Electronics-I

EE-216
Lab Manual

National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences, Islamabad

Name: ________________________________________
Reg. No:__________ Section: _________ Group: ______

Prepared by:
Checked by:
Date:

Electronics-I 1
 Hardware Requirements
S.No. Equipment Description Quantity

1 Power supply DC power supply (0-30 volts) 1

Function
2 generator Signal generation (1hz -1Mhz) 1

3 Oscilloscope Analog/Digital (40Mhz) 1

4 Transformer 6+6 volts , 12+12 volts 1,1

Ordinary dode(1N 4007) Zener (6.2 &

5 Diodes 9 volts) 3,1

6 BJT 222A, 2NC828 General purpose 1,1

7 JFET NTE 3819 1

Resistors,
8 Capacitors 5 Ω - 1 MΩ, 1µF – 47µF 5,3

Electronics-I 2
 Table of Contents

Lab No. Lab Title Page

Lab # 1
The I-V characteristics curve of diode
Reverse biased and Forward biased
5
Lab # 2 H/W, F/W and 6.2 v dc regulated filtered power supply
10
Lab # 3 Clippers and Clampers
15
Lab # 4 Voltage multiplier

Doublers, Tripler, Quadruple

19
Lab # 5 Introduction to BJT

Biasing & Characteristics

22
Lab # 6 BJT Common Emitter Amplifier
27
Lab # 7 BJT Common Collector Amplifier
30
Lab # 8 BJT Common Base Amplifier
32
Lab # 9 Introduction to JFET

Output Characteristics Curve

35
Lab # 10 JFET Common Source Amplifier
39
Lab # 11 JFET Common Drain Amplifier
42

APPENDICES
Appendix A …………………………………………….data sheets

Electronics-I Project List:

Electronics-I 3
 1. Rain Detector

2. Air Detector

3. 3-Watt audio amplifier

4. FM Transmitter (500m)

5. Dark Detector

6. Triac Light dimmer

7. ON-OFF with touch switch

8. IR Remote Jammer

9. Astable Multi-Vibrator

10. IR transmitter

11. IR Receiver

12. Automatic Fan/Ac on-off

13. Variable Power supply

14. Light sensing RF transmitter

15. Light sensing door

Electronics-I 4
 Lab # 1

Diode characteristics
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab is to study the IV characteristics curve of diode.

Equipment required:

 DC power supply (variable)

 Multimeter (DMM)
 Resistor 1kohm
 IN 9001 (diode)
 Bread Board

Background:
Extrinsic Materials.

Those materials, which are subjected to the doping process, are called extrinsic
materials. There are two types of extrinsic materials, i.e n-type & p-type materials. In the n-
type material, the majority carriers are the electrons while in p-type material, the majority
carriers are the holes.

Semiconductor Diode.
When n-type and p-type semiconductors are combined, a p-n junction diode is
formed. At the point of adjoin of the two layers, some of the electrons and holes are
combined. Since n-type donate electrons and p-type accepts electrons, so negative ions are
formed at p-side and positive ions are at n-side as shown in figure 1
(Barrier Potential = 0.7V for Si,0.3 for Ge)

t t
r r
Pt
r N

Fig-1. PN-junction diode

Reverse Bias.

When the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and –ive terminal is
connected to the p-side, then the diode is in reverse bias. In this condition the diode does not
conduct and there is no current due to majority carriers, because the depletion layer widens
with the reverse bias. The +ve ions in the n-side is repel by the +ve terminal and the –ve ions
in the P-side are repel by the –ve terminal of the battery, so the depletion region widens.
In reverse bias, there is reverse saturation current due to the minority carriers which is very
small. The minority carriers that found themselves in the depletion region passes it and thus a
small reverse saturation current denoted by ‘Is’ flows in the reverse direction.

Electronics-I 5
Forward Bias.

When the +ive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side and the –ive terminal is
connected to the N-side of the diode, then the diode is in the forward bias. In forward bias the
diode does not conduct until the breakdown occurs. At a certain voltage the majority carriers
get sufficient energy to pass the junction. This voltage is called breakdown voltage and if the
applied voltage is increased beyond the this voltage, a large current flows through the diode.
The graph of the I-V characteristic is shown below for the forward bias of the diode.

In the reverse bias the breakdown occurs at high voltages.

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called anode and the lead connectedTo n-type
material is called cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on
diode.
The primary function of diode is rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher
potential is connected to the anode lead ),it will pass current. when it is reversed biased (the
higher potential is connected to the cathode lead ), current flow is blocked.

