas at the two sections, equation 1 can be rewritten as

V2   A 2 
h1  h2  2 1   2   (4)
2g   A1  
 

1 Other obstruction-type flow measurement devices are described in references 1 and 2.

21
 The ideal volumetric flow rate, Q can be calculated from the flowing equation:

2 g ( h1  h 2 )
Q  V 2 A2  A2 (5)
 2

 1   A2  
 A  
  1 

As a result of friction, the actual volumetric flow rate is less than that predicted by
equation 5. The actual volumetric flow rate can be calculated from the ideal volumetric flow rate
by introducing a correction factor, discharge coefficient cv, which is defined as:

QACTUAL
cv  (6)
Q
Therefore,
2 g (h1  h2 )
QACTUAL = cv A2 (7)
 2

1   A2  
 A  
  1 
In general, the discharge coefficient of a venturi meter is a function of the flow Reynolds
number and the venturi geometry, and has to be determined before the venturi meter can be used
to measure volumetric flow rate accurately.

In this experiment, the axial distribution of pressure and velocity of water flowing
through a venturi meter are to be studied. From the measurements of pressure heads and flow
rate of the water through the venturi meter, the discharge coefficient as a function of the flow
Reynolds number is to be determined.

Note: From Eq. 1, you can find the ideal pressure distribution. But for the purpose of
calculation and comparison of experimental results, it is convenient to express (hn-h1) as a
fraction of the velocity head at the throat (section 2):

2 2
h n  h1 V 12  V n2  A2  A  (8)
     2 
A  A 
V 22 2 g V 22  1   n 

22
APPARATUS
The test apparatus is shown in Fig 1. A venturi meter is set up on a hydraulic bench,
which not only supplies water to flow through the venturi meter but also measures the volumetric
flow rate. Pressure taps are installed on the venturi mater at a number of axial sections. Each tap
is connected to a piezometer tube to measure the local static pressure. All the piezometer tubes
are connected at their upper ends to a common manifold; thus, all pressures are measured with
respect to the pressure in the manifold. The manifold pressure is adjusted during the experiment
to control the mean levels of water in the piezometer tubes. The water flow rate is controlled
with an inlet valve and an exit valve.

PROCEDURE
1. Level the test apparatus.
2. With the two control valves wide open, allow water to flow through the venturi meter at
maximum flow rate by switching on the pump.
3. Adjust the two control valves alternately until a meniscus is visible in each of the piezometer
tubes. Adjust the manifold pressure if necessary.
4. Remove air bubbles in the piezometer tubes by tapping the tubes.
5. Adjust the two control valves such that a maximum difference between the static heads at the
first measurement section and at the throat measurable with the piezometer tubes is attained.
6. Record the height of the water columns in all the piezometer tubes.
7. Measure the time required to collect several volumes of water in the collection tank of the
hydraulic bench.
8. Reduce the water flow rate such that the static heads at the first measurement section and at
the throat differ by approximately 20 mm (0.8 in) less than that which was observed in the
previous run.
9. Record the height of the water columns in the piezometer tubes at the first measurement
section and at the throat.
10. Measure the flow rate.
11. Repeat steps 8 through 10 five times.
12. Record the water temperature.
13. Switch off the pump and drain water from the venturi meter.

