Geothermal electricity 1

Geothermal electricity
Geothermal electricity is electricity generated from geothermal energy. Technologies in use include dry steam
power plants, flash steam power plants and binary cycle power plants. Geothermal electricity generation is currently
used in 24 countries[1] while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.[2]
Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW.[2] Current
worldwide installed capacity is 10,715 megawatts (MW), with the largest capacity in the United States (3,086
MW),[3] Philippines, and Indonesia.
Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat
content.[4] The emission intensity of existing geothermal electric plants is on average 122 kg of CO2 per
megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of that of conventional fossil fuel plants.[5]

History and development

In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of
geothermal power as a generating source. Prince Piero Ginori Conti
tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 in
Larderello, Italy. It successfully lit four light bulbs.[7] Later, in 1911,
the world's first commercial geothermal power plant was built there.
Experimental generators were built in Beppu, Japan and the Geysers,
California, in the 1920s, but Italy was the world's only industrial
producer of geothermal electricity until 1958. Global geothermal electric capacity. Upper red
[6]
line is installed capacity; lower green line is
In 1958, New Zealand became the second major industrial producer of realized production.
[2]

geothermal electricity when its Wairakei station was commissioned.

Wairakei was the first plant to use flash steam technology.[8]
In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power plant in the
United States at The Geysers in California.[9] The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced
11 MW net power.[10]
The binary cycle power plant was first demonstrated in 1967 in Russia and later introduced to the USA in 1981.[9]
This technology allows the use of much lower temperature resources than were previously recoverable. In 2006, a
binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came on-line, producing electricity from a record low fluid
temperature of 57°C.[11]
Geothermal electric plants have until recently been built exclusively where high temperature geothermal resources
are available near the surface. The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and
extraction technology may enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range.[12]
Demonstration projects are operational in Landau-Pfalz, Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forêts, France, while an earlier
effort in Basel, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration projects are under
construction in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.[13]
The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric plants is low, around 10-23%,[14] because geothermal fluids are at a
low temperature compared to steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics this low temperature limits the
efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted,
unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The
efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does
factor into the viability of the plant. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation
requires high temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on
Geothermal electricity 2

variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has
been demonstrated.[15] The global average was 73% in 2005.

Resources
The earth’s heat content is 1031 joules.[2] This heat naturally flows to
the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 terawatts, (TW,)[16] and is
replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW.[4] These power
rates are more than double humanity’s current energy consumption
from primary sources, but most of this power is too diffuse
(approximately 0.1 W/m2 on average) to be recoverable. The Earth's
crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be
pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) to release the heat
underneath.

Electricity generation requires high temperature resources that can only

Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir
2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall
5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to
district heating 8:Porous sediments
9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock
proximity to tectonic plate boundaries.
come from deep underground. The heat must be carried to the surface
by fluid circulation, either through magma conduits, hot springs,
hydrothermal circulation, oil wells, drilled water wells, or a
combination of these. This circulation sometimes exists naturally
where the crust is thin: magma conduits bring heat close to the surface,
and hot springs bring the heat to the surface. If no hot spring is
available, a well must be drilled into a hot aquifer. Away from tectonic
plate boundaries the geothermal gradient is 25-30°C per kilometre
(km) of depth in most of the world, and wells would have to be several
kilometres deep to permit electricity generation.[2] The quantity and
quality of recoverable resources improves with drilling depth and