Electronics-I 6
When analyzing circuits, the real diode is usually replaced with a simple model. In the
simplest form, the diode is modeled by a switch (shown in figure).the switch is closed when
the diode is forward biased and open when the diode is reversed biased.

Vi V I Slop
n d d e,
Vd/I
d
0
0
0.
2
0.
4
Procedure: 0.
6

For forward biased characteristics . 0.

8
Construct the circuit as shown 1.
below.Vary the in put voltage Vin 0
according the values given in the 2.
following table and by using ampere 0
meter andvolt meter record The values of 3.
Id and Vd in the table. 0
4.
0
5.
0
7.
0
9.
Electronics-I 7
0
12
.0
 Vd

DC RL 1k
Id
0 to 12v

Forward biased circuit. Table-1

Vi V I Slop
n d d e,
Vd/I
d
0
0
0.
2
0.
4
0.
For reversed biased characteris:
6
Construct the circuit as shown below. Vary the in
put voltage Vin according the values given in the 0.
following table and by using ampere meter and volt 8
meter record The values of Id and Vd in the table. 1.
0
2.
0
3.
0
4.
0
5.
0
7.
0
9.
Electronics-I 8
0
12
.0
 Vd

DC Id RL 1k
0 to 12v

Reversed
biased circuit

Precautions: Table-2

 Do not use current meter in parallel.

 Always break the circuit while measuring current.
 Do not use volt meter in series.
 Before applying to the circuit measured the voltages of source.

Home work:

Plot the graph between Vd and Id for both forward and reverse biased
characteristics.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 9
 Lab No. 2

Design H/W , F/W And 6.2V DC, Regulated, Filtered

Power Supply

Experimental Constraints:

 The Transformer to be used is of 220V AC Primary and 12V+12V Secondary.

 You should essentially adopt the Full – Wave Rectification in your design and
implementation.
 Use Zener Diode for any Regulatory Purposes.
 Capacitor is to be used as Filter.
Equipments Required

 Transformer 12+12 V.
 Rectifier diode and zener diode.
 Resistor,Capacitor.
 Multimeter.
 Bread board,Oscilloscope.

Objectives of the Exercise:

 Full – Wave Rectification Process. Observation of the AC and FW Rectified

Voltage on the CRO.
 Calculation of Peak, Average and RMS Voltage across the Resistive Load of
the Rectifier Circuit
 Determination of the Average Current in the Resistive Load of the Rectifier
circuit.
 Designing a Filtering Circuit using the standard Ripple Criterion and proper
formulae for the purpose. Measurement of the Peak to Peak ripple Voltage
when a capacitor is added to the Load.
 Zener as a voltage regulator. Load Regulation using Zener Diode. Design of a
Zener shunt Regulator in order to provide Load Regulation for a specific Load
Range.

Background:

Electric power is delivered to our homes and factories in the form of 50 Hz ac,
but many end uses require dc. This conversion from AC to DC is accomplished by
one or more diodes in a rectifier. A diode is a solid state device that allows current to
flow in only one direction. The voltage drop across the diode when current is flowing
is about 0.7 V. If the other voltages in the circuit are sufficiently high, then this 0.7 V
can be ignored without significant loss of accuracy. In this case, we are assuming the
diode to be ideal, that is, with zero voltage drop when conducting and infinite
impedance when reverse biased.

Electronics-I 10
 The simplest rectifier circuit is the single-phase half wave rectifier which was
designed in the Last Lab Session. Here the case of Full – Wave rectifiers will be
considered. The basic Full – Wave rectifier Circuit is shown in Fig 2. The Voltage in
the Secondary is V = VmCosωt with respect to the Centre Tap. When V is positive in
the First Half of cycle, as shown in the Fig. 2: the Diode D1 conducts i.e. it is Forward
biased. On the other hand the Diode D2 is Reverse biased simultaneously. This results
in the appearance of a Positive cycle at the Resistive Load. In the Second Half of the
cycle the D1 gets reverse biased and the D2 is now reverse biased. This again results
in appearance of the Positive cycle on the resistive load. Thus Notice that instead of
the Vacant second part, now the output has two positive cycles consecutively. This is
indifferent to the Half Wave case.
The load voltage is positive or zero, thus making the output DC rather than
AC, although it is still quite variable(not as variable as the Half Wave). This
waveform is used to drive some small household motors, but many applications
require a smoother output.