REPORT
1. Calculate the average flow velocity at the first measurement section for each of the six runs
using the relationship between the flow rate and the average velocity of a fluid flowing
through a given cross section (Q = VA).
2. By applying the Bernoulli equation (equation 2) between the first measurement section and
each of the other sections, determine the average flow velocity at each of the other
measurement sections for each run.
3. Compare the average flow velocities calculated in the last step to those found using the flow
rate - average flow velocity relationship.
4. Calculate the theoretical pressure distribution relative to the velocity head at the throat
(section 2), using equation 8.
5. For the data obtained during the first run and last runs, calculate the actual pressure
distribution relative to the velocity head at the throat.
23
6. Using the data from the first run, tabulate the theoretical pressure (from step 4) and velocities
(from step 2) at each of the measurement sections.
7. Using the data from the first run, sketch the venturi meter to scale (lengths and diameters) on
a linear graph, and plot the theoretical and actual (for maximum and minimum flowrates)
pressure distribution relative to the velocity head at the throat (from steps 4 and 5). Connect
the points of each series with lines.
8. Using the data from the first run, sketch the venturi meter to scale (lengths and diameters) on
a linear graph, and plot the velocities (from steps 1 and 2) as functions of the distance along
the venturi meter on the sketch. Connect the points of each series with lines.
9. Calculate the flow rate and the discharge coefficient for each run.
10. Calculate the flow Reynolds number for each run based on the flow rate and the diameter at
the first measurement section.
11. Plot the discharge coefficient as a function of the Reynolds number on a linear graph, and
show the best-fit curve.
12. Compare the results with those available in literature.
13. Discuss the results and the error sources.

REFERENCES
1. Holman J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill Book Company,
Inc. 1978, pp 216-229.
2. Munson, Young and Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Third Edition, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1998.
3. Herchel, C. The Venturi Water Meter: An Instrument Making Use of a New Method of
Gauging Water: Applicable to the Cases of Very Large Tubes and of a Small Valve Only, of
the Liquid to be Gauged, Transactions of ASCE, 17 (1887), pp 228-258.

24
 Total head
2 2
V1 /2g Vn /2g
2
V2 /2g

h1 hn
h2

Direction
of flow

z1 z2 zn

1 2 n Datum

Fig. 1 Ideal conditions in a Venturi meter

A B C D E F G H J K L

(1)
(2)
Direction
of flow

8 7
All dimensions in mm 22 22
34 37
54 52
67
82
102

Fig. 2 Dimensions of Venturi meter and positions of piezometer tubes

REF A B C D E F G H J K L
DIA (mm) 26.0 23.2 18.4 16 16.8 18.47 20.16 21.84 23.53 25.24 26.0

DATA RECORDED

PIEZOMETER READINGS (mm) TIME (Secs)

Sample A B C D E F G H J K L 5 1 2 3 Q Q
# L 5 5 5 (avg) (avg)
L L L L/S M3/S
1
2
3
4
5
6

Temperature of the water = ______ ° C

Kinematic viscosity of water,  = _________ m2/s
25
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

Sample 1 2 3
#
Piez. hn Vn Vn hn Vn Vn hn Vn Vn
(Q/A) Bernoulli (Q/A) Bernoulli (Q/A) Bernoulli
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

Sample 4 5 6
#
Piez hn Vn Vn hn Vn Vn hn Vn Vn
(Q/A) Bernoulli (Q/A) Bernoulli (Q/A) Bernoulli
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

26
 Theoretical Pressure
Distribution
Dia (mm) d2  a2 
2 2
 a2  a 
2

PIEZOMETER dn       2 
 an   a1   an 
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

27
 For highest flowrate For lowest flowrate
Q = _________m3/s Q = _________m3/s
V22 2g  ________m V22 2g  ________m
Observed Actual Pr Observed Actual Pr
head distributions head distributions
PIEZOMETER hn  h1 hn  h1
hn hn - h1 hn hn - h1
V22 2 g V22 2 g
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

Discharge Coefficient of the Venturi Meter:

Sample # Piez A Piez D Q Eq 5 QACTUAL CV V1 R=

(m) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s) Eq 6 (m/s) V1D1/
1
2
3
4
5
6

28
HYDRAULICS LAB #3
FLOW OVER SHARP CRESTED WEIR

INTRODUCTION
The sharp-crested weir is frequently used as a device for measuring discharge in a
channel. It is simple to install, and provided that it conforms to prescribed requirements, it may
be used with confidence in conjunction with standard calibration data. In this experiment we
establish the relationship between head over the weir and discharge.