In ground that is hot but dry, or where water pressure is inadequate, injected fluid can stimulate production.
Developers bore two holes into a candidate site, and fracture the rock between them with explosives or high pressure
water. Then they pump water or liquefied carbon dioxide down one borehole, and it comes up the other borehole as a
gas.[12] This approach is called hot dry rock geothermal energy in Europe, or enhanced geothermal systems in North
America. Much greater potential may be available from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural
aquifers.[12]
Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW depending on the
scale of investments.[2] This does not include non-electric heat recovered by co-generation, geothermal heat pumps
and other direct use. A 2006 report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), that included the potential
of enhanced geothermal systems, estimated that investing 1 billion US dollars in research and development over
15 years would allow the creation of 100 GW of electrical generating capacity by 2050 in the United States alone.[12]
The MIT report estimated that over 200 zettajoules (ZJ) would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to
over 2,000 ZJ with technology improvements - sufficient to provide all the world's present energy needs for several
millennia.[12]
At present, geothermal wells are rarely more than 3 kilometres (2 mi) deep.[2] Upper estimates of geothermal
resources assume wells as deep as 10 kilometres (6 mi). Drilling at this depth is now possible in the petroleum
industry, although it is an expensive process. The deepest research well in the world, the Kola superdeep borehole, is
12 kilometres (7 mi) deep.[17] This record has recently been imitated by commercial oil wells, such as Exxon's Z-12
well in the Chayvo field, Sakhalin.[18] Wells drilled to depths greater than 4 kilometres (2 mi) generally incur drilling
Geothermal electricity 3

costs in the tens of millions of dollars.[19] The technological challenges are to drill wide bores at low cost and to
break larger volumes of rock.
Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat
content, but extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion.[4] Although geothermal sites are capable of
providing heat for many decades, individual wells may cool down or run out of water. The three oldest sites, at
Larderello, Wairakei, and the Geysers have all reduced production from their peaks. It is not clear whether these
plants extracted energy faster than it was replenished from greater depths, or whether the aquifers supplying them are
being depleted. If production is reduced, and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically recover their full
potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of
geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New
Zealand since 1958,[20] and at The Geysers field in California since 1960.[21]

Power station types

Dry steam plant

Flash steam plant

Dry steam power plants

Dry steam plants are the simplest and oldest design. They directly use geothermal steam of 150°C or more to turn
turbines.[2]

Flash steam power plants

Flash steam plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks and use the resulting flashed steam to
drive turbines. They require fluid temperatures of at least 180°C, usually more. This is the most common type of
plant in operation today.[22]

Binary cycle power plants

Binary cycle power plants are the most recent development, and can accept fluid temperatures as low as 57°C.[11]
The moderately hot geothermal water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water.
This causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor, which then drives the turbines. This is the most common type of
geothermal electricity plant being built today.[23] Both Organic Rankine and Kalina cycles are used. The thermal
efficiency is typically about 10%.
Geothermal electricity 4

Worldwide production
The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power in
24 countries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010.[1] This represents a 20%
increase in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA projects this will grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to
the large number of projects presently under consideration, often in areas previously assumed to have little
exploitable resource.[1]
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity
from 77 power plants;[3] the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a
geothermal field in California.[24] The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal
power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity online; geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the
country's electricity generation.[3]
January 2011: Al Gore said in The Climate Project Asia Pacific Summit that Indonesia could become a super power
country in electricity production from geothermal energy.[25]

Utility-grade plants
The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in
California, United States.[26] As of 2004, five countries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa
Rica) generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.[2]
Naknek Electric Association (NEA) is going to make an exploration well near King Salmon, in Southwest Alaska. It
could cut the cost of electricity production by 71 percent and the planned power is 25 megawatts.[27]
Geothermal electricity is generated in the 24 countries listed in the table below. During 2005, contracts were placed
for an additional 500 MW of electrical capacity in the United States, while there were also plants under construction
in 11 other countries.[12] Enhanced geothermal systems that are several kilometres in depth are operational in France
and Germany and are being developed or evaluated in at least four other countries.

Installed geothermal electric capacity

Country percentage
Capacity Capacity
of national
(MW) (MW)
[6] [28] production
2007 2010