D
1

D
2

There are many applications where the `raw' rectified waveforms are not
smooth enough. The next step in smoothing the output waveform is to add a capacitor,
as shown in Fig. 4. Whenever v is more positive than the capacitor voltage, the diode
conducts and the capacitor charges. When v drops below the capacitor voltage, the
capacitor tries to discharge through the diode, but is unable to do so. The diode
becomes an open circuit and the capacitor discharges through the load resistor until v
again becomes more positive than the capacitor voltage. The difference between the
maximum and minimum voltages across the load is called the ripple voltage Vr. The
time tr at which the minimum voltage occurs is found by solving the equation

Electronics-I 11
 This above transcendental equation does not have a closed form solution.
However, it can be solved reasonably quickly by an iterative process. Just assume a
value for t between 1.5 and 2 , and solve for t. Substitute this value of t in both sides
of (1) and evaluate. If the cosine function is smaller than the exponential function for
this value of t, assume a larger value of t. When the two sides of (1) have the same
value, then you have assumed the correct value of t. either side of (1) is then the
minimum voltage. Subtracting this from Vm then yields Vr.

Experimental Activity:

 Connect the Circuit as shown in fig. 1.

 Record the Values for the Following Parameters(All Quantities should be
measured w.r.t Load unless otherwise specified):
 Peak Voltage Vm = _________ Volts.
 Average Voltage Vavg = _________
Volts.
 Rms Voltage Vrms = _________ Volts.
 Average Current Iavg = _________ mA.
 Peak to Peak AC Voltage of Transformer Vpptrans.Out = _________ Volts

Draw the Wave Forms for the AC Input to the Rectifier and the HW Rectified DC
output from the Diode across the Load. Draw Waveforms with Abscissa 0 to 2pi.

Filtering the Output:

Using a simple Electrolytic Capacitor, Filter the output of the Rectifier and
Redraw the Output waveform.

Electronics-I 12
 Important:
1). It is a standard for the power supplies to have their output
smoothened to only a ripple of 10% of Vm.
2). The Value of the filtering capacitor must be chosen carefully.
Increasing capacitor ratings will not help further smoothing of the output whereas a
small value might introduce a significant amount of ripple!

Question 1: What is Value of the capacitor that you chose?? Why??

Answer: Ratings of the Capacitor: _________________________________

Regulating the Output Voltage:

With Reference to the Last Experiment Regulate the output of the Power
supply using a 6.2V Zener diode. Design a shunt Regulator so as to compensate for a
transformer output change of 10 – 15 Volts.
What is the range of load Regulation that you can provide with the current
arrangement??
Show the Calculations below for design which can provide a load regulation
for load values between 400ohms and 3kohms.
Calculations for Load Regulation:

D RS

AC C RL
Z

Regulated power supply diagram

Electronics-I 13
Show Drawings and Calculations for your Experiment Below

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 14
 Lab No. 3

Clippers and clampers:

Experimental Constraints:

a) Use Signal Generator as the Source of Master Clock..

b) Only incorporate capacitors, diodes and Resistors in your design. .
c) In the Second part where a completely positive or negative pulse is required:
Odd numbered Groups implement the negative Scheme and Even the Positive.
.
d) At the end of three hours, all the required outputs shall be demonstrated to the
Instructor.

Objectives of the Exercise:

a) Introduction to Clipper, Clamper

b) Conversion of a problem statement into Requirements Diagram and then
choice of specific basic circuits to model the situation.

Background and Self Tests:

Diode Clippers/ Limiters: In forward Bias state a diode could be modeled as a short
circuit and in the reverse bias state it could be modeled as an open circuit. In practice
the forward bias situation is modeled with Vd as 0.7V, while the reverse bias situation
is modeled by a resistance of the order of several Mega Ohms. This feature is used in
the design of limiter/ clipper circuits. As the name suggests, the task here should be to
“Clip” or “Limit” a particular quantity. You have already studied the working and
analysis of these circuits in the class lectures in detail. Based on your knowledge
respond to the self test that follows.

Self Test 1). Refer to the circuits in the diagram below and analyze them. In
the space provided draw the output waveforms for these circuits.

Signal
-10/10V
Out
Diode 10k
1kHz 1N4007

Electronics-I 15
 Signal
-10/10V
Out
Diode 10k
1kHz
1N4007

+
Signal Vbatt 6.2V
-10/10V
Out
Diode 10k
1kHz
1N4007

Vbatt
Signal
-10/10V 6.2V +
Out
Diode 10k
1kHz
1N4007

D1
Signal
-10/10V 1N753
Out
10k
1kHz D2
1N753

Application Note: Power amplifiers, when driven out of their linear range of
operation, sound particularly bad, and can produce damage to themselves or the
transducers to which they are connected. The design of traditional protection circuits
is complicated by the various performance, cost, and sonic tradeoffs involved. There
is certainly no one right answer to the limiter puzzle. Nevertheless the diode clipper/
limiters can provide a cost effective and an uncomplicated solution to the problem.