EQUIPMENT
Sharp crested weir with air vent, dial vernier depth gauge, steel rule.

THEORY
The flow is illustrated in Fig 1. The height of the crest above the channel bed is “a”, and
the height of the water surface above the crest is “h”. Considering a typical streamline from a
point in the plane of the weir, we note that on the assumption of uniform velocity V in the
upstream flow, the specific energy E is given by

V2 (1)
a  h 
2g

and this specific energy is constant over the cross-section. Suppose that the velocity along a
typical streamline in the plane of weir is V, and the height of the streamline above the weir crest
is z. Then if there is no loss of head along the streamline, and the pressure in the plane of the
weir is atmospheric, Bernoulli’s equation is

V2 V2 (2)
ah az
2g 2g

Ignoring the velocity head V2/2g in the approach channel, equation 2 gives velocity over weir as
(3)
V  2 g (h  z )

The element of discharge Q through an element of height z and width B is then

Q V B z
or

 Q  2 g (h  z ) B dz (4)

29
 Fig.1 Flow over a sharp crested weir

Provided that V is horizontal, the total discharge Q may then be obtained, ignoring the
contraction of the jet in the plane of the weir, as

h
Q  
o
2 g (h  z ) Bdz (5)

Performing the integration,

3
2 (6)
Q  B 2g h 2
3

It is now necessary to introduce a dimensionless discharge coefficient C into the equation to

allow for the many assumptions made in the derivation, giving the following as the weir
equation:
3
2 (7)
Q  C B 2g h 2
3

In the experiment we aim to verify the power-law dependence of Q on h, and to establish

the value of C. Although the theory has been derived specifically for a sharp-crested weir, a
similar treatment clearly applies to spillways with rounded crests, although the value of C will
vary from case to case.

30
PROCEDURE
The channel is first set horizontal, as indicated by the linear and circular scales, by use of
the screw jack. The height of the weir is measured by steel rule. It is then placed vertically in
the channel, approximately 0.5m upstream of the outlet. With the point of the dial vernier depth
gauge resting on the weir crest, the gauge scale is set to zero, so that subsequent measurement of
water level is referred to zero at the weir crest.

Water is then admitted to the channel by opening the control valve steadily, until a
convenient maximum flow is obtained. (This maximum depends on the available depth of flow
in the channel). The discharge is then measured by timing the collection of a known weight of
water.

During the timed interval, the head over the weir is measured using the dial vernier depth
gauge at a distance of 0.3m upstream of the weir. To obtain a good accuracy, it is desirable to
measure the head several times over the interval and to record the mean value. The flow is then
reduced in stages, and at each stage both the discharge and the head are measured.

It is important that at all times during the measurements, the underside of the jet issuing
from the weir should spring clear of the downstream face of the weir plate, and a vent pipe is
provided to assist the separation of the jet by admitting air into this region. From time to time,
and particularly at low heads, it is necessary to blow a little air along this pipe to maintain the
separation of the jet from the weir plate. The approximate range of heads over which readings
may be taken is from 50mm to 25mm; measurements should cease when it is no longer possible
to ensure separation of the jet from the weir plate.

ANALYSIS
1. Calculate C from Equation 7 for each measurement. Prepare a table listing h, Q, C and
h/a values. Does C remain a constant?
2. Plot Q as a function of h3/2 and interpret your plot with reference to Equation 7.
3. Plot C as a function of h/a and investigate if C varies with h/a.
4. Plot Q as a function of h. The curve to be obtained will be the discharge-head curve for
the sharp-crested weir used.