USA 2687 3086 0.3%

Philippines 1969.7 1904 27%

Indonesia 992 1197 3.7%

Mexico 953 958 3%

Italy 810.5 843

New Zealand 471.6 628 10%

Iceland 421.2 575 30%

Japan 535.2 536 0.1%

El Salvador 204.2 204 14%

Kenya 128.8 167 11.2%

Costa Rica 162.5 166 14%

Nicaragua 87.4 88 10%

Russia 79 82

Turkey 38 94.2 0.3%

Geothermal electricity 5

Papua-New Guinea 56 56

Guatemala 53 52

Portugal 23 29

China 27.8 24

France 14.7 16

Ethiopia 7.3 7.3

Germany 8.4 6.6

Austria 1.1 1.4

Australia 0.2 1.1

Thailand 0.3 0.3

TOTAL 9,731.9 10,709.7

Environmental impact
Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4) and
ammonia (NH3). These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid
rain, and noxious smells if released. Existing geothermal electric plants
emit an average of 122 kg of CO2 per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of
electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional
fossil fuel plants.[5] Plants that experience high levels of acids and
volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems
to reduce the exhaust. Geothermal plants could theoretically inject
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland
these gases back into the earth, as a form of carbon capture and
storage.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic
chemicals such as mercury, arsenic, boron, antimony, and salt.[29] These chemicals come out of solution as the water
cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting geothermal fluids back into
the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.
Plant construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New
Zealand.[30] Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing. The project in
Basel, Switzerland was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter
Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.[31]
Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal plants use 3.5 square kilometres
per gigawatt of electrical production (not capacity) versus 32 and 12 square kilometres for coal facilities and wind
farms respectively.[30] They use 20 litres of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1000 litres per MW·h for nuclear, coal,
or oil.[30]
Geothermal electricity 6

Economics
Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations, but capital costs tend to be
high. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks. A typical
well doublet in Nevada can support 4.5 megawatt (MW) of electricity generation and costs about $10 million to drill,
with a 20% failure rate.[19] In total, electrical plant construction and well drilling cost about 2-5 million € per MW of
electrical capacity, while the levelised energy cost is 0.04-0.10 € per kW·h.[6] Enhanced geothermal systems tend to
be on the high side of these ranges, with capital costs above $4 million per MW and levelized costs above $0.054
per kW·h in 2007.[32]
Geothermal power is highly scalable: a large geothermal plant can power entire cities while a smaller power plant
can supply a rural village.[33]
Chevron Corporation is the world's largest private producer of geothermal electricity.[34] The most developed
geothermal field is the Geysers in California. In 2008, this field supported 15 plants, all owned by Calpine, with a
total generating capacity of 725 MW.[26]

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Geothermal electricity 7

[18] Watkins, Eric (February 11, 2008), "ExxonMobil drills record extended-reach well at Sakhalin-1" (http:/ / www. mapsearch. com/ news/
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[20] Thain, Ian A. (September 1998), "A Brief History of the Wairakei Geothermal Power Project" (http:/ / geoheat. oit. edu/ bulletin/ bull19-3/
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[22] US DOE EERE Hydrothermal Power Systems (http:/ / www1. eere. energy. gov/ geothermal/ powerplants. html)
[23] "Geothermal Basics Overview" (http:/ / www1. eere. energy. gov/ geothermal/ geothermal_basics. html). Office of Energy Efficiency and
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[25] http:/ / www. antaranews. com/ en/ news/ 1294577958/ indonesia-can-be-super-power-on-geothermal-energy-al-gore
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[27] http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2009/ 05/
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[28] Holm, Alison (May 2010), Geothermal Energy:International Market Update (http:/ / www. geo-energy. org/ pdf/ reports/
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[29] Bargagli1, R.; Catenil, D.; Nellil, L.; Olmastronil, S.; Zagarese, B. (August 1997), "Environmental Impact of Trace Element Emissions from
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[30] Lund, John W. (June 2007), "Characteristics, Development and utilization of geothermal resources" (http:/ / geoheat. oit. edu/ bulletin/
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[31] Deichmann, N. et al (2007), Seismicity Induced by Water Injection for Geothermal Reservoir Stimulation 5 km Below the City of Basel,
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External links
• Articles on Geothermal Energy (http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/
articles-renewable-energy-transmission/geothermal.shtml)
Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and Contributors

Geothermal electricity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=412591258  Contributors: Brian PM Taylor, Claus Ableiter, CommonsDelinker, DVdm, E8, ESkog, Elekhh, Glst2,
Gsarwa, Id447, Jaeger222, Jncraton, Johnfos, Jusdafax, Lcmortensen, Mnmngb, Nopetro, Plazak, Pyrotec, Rehman, Rjwilmsi, Tea and crumpets, Teratornis, Vrenator, Weltuntergang, Wikipelli,
Ytrottier, 30 anonymous edits

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