Clamper or DC Restorer Circuits: These circuits typically add a DC Voltage

Level to the AC. In other words, these circuits change the average value of the AC
quantity. This is often achieved by the use of charge storage property of a Capacitor.
In this process, typically a capacitor is charged for one cycle of the input signal and in
the other part of a cycle this same capacitor acts like a voltage source but now in
series with the actual signal source.
The restorer could be negative or positive depending on the arrangement of
diode and capacitor. To sum up the operation lets consider an example. Refer to the
first Diagram in the Figure below:-

Electronics-I 16
  A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage.
 When input voltage goes initially negative, diode is forward biased.
 Capacitor charges to near peak of inpt (Vp(in) – 0.7).
 Right after the negative peak, diode is reverse biased (because cathode is held
near Vp(in) – 0.7 by charge on capacitor).
 Capacitor can only discharge through the RL.
 Since RL has high resistance, the capacitor discharges very little each period.
 Note that time constant should be large (at least 10 times the period of the
input voltage).
 Since capacitor retains charge, it acts like a battery in series with the input
voltage.

Self Test 2). Analyze the circuits in the diagram given below and draw their
output waveforms. Label major points on the waveforms such as peak voltages, avg.
voltage etc.
C
100uF
+
V1
-10/10V R1
D1 2K
DIODE
1kHz

C
100uF
+
V1
-10/10V R1
2K
D1
DIODE
1kHz

C
100uF
+
V1
-10/10V R1
2K
D1
DIODE
1kHz

Application Notes: Certain applications in electronics require that the upper or

lower extremity of a wave be fixed at a specific value. In such applications, a
CLAMPING (or CLAMPER) circuit is used. A clamping circuit clamps or restrains
either the upper or lower extremity of a waveform to a fixed dc potential. This circuit
is also known as a DIRECT-CURRENT RESTORER or a BASE-LINE
STABILIZER. Such circuits are used in test equipment, radar systems, electronic
countermeasure systems, and sonar systems. Depending upon the equipment, you
could find negative or positive clampers with or without bias.

Electronics-I 17
Experimental Activity:

1. Please provide a complete design solution to the Experimental problem

statement provided at the start of this manual.
2. Show all your work in the space provided below. Clearly mention the Values
of the component that you intend to use and also justify the choice of values.
3. At the end provide a complete schematic solution the Problem. Get your
Design approved by the instructor and then implement the same design.
4. Check if there is any difference is practical values obtained and the theoretical
values that you calculated.

Show Drawings and Calculations for your Experiment Below

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 18
 lab # 4:

Voltage Multiplier:

Equipments required:

Diodes(IN 9004)

Capacitors(25v470uf)

Transformer(12+12)

Multimeter

Background

A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts DC electrical power

from a low voltage to a higher voltage. Although the DC to DC converter
performs a similar function, the term voltage multiplier is reserved for circuits
that use a network of capacitors and diodes to generate high voltages.

An n-stage cascade produces 2n x Up output voltage. By choosing an appropriate

number of stages, any voltage can be reached. However, this is only valid for
negligible current draw. As soon as there is output current, there is also an AC current
through the caps, resulting in a voltage drop and a lower input voltage for subsequent
stages. In fact, numbers much higher than, say, 10 or 20, are not sensible in practice.
More specifically, the formula for the voltage drop is

Electronics-I 19
This means, the voltage drop is the higher, the higher the output current I, the lower
the frequency f and the lower the capacity C. The voltage drop also increases with the
number of stages cubed, which means for 10 stages it is already 1000x as large as for
a single stage!

Full wave voltage doubler.

A voltage multiplier circuit is shown in figure We can think of it as two half-wave

rectifier circuits in series. During the positive half-cycle one of the diodes conducts
and charges a capacitor. During the negative half-cycle the other diode conducts
negatively to charge the other capacitor. The voltage across the combination is
therefore equal to twice the peak voltage. In this type of circuit we have to assume
that the load does not draw a significant charge from the capacitors.

+
F/W Voltage doubler circuit.
D1 C1 Vm
-
Vm -vm-vm+2vm=0
2Vm
+
C2 Vm Task 1:
D2 -

Measure the input and output voltages.