31
DATA RECORDED

a = ________ mm = ________ m
B = ________ mm = ________ m

Sample h (mm) h (m) Q1 Q2 Q3 QAV Q

No (kg/s) (kg/s) (kg/s) (kg/s) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample Calculations
QAV = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3) / 3 = _____________ kg/s
Q = _____________ m3/s ……………..[for water 1000 kg = 1.0 m3]

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

3
2
Sample h (m) QT  B 2 g h 2 QACTUAL C= h/a
3
No (m3/s) QAC/QT
(m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample Calculations

QT =

C=

h/a =

32
WEIGHING TECHNIQUE
The precision weighing unit of the TecQuipment Hydraulic Bench, which has a 3:1 ratio, is
designed for accurate measurement of relatively large quantities of water up to a maximum of 36
kg.

Before proceeding with any experimental work on the bench, students should familiarize
themselves with the following technique:

(a) Close the bench supply valve and direct the supply hose into the weigh tank via center of the
bench top.
(b) Slide the weigh beam stop out of line of the beam and lift the beam for 10-15 seconds to
ensure the weigh tank is empty.
(c) The weigh beam will be in its lower position with only the weight carrier on (fig 2a). Slide
the weigh beam stop above the weigh beam.
(d) Switch on the pump.
(e) Open the bench supply valve.
(f) Start timing the instant the weigh beam comes horizontal and place selected mass
immediately on to the weight hanger. (See figs 2b and 2c).
(g) When the mass of water collected balances the mass of the weight hanger, the beam will rise
again to the horizontal position (Fig 2d). At this instant, stop the timer and record the timing
interval.
Note: The mass of water collected is three times the mass used on the weight hanger.
(h) Close supply valve or switch off the pump.
(i) To drain the weigh tank, depress weigh beam above weight hanger and slide weigh beam
stop away. Gently let weigh beam rise until it stops against the sump tank. Remove weights
and tank will continue draining. As the weigh beam returns to the horizontal, lift it for 10-15
seconds to drain final amount from weigh tank (fig 2e).

33
 Weigh Beam Stop

(a) (i) Stop positioned over beam

(ii) Start pump
(iii) Drain valve closed
Closed

(b) (i) Beam moves to horizontal

(ii) Start clock

Closed

(c) (i) Add required weights

Closed

(d) (i) Beam moves to horizontal

(ii) Stop clock

Closed

B (e) (i) Drain

(ii) Press down on A
(iii) Slide stop away
(iv) Release arm gently; remove weights
(v) Lift at B to complete draining for 10-15s
Open

Fig. 2

34
HYDRAULICS LAB #4
ENERGY HEAD LOSS DUE TO A HYDRAULIC JUMP

OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to study the formation of a hydraulic jump and determine the
energy head loss due to a free hydraulic jump in a horizontal, rectangular channel.

APPARATUS:
1- Five-Meter Flow Channel
2- Sluice gate
3- Dial vernier depth gauge
4- Stop watch
THEORY:
Hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from rapid to tranquil in an open channel. Flow is
rapid or supercritical when the Froude number, F, defined as , is greater than 1 and is
√
tranquil or subcritical when F is less than 1. A hydraulic jump is highly turbulent, with complex
internal flow patterns, and it is accompanied by considerable energy loss. Hydraulic jumps are
caused by changes in the channel bed slope, the presence of a sluice gate or a downstream
obstacle at the foot of a spillway.
Application of Momentum equation to the jump leads to a relationship between the depths (h1
and h2) as follows (for a rectangular channel):

Where
h1: flow depth just upstream of the jump
h2: flow depth just downstream of the jump
q: discharge per unit width (Q/B)

Figure 1: A hydraulic jump in a channel flow.

35
We can manipulate Equation (1) mathematically to obtain:

1 8 1 (2)
Where:
Fr2: Froude number at section 2.

Equation (2) is useful to calculate the flow depth just upstream of the jump if the flow conditions
are known downstream.
Once we determine the flow depths upstream and downstream of the hydraulic jump, we can use
the energy equation to calculate the head loss due to the jump as

(3)

This equation can be manipulated to obtain

(4)

In this experiment we are trying to form the hydraulic jump and find out the head loss due to the
jump.