Vin peak Vci Vc2

Voltage Tripler and quadrupler:

The half-wave voltage doubler circuit can be extended to obtain any multiple of the
peak input voltage (Vm) i.e..3Vm,4Vm,5Vm etc.theoreticaly speaking , there is no
upper limit to the amount of voltage multiplication that can be obtained.though
voltage triplers and quadruplers are commonly used ,practical conciderations limit

Electronics-I 20
additional multiplications.the main handcap is that total amount of capacitance
becomes unduly large to maintain the desired dc output voltage for anything except
extremely light loads.

Vo = No of stages * Vin peak.

3Vm
Vm

C1 c3 D4
D1 C2 D2 D3 c4

2Vm
4Vm

task 2
Measured values

Vin peak Vm1 Vm2 Vm3 Vm4

Calculated values

Vin peak Vm1 Vm2 Vm3 Vm4

Electronics-I 21
 Lab No. 5
Experimental Problem:
In today’s lab you are required to demonstrate:-

1). Basic Transistor Operation

2). Measurement of Transistor Currents and Verification of IE = IC + IB
3). Calculation of βDC and αDC
4). Generation of set of collector characteristic curves
5). DC Load Line on the Collector characteristic curves, Cutoff and
Saturation Points on the Curves.

Experimental Constraints:

e) Only one (1) power supply is available for the Experimental setup. Derive the
different required voltages from this supply.
f) Use 2222A or 2NC828 General Purpose Transistors.

Objectives of the Exercise:

c) Introduction to Transistors with emphasis on BJTs.

d) Introduction to different characteristic parameters related to BJT and their
Measurement/ Calculation.
e) Analysis of Transistor circuit to with the help of these parameters.

Background:

The transistor was invented by a team of 3 men in 1947 at Bell Laboratories. This
first device in this family of devices was not a bipolar junction device but it was
beginning of a technological revolution that is still continuing on.
Two basic types of transistors are BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR and FIELD-
EFFECT TRANSISTORS (fets). In today’s lab we shall consider the basic operation of
the BJT.

Generally, devices in which currents are established due to the motion of both
the N-type and P-type particles are referred to as the Bipolar devices. Consequently,
the transistors in which the current flow is due to Holes and electrons are termed as
the BJTs.

Electronics-I 22
 Basic Biasing Circuits for Transistor:

RC RC

RB RB
Q1 VCC Q1 + V
PNP NPN
+ CC
VBB +V
+ BB

Experimental Activity:

A. Implement the following Circuit and then determine the values for the IC, IB, IE,
VBE, VCE, VCB, αDC, and βDC. Solve the Circuit for βDC = 200.

RC

100
RB
Q1 +
10K NPN VCC
VBB +
10V
5V

Solution:

Electronics-I 23
Fill the Table for the experimental values.

IB IC IE VCE VBE VBC βDC αDC

B. Generation of the Collector Characteristics Curve.

Using the circuit shown below one can generate a set of collector
characteristic curves that show how the collector current IC, varies with the
collector-to-emitter voltage VCE, for specified values of base current, IB.

RC

100
RB
Q1 +
10K NPN VCC
VBB +
10V
5V

 First Set VCC and VBB equal to zero.

 Measure IC, IB and IE. Justify the Readings that you get. What should be
the ideal case readings under this situation?

 Increase the VBB and obtain a reasonable value of IB , at this value fix
the VBB. Sweep the VCC and record the values of IC at reasonable points
along the sweep.
 The step shall generate a curve. This is the first curve among the set of
curves which we shall generate.
 Repeat the above step for higher values of VBB and correspondingly a
higher value of IB.
 Record the reading to generate a total of 7 curves.
 Draw DC Load Line and identify the Cutoff and Saturation on the set
of curves.

Sr. No. IB Fill in the table according to your Readings.

Draw the Plots for IC vs. VCE on the same Graph.

Electronics-I 24
1 VCE IC
100
80
60
40
20
0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Qtr Qtr Qtr Qtr

2 VCE IC

3 VCE IC

4 VCE IC

5 VCE IC

6 VCE IC

Electronics-I 25
7 VCE IC

Draw the Graph here.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Electronics-I 26
Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Lab No. 6

Experimental Problem:

Design a Common – Emitter Amplifier with:-

1). An AC voltage Gain of 100.

2). Output impedance in the range of 100 to 2KΏ.
3). Use any value of β from the Datasheet provided.
4). Employ essentially the voltage divider biasing method.
5). Use emitter resistance to limit the IE.
6). The transistor is to biased such that the Input signal doesn’t drive it
into either saturation or cutoff regions.
7). In the space provided at the end, show the DC and AC analysis of
your circuit along with the equivalent circuits.
8). Plot the frequency response of the amplifier circuit for the
frequency range of 100 – 10MHz.

Experimental Constraints:

g) Only one (1) power supply is available for the Experimental setup.
h) Use 2222A or 2NC828 General Purpose Transistors.
i) Demonstrate the DC bias state of the amplifier circuit to the instructor before
applying AC signal.
j) Couple the AC input and the Output through capacitors.

Objectives of the Exercise:

f) Introduction to Common – Emitter BJT Amplifier configuration.

g) Introduction to different design parameters which contribute towards the
design characteristics..
h) Analysis of Amplifier circuit to with the help of these parameters.

Background:

The diagram below shows the basic Common-Emitter amplifier configuration

R1=100k,R2=20k,Rc=5k,Re=2k,Rl=100k,Ci=10uf,Co=10uf,Ce=10uf

Electronics-I 27
 R c
C
R 1
C Vcc

Q 2N 2222

R 2 R e C R L

The figure shows the CE amplifier with voltage divider bias and capacitor
coupled input and output. There is also a bypass capacitor in the circuit from emitter
to the ground. The output of the circuit is 180 out of phase with the input.

DC Analysis:

To analyze the the amplifier in the above figure, first of all the bias values
must be determined. To do this a DC equivalent circuit must be developed. This could
be easily achieved by replacing the coupling and bypass capacitors by open circuit.
The resultant circuit is shown below.

R c

R 1
Vcc

Q 2N 2222

R 2
R e

The dc input resistance at the base of a transistor is given by the formula

RIN(base) = VIN/IIN = βDC*IB*RE / IB

RIN(base) = βDC*RE

If RIN(base) is 10 or more times greater than R2 in the voltage divider bias; the effect of
RIN(base) can be neglected, otherwise the it must be included in determining the value of
bias voltage. The formula for determining the bias voltage at the base terminal is

VB = ((R2║RIN(base) ) ÷ (R1 + (R2║RIN(base) ))) * VCC

The Voltage at the emitter terminal is given by the relation.

VE = VB - VBE

Now the emitter current is given by,

IE = V E / R E

Also, IC ≈ IE and

Electronics-I 28
 VC = VCC – IC RC

Once the parameters VC and VE are known the parameter VCE could be determined as

VCE = VC - VE
AC Analysis:

To construct an AC equivalent circuit, following points are to be kept in mind.

 The capacitors in the circuit are replaced by effective shorts. This is
because their values are selected so that XC = 0ohms.
 AC Ground: The dc source in the circuit is replaced by ground. We assume
that the source has an internal resistance of approximately 0 Ohms so that
no AC voltage is developed across the source terminals.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 29
 Lab No.7

Experiment: Designing of a Common – Collector Amplifier.

Experimental Constraints:

k) Only one (1) power supply is available for the Experimental setup.
l) Use 2222A or 2NC828 General Purpose Transistors.
m) Demonstrate the DC bias state of the amplifier circuit to the instructor before
applying AC signal.
n) Couple the AC input and the Output through capacitors.

Objectives of the Exercise:

i) Introduction to Common – collector BJT Amplifier configuration.

j) Introduction to different design parameters which contribute towards the
design characteristics.
k) Analysis of Amplifier circuit with the help of these parameters.

Background:

The diagram below shows the basic Common-Emitter amplifier configuration.

VC C

R 1
C in
Q 2N 2222
V s ig _ W A V E
C out

R 2
R E
R L

R1=120k,R2=30k,RE=2.2k,RL=100k,VCC=20v

The figure shows the CC amplifier with voltage divider bias and capacitor coupled
input and output. The output of the circuit is in phase with the input.

DC Analysis:

The DC Analysis of the Common Collector amplifier circuit is left to the

students as the major points regarding DC analysis of Amplifier circuits have already
been discussed in the earlier Labs.

AC Analysis:

Electronics-I 30
We have already discussed the methodology of the AC analysis in the earlier Labs
and it is left to the students to analyze the above circuit for the Common Collector
Amplifier. In this section only the significant parameters are mentioned with their
general formulae and typical values (wherever applicable).
Voltage Gain: Generally, the voltage gain of a common – collector (also
known as emitter follower) is given by the following formula:-

AV = Re / (r’e + Re)

Here Re is the parallel combination of the RE and RL. Notice from the above formula
that the gain of the CC amplifier is always less that unity and if Re >> r’e then a good
approximation will be the AV =1.
Input Resistance: The input resistance Rin(base) is given by the formula

Rin(base) ≈ βac (r’e + Re)

If Re >> r’e then,
Rin(base) ≈ βac Re
The bias resistors R1 and R2 appear in parallel with the Rin(base) when looking from the
input source and just as in the CE case, the total input resistance is