PROCEDURE:

A. Data to collect

1. Measure and record the flow depths h1 (just upstream of the jump) and h2 (Just
downstream of the jump)
2. Measure and record channel width
3. Measure and record flow rate(Q) using weighting technique

B. Test procedure
1. Adjust the channel to a horizontal position.
2. Measure the channel width.
3. Turn the pump on and adjust the flow control valve to achieve flow depth of about half of
the channel’s height.
4. Place the sluice gate vertically in the channel at a distance of two meters downstream
from the flow source to generate a hydraulic jump. Make sure that the sluice gate is not
placed too low in the channel to avoid water back up over the channel walls.
5. Wait about a minute after installing the sluice gate to have a stable flow depth.
6. Using the dial verneir depth gauge, measure and record the flow depths just upstream and
downstream of the jump labeled as h1 and h2, respectively.
7. Measure the flow rate using the weighting technique.
36
ANALYSIS

1. Determine the flow velocity just before and after the jump.
2. Compute the Froude number for section one and two as shown in figure 1.
3. Compute Head Loss due to the jump
4. Draw the water surface profile for the jump

DATA RECORDED

B = ________ mm = ________ m

Sample h1 (m) h2 (m) Q1 Q2 Q3 QAV Q

No (kg/s) (kg/s) (kg/s) (kg/s) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample Calculations
QAV = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3) / 3 = _____________ kg/s
Q = _____________ m3/s ……………..[for water 1000 kg = 1.0 m3]

37
HYDRAULICS LAB #5
IMPACT OF JET ON VANES

INTRODUCTION
One way of producing mechanical work from fluid under pressure is to use the pressure
to accelerate the fluid to a high velocity in a jet. The jet is directed onto the vanes of a turbine
wheel, which is rotated by the force generated on the vanes due to momentum change or
impulse, which takes pace as the jet strikes the vanes. Water turbines working on this impulse
principle have been constructed with outputs of the order 100 megawatts and with efficiencies
greater than 90%.

In this experiment, you are going to determine the force generated by a jet as it strikes a
flat plate and a hemispherical cup and compare it with the momentum flow rate in the jet.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
The jet impact apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The vane is supported by a lever, which
carries a jockey weight and is restrained by a light spring.

THEORY
Consider a vane symmetrical about the x-axis as shown in Fig. 2. A jet of fluid flowing at
the rate of W kg/s along the x-axis with velocity u0 m/s strikes the vane and is deflected by it
through an angle β, so that the fluid leaves the vane with the velocity u1 m/s inclined at an angle
β to the x-axis. Changes in elevation and in piezometric pressure in the jet from striking the vane
to leaving it are neglected.

The rate which momentum is entering the system shown is

= Wu0 (kg m/s2) in the direction of x

and the rate at which momentum is leaving the system is

= Wu1 cos β (kg m/s2) in the direction of x

The force in the direction of x on the jet, being equal to the rate of momentum change, is
therefore:
= (Wu1 cos β – Wu0) kg m/s2 or

= (Wu1 cos β – Wu0) Newton

The force, F, on the vane in the direction of x is equal and opposite to this, so that:

F = W( u0 – u1 cos β ) Newton

38
For the case of the flat plate, we may assume that β = 90˚, so that cos β = 0 and

Fp = Wu0 Newton

Note: This value is irrespective of u1

For the case of hemispherical cup, we assume that β = 180˚, so that cos β = -1 and

Fc = W ( u0 + u1) Newton

Since changes in piezometric pressure and elevations are neglected, the maximum value of u1
will be u0 (when there is no energy loss) so that the maximum possible value of the force on the
hemispherical cup is:

Fc max = 2 Wu0 Newton

i.e. twice the force on the plate.