Rin(tot) ≈ Rin(base) ║ R1 ║ R2

Output Resistance: With the load removed, the output resistance, looking
into the emitter of the CC amplifier is approximated as follows

Rout ≈ (Rs / βac) ║ RE

Here Rs is the resistance of the input source.
Current Gain: When R1 ║ R2 >> βac Re, then

Ai ≈ βac otherwise Ai = Ie/ Iin

Power Gain: The Power gain of an amplifier is the product of the voltage gain
and the current gain. Since in the case of common – collector Amplifier, the voltage
gain is approximately 1 therefore the power gain is equal to the current gain.
Experimental Activity:

Determine the total input resistance of the emitter – follower in the figure shown
below. Also determine the voltage gain, current gain and power gain in terms of the
power delivered to the load, RL. Assume βac = 175 and that the capacitive reactance
are negligible at the frequency of operation.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 31
 Lab No. 8
Experiment:

Designing of a Common – Base Amplifier.

Experimental Constraints:

o) Only one (1) power supply is available for the Experimental setup.
p) Use 2222A or 2NC828 General Purpose Transistors.
q) Demonstrate the DC bias state of the amplifier circuit to the instructor before
applying AC signal.
r) Couple the AC input and the Output through capacitors.

Objectives of the Exercise:

l) Introduction to Common – Base BJT Amplifier configuration.

m) Introduction to different design parameters which contribute towards the
design characteristics.
n) Analysis of Amplifier circuit with the help of these parameters.

Background:

The diagram below shows the basic Common-base amplifier configuration.

V C C
R C

C
R 1 The figure shows the CB
C amplifier with voltage
Q 2N 2222 divider bias and capacitor
coupled input and output.
R 2
R E R L The output of the circuit is in
phase with the input. Also
C note that the base is the
common terminal and is at
AC ground because of the
capacitor. The input is capacitively coupled to the emitter terminal and the output
signal is capacitively coupled from the collector terminal. Generally the common base
amplifier is characterized by its high voltage gain and a maximum current gain of
unity. Its input resistance is also low and is there most suitable for those applications
where sources tend to have low output resistcances.

DC Analysis:

Electronics-I 32
 The DC Analysis of the Common Base amplifier circuit is left to the students
as the major points regarding DC analysis of Amplifier circuits have already been
discussed in the earlier Labs.

AC Analysis:

We have already discussed the methodology of the AC analysis in the earlier

Labs and it is left to the students to analyze the above circuit for the Common Base
Amplifier. In this section only the significant parameters are mentioned with their
general formulae and typical values (wherever applicable).
Voltage Gain:
Generally, the voltage gain of a common – Base is given by the following formula:-

AV = RC / r’e

Here RC is the parallel combination of the RC and RL. This expression is the same as
is for the common emitter amplifier but there is no phase inversion in this case.
Input Resistance:
The input resistance, looking in at the emitter is

Rin(emitter) ≈ r’e ║ RE)

If Re >> r’e then,
Rin(emitter) ≈ r’e

Output Resistance:
Looking into the collector terminal, the ac collector resistance r’c appears in parallel
with RC. Generally, r’c is very much greater than the RC therefore it is a good
approximation that

Rout ≈ RC

Current Gain:
Since the output current divided by the input current, and in the case these are the
currents IC and IE, respectively. These currents are nearly equal and there for the
current gain of the common base amplifier is near to unity.

Power Gain:

Electronics-I 33
 The Power gain of an amplifier is the product of the voltage gain and the current
gain. Since in the case of common – base Amplifier, the current gain is approximately
1 therefore the power gain is equal to the voltage gain.

Experimental Activity:
Determine the input resistance of the common – base amplifier in the figure shown
below. Also determine the voltage gain, current gain and power gain in terms of the
power delivered to the load, RL. Assume βdc = 250 and that the capacitive reactance
are negligible at the frequency of operation.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 34
 Lab No.9

Experimental Problem: In today’s lab you are required to demonstrate:-

1). Basic JFET Operation

2). Measurement of Transistor voltages
3). Generation of set of drain characteristic curves
4). DC Load Line on the drain characteristic curves, Cutoff and Saturation
Points on the Curves.

Experimental Constraints:

s) Only one (1) power supply is available for the Experimental setup. Derive the
different required voltages from this supply.
t) Use 226ASA or J2N3819 General Purpose Transistors.

Objectives of the Exercise:

o) Introduction to Transistors with emphasis on JFETs.

p) Introduction to different characteristic parameters related to JFET and their
Measurement/ Calculation.
q) Analysis of Transistor circuit to with the help of these parameters.