PROCEDURE
1. Level the apparatus.
2. Flat plate and Cover plate are to be supported by the lever. Then set the lever to the balanced
position (as indicated by the tally) with the jockey weight at its zero position, by adjusting
the nut above the spring.
3. Set the flow control valve of the hydraulic bench at its maximum and start the pump.
4. Record the position of the jockey weight, y, which restores the lever to the balanced position.
Measure the discharge in volumetric tank.
5. For a series of decreasing flowrates for which the experiment is conducted, discharge is to be
measured and jockey weight position to be noted.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for hemispherical cup.

ANALYSIS
1. Calculate the velocity, u0, for each discharge. For this, the jet velocity, u, at the exit of the
nozzle is calculated from the discharge measured and the cross-sectional area of the nozzle.
The velocity, u0, as it strikes the vane is less than the velocity, u, at the exit from the nozzle,
because of the deceleration due to gravity, and may be calculated from the expression:

u02 = u2 – 2 g s

where s is the distance between the vane and the nozzle.

39
2. Compute theoretical Fp and Fc max for each discharge (refer to equations given in the theory
portion).
3. Compute the actual force, F’p and F’c for each discharge by taking the moments about the
pivot.

Note: The jockey weighs (0.6kg x g) Newton. When it is moved a distance, y (meters), from
its zero position, the corresponding force, F’ (Newtons), on the vane is obtained by taking
moments about the pivot, as:

F’ x D = (jockey weight in kg) x g x y

Where D = distance from center of vane to pivot of level and g = acceleration due to gravity.

4. Plot force on vane (Newtons) (F and F’) and Rate of delivery of momentum Wu0 (Newton)
for both flat plate and hemispherical cup.
5. Discuss your results.

40
FOR THE FLAT PLATE:

DATA

Jockey mass = grams

Nozzle dia = mm
Vane/Pivot centers = mm
Vane above nozzle = mm

TIME TO COLLECT

y 5L 15 L 25 L 35 L QAV W
(mm) (secs) (secs) (secs) (secs) (L /s) (kg/s)

CALCULATIONS

W y u uo Wuo Fp F’ p
(kg/s) (m) (m/s) (m/s) (Newton) (Newton) (Newton)

41
FOR THE HEMISPHERICAL CUP:

DATA

TIME TO COLLECT

y 5L 15 L 25 L 35 L QAV W
(mm) (secs) (secs) (secs) (secs) (L /s) (kg/s)

CALCULATIONS

W y u uo Wuo Fc F’ c
(kg/s) (m) (m/s) (m/s) (Newton) (Newton) (Newton)

42
HYDRAULICS LAB #6
STEADY AXISYMMETRIC UNCONFINED FLOW

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate steady unconfined groundwater flow in
the vicinity of wells. Also, transient states of cone of depression and the process of groundwater
recovery will be demonstrated.

THEORY

Figure 1 shows steady axisymmetric flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer. The aquifer is fed
by a constant rate of accretion N reaching the water table. At steady state the discharge entering
the storage should be equal to discharge leaving it in any portion of the aquifer. Hence, for a
cylindrical portion of the aquifer that has a radius r, (see Fig. 2)

Q W  Q leakage  Q aquifer

Q leakage  
  r 2  rw2 N

 h 
Qaquifer  A x V , A  2rh, V  K  
 r 

 h 
 Qw   (r 2  rw2 ) N  2  r h K   (1)
 r 
43
Where Qw is the well discharge, rw is the well radius, K is the hydraulic conductivity, and h is the
water table elevation. The first group of terms on the right hand side represents the recharge due
to accretion N, and the last group of terms represents the flow from the remaining portion of the
aquifer. Equation 1 assumes that flow lines are horizontal and there is flow only in the redial
direction.