Background:

The transistor was invented by a team of 3 men in 1947 at Bell Laboratories. This
first device in this family of devices was not a bipolar junction device but it was
beginning of a technological revolution that is still continuing on.
Two basic types of transistors are BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR and FIELD-
EFFECT TRANSISTORS (fets). In today’s lab we shall consider the basic operation of
the JFET.

Electronics-I 35
 -VDD
+VDD

RD
IDS
RD
ID

VGS
VDS VGS VDS

P-channel N-channel

Experimental Activity:

C. Implement the following Circuit and then determine the values for the
VG,VD,VS,VDS, VGS and ID .

Fill the Table for the experimental values.

VDD VGG VG VD VS VGS VDS ID

10V 0V
10V -5V

Generation of the Characteristics Curve.

Using the circuit shown below one can generate a set of drain characteristic
curves that show how the drain current ID, varies with the drain-to-source
voltage VDS, for specified values of gate to source voltages, VGS
.

Electronics-I 36
 10v
+VDD

3K
IDS

1K VD
VDS

0_5v VGG VS
VG 2K

 First Set VDD and VGG equal to zero.

 Measure VD, VG and VS. Justify the Readings that you get. What should
be the ideal case readings under this situation?
 Increase the VGG and obtain a reasonable value of VGS , at this value fix
the VGG. Sweep the VDD, and record the values of ID at reasonable points
along the sweep.
 The step shall generate a curve. This is the first curve among the set of
curves which we shall generate.
 Repeat the above step for higher values of VGG and correspondingly a
higher value of VGS.
 Record the reading to generate a total of 5 curves.
 Draw DC Load Line and identify the Cutoff and Saturation on the set
of curves.

Fill in the table according to your Readings

Draw the Plots for IC vs. VCE on the same Graph.

Draw the Graph

1 VGS VDS ID

2 VDS ID

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3 VDS ID

4 VDS ID

5 VDS ID

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Electronics-I 38
Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Lab # 10

JFET CS Amplifier
Purpose

This experiment will investigate the characteristics of the common-source amplifier.

Material and Equipment

NTE 312 N Channel JFET.

Resistors: 2 k (2), 3.9k, 10 k (2), 100 k, 200 k, 1 M.
Capacitors: 100 µF, 47µF, 1µF.

Theory

In this lab, two JFET amplifier configurations will be investigated; the common-
source,
and the common-drain amplifier.
The basic common-source(CS) circuit is shown in Figure 9-1. In comparison to the
BJT
common-emitter amplifier, the FET amplifier has a much higher input impedance, but
a
lower voltage gain.
The voltage gain of the circuit can be expressed as

Av = -gmRD

fig 1 - Common-Source Amplifier

Electronics-I 39
The Junction Field Effect Transistor(NTE 3819)
shows the transistor terminals for your reference..

Procedure

1) Common-Source Amplifier
a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure
b) Use Cc1 = 1µF, Cc2 = 47µF, Cs=100 µF, RL =3.9 k, RS=RD=2 k, R1 = 200 k ,
R2=100 k, VDD = 12V.
c) Apply a sinusoidal signal with frequency 1kHz, amplitude 1Vp-p, supply
voltages at 10V.
d) Observe the output.
e) Capture both input and output waveforms.
f) Calculate the voltage gain.

Results

1. Draw the input and output wave forms.

Input wave form Output wave

form

Electronics-I 40
2.Voltage gain .

Av = Vo/Vi

3. Conclusion.

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

Electronics-I 41
Electronics-I 42
 Lab # 11
JFET CD Amplifier

Purpose

This experiment will investigate the characteristics of the common drain

amplifier.

Material and Equipment

NTE 312 N Channel JFET.

Resistors: 2 k (2), 3.9k, 10 k (2), 100 k, 200 k, 1 M.
Capacitors: 100 µF, 47µF, 1µF.

Theory

In this lab, JFET amplifier configurations will be investigated; the

common-drain amplifier.
The basic common-Drain(CD) circuit is shown in FigureIn comparison to the BJT
common-emitter amplifier, the FET amplifier has a much higher input impedance, but
a
lower voltage gain.
The voltage gain of the circuit can be expressed as

Av = -gmRD

Common-Drain Amplifier

Electronics-I 43
The Junction Field Effect Transistor(NTE 3819)
shows the transistor terminals for your reference..

Results

2. Draw the input and output wave forms.

Input wave form Output wave

form

2.Voltage gain .

Av = Vo/Vi

Conclusion

Lab performed on (date): ___________ Signature: ______________

Checked by: ________________________ Date: ______________

Marks Awarded: ____________

Comments:

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