Integrating Eq. 1 between r = r1, h = h1 and r = r2, h = h2 one obtains,

rw2 N  r1 
h h 
1
2 2
2
Qw  r1  N 2
ln  
 K  r 2  2K
r1  r2 
2
 
ln   (2)
K  r2 

where h1 and h2 are the water table elevations at distances r1 and r2 from the well, respectively.
The well radius is very small, and it can be neglected.
Hence, Eq. 2 can be written as

 Qw  r1  N 2 2
K
1
 ln    
r1  r2  (3)
h1  h22  
2
 r2  2 

EQUIPMENT
Hydrology apparatus.

PROCEDURE
1. Place the portholes on the weirs at the upstream and downstream ends of the catchment.
2. Set the apparatus horizontal.
3. Determine and record the locations of wells A and B with respect to the piezometers.
4. Start the pump, and feed water to the overhead spray. Adjust the pump discharge such that
the rotameter reading is about 3 1/min.
5. Wait until the water table rises to an elevation of about 130 mm. Then quickly open the valve
that drains the well A to the weir. Observe the changes in the piezometer water levels.
6. Wait until steady state is reached. Measure the well discharge by observing the water level
in the flowrate measuring weir box, and reading the corresponding discharge from the weir
calibration curve.
7. Record the water levels in piezometers 7 and 8.
8. Quickly close the valve that drains the well A. Observe the changes in the piezometer water
levels.
9. Reduce the pump discharge slightly, and open the valve that drains the well B into the weir.
Wait until steady state is reached. Then measure the well discharge using the flowrate
measuring weir box, and record the water levels in all the piezometers.

44
ANALYSIS
1. Determine the rate of accretion N. Note that the surface area of the catchment is 1m x 2m.
2. Using the water levels in piezometers 7 and 8 recorded when well A was discharging,
calculate the hydraulic conductivity K from Eq. 3.
3. Calculate the theoretical water table using Eq. 2 when well B is discharging. Assume rw = 0.
To calculate the water table elevations to the right of the well, use the distance of piezometer
15 from the well and the water level in that piezometer as r2 and h2, respectively. To calculate
the theoretical water table elevations to left of the well, use piezometer 14 for the same
purpose.
4. Plot the theoretical and observed water tables when the well B is discharging. Compare.
5. Explain the transient states of the water table observed when the valves draining the wells are
opened and closed (see procedure 5 and 8).
6. Discuss your results.

DATA RECORDED

(i) For Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity K

Discharge from well A, Qw = _______________________ m3/s

Rotameter reading (m 3 / s )
Rate of accretion, N = ____________________________m/s =
Surface area of the catchment
For Piezometer 7, r1 = ___________________________ m

h1 = __________________________ m

For Piezometer 8, r2 = ___________________________ m

h2 = __________________________ m

CALCULATION
Use Eq 3 to find K

45
(ii) For Determination of Water Table

Discharge from well B, Qw = _________________ m3/s

Hydraulic Conductivity K = __________________ m/s

(Note: Use the value obtained for K above)

r
(m) THEORETICAL
PIEZOMETER OBSERVED x w.r.t h (m)
h (m) WELL
(m) AT (use Eq 2)
B
1 0.00
2 0.20
3 0.40
4 0.50
5 0.60
6 0.66 Use
7 0.74 observed
8 0.80 head at
9 0.88 14 as h2
10 0.96
11 1.04 0.26
12 1.12 0.18
13 1.20 0.10
14 1.26 0.04
15 1.34 0.04
16 1.40 0.10 Use
17 1.50 0.20 observed
18 1.60 0.30 head at
19 1.80 15 as h2
20 2.00

46
 Key
F,G,I,II - Valves
1,2 - Wells 19 mm diameter
- Piezometer Tappings (Numbered 1 to 20)
60 - Space of 60 mm between Piezometer Tappings
3 - Board with 20 Piezometer Tubes Mounted
4 - Tilt Mechanism

1 3 2

40 40 40 40
200 200 100 100 60 60 80 80 80 80 80 60 60 100 100 200 200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
4
F
G
II
I

Pump

Figure 3: Apparatus layout showing Wells and Piezometer only

47
48