Introduction

2.1 Multibody mechanical systems–examples

• road vehicles – cars, motorcycles, trucks

• satellites

• robots

• air vehicles – aeroplanes, helicopters, UAVs

• mems

• submersible vehicles

4
 y x Steer axis
rider Twist axis x’
upper
body y’
z
aero z’

main

2.2 History
Important milestones in the science of Classical Mechanics:

• Newton’s Principia, 1686, particle motions

• D’Alembert, 1743, virtual work

• Euler, 1775, rigid bodies

• Lagrange, 1788, energy approach, constraints and Lagrange multipliers

• Hamilton, 1834, principle of least action

• Jourdain, 1909, virtual power; Kane’s equations

The science developed along two main branches:

• Vectorial mechanics
This treatment starts directly from Newton’s laws of motion. The main idea is to recognize
all the forces that act on any given particle at every instant and uniquely define its motion
as a consequence of these forces. The action of a force is measured by the momentum
produced by that force.

• Analytical mechanics
This treatment bases the entire study of equilibrium and motion on two fundamental
scalar quantities, the “kinetic energy” and the “potential energy”. Leibniz was the first
to use the kinetic energy as a gauge for the dynamical action of a force and he is the
originator of analytical mechanics. Euler and Lagrange were the first discoverers of the
exact principle of least action for conservative systems, where “action” is the time integral
of the kinetic energy over the entire motion. Hamilton’s principle is similar, with the
“action” being the difference between the kinetic and the potential energies, but it works

5
Modelling and Control of Multibody Mechanical Systems
 for non conservative systems as well. The Hamiltonian formulation of the principle of
least action asserts that the actual motion realised in nature is that particular motion for
which this action assumes its smallest value.

2.3 Comparison between treatments

The vectorial and variational theories of mechanics are two different mathematical descriptions
of the same physical phenomena. In Newton’s theory everything is based on two fundamental
vectors: “momentum” and “force”. The variational theory bases everything on two scalar
quantities: “kinetic energy” and “work function”.
In the case of particles whose motion is not restricted by given constraints, i.e free particles,
the two treatments lead to equivalent results. For systems with constraints, the unknown nature
of the interaction forces makes it is necessary to introduce additional postulates when using
vectorial methods. Newton thought that his third law of motion, “action equals reaction”, would
take care of all dynamical problems. This, however, is not true in general but it holds for the
dynamics of rigid bodies. The analytical form of description is simpler and more economical
when it comes to constrained systems. The kinematical conditions that exist between the
particles of a moving system do not exist a priori but they are maintained by strong forces.
The analytical treatment does not require the knowledge of these forces, but can take the given
kinematical conditions for granted. We can develop the dynamical equations of a rigid body
without knowing what forces produce the rigidity of the body.
Vectorial mechanics construct a separate acting force for each moving particle; analytical
mechanics consider one single function: the work function (or potential energy). This one
function contains in most cases all the necessary information concerning forces.
In the analytical method, the entire set of equations of motion can be developed from one
unified principle: the principle of least action. Such a minimum principle is independent of any
special reference frame, the equations of analytical mechanics hold for any set of coordinates.
This permits one to adjust the coordinates employed to the specific nature of each problem.
The problems that are well suited to the vectorial treatment are those which can be handled
with a rectangular frame of reference. Many elementary problems are solvable with this method
but for more complicated problems the variational treatment is superior.

2.4 Simple examples

2.4.1 Horizontal spring-mass system

k
m

Figure 2.1: Horizontal spring mass system.

6
↓
The spring force is
F = −kx, k > 0.
Newton’s Second Law gives
mẍ + kx = 0.
If we define the natural frequency ωn as
r
k
ωn = ,
m
we get the equation of a linear harmonic oscillator

ẍ + ωn2 x = 0.

This is a second order linear differential equation with a general solution

x(t) = A cos(ωn t) + B sin(ωn t).

2.4.2 Vertical spring-mass system

k
x0
equilibrium
position
x
m

Figure 2.2: Vertical spring mass system.

↓
There is no dissipation and therefore the total energy is conserved:

T + V = constant.

The potential energy V is given by

1 x0
V = k(x + x0 )2 − mg(x + ).
2 2
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Modelling and Control of Multibody Mechanical Systems
At equilibrium
−kx0 + mg = 0,
and therefore by substitution
1
V = kx2 .
2
The kinetic energy is given by
1
T = mẋ2 .
2
By conservation of energy
d d 1 1
(T + V ) = ( mẋ2 + kx2 ) = 0,
dt dt 2 2
which gives
mẋẍ + kxẋ = 0.
The governing equation is thus
mẍ + kx = 0.
↑

2.4.3 Spring-damper-mass system

m
c

Figure 2.3: Spring-damper-mass system.

↓
The spring force is given by
Fs = −kx, k > 0,
and the damper force is obtained from
Fd = −cẋ, c > 0.
Use of Newton’s Second Law (Ftotal = mẍ) gives
Fs + Fd = mẍ,
or
mẍ + cẋ + kx = 0.
p
If we define the natural frequency ωn = k/m and the damping ratio ζ = c/(2mωn ) the
equation of motion becomes
ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 x = 0.
It is straightforward to show that the general solution of this equation is
√ √
(−ζ+ ζ 2 −1)ωn t (−ζ− ζ 2 −1)ωn t
x(t) = A1 e + A2 e ,
where A1 and A2 are integration constants and can be found when specific initial conditions are
given. ↑

8
2.4.4 Forced spring-damper-mass system

k
Fext
m
c

Figure 2.4: Forced spring-damper-mass system.

↓
The spring force is given by
Fs = −kx, k > 0,
the damper force is given by
Fd = −cẋ, c > 0,
and the external input that forces the system is Fext . Use of Newton’s Second Law (Ftotal =
mẍ) gives
Fs + Fd + Fext = mẍ,
or
mẍ + cẋ + kx = Fext .
p
If we define the natural frequency ωn = k/m and the damping ratio ζ = c/(2mωn ) the
equation of motion becomes
Fext
ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2 x = .
m
The general solution of this equation is the solution of the unforced system (previous example)
plus the particular solution with the forcing term included.
↑

2.4.5 Double spring-damper-mass system

Fext
k2
k1
m1 m2
c2

x1 x2

Figure 2.5: Forced double spring-damper-mass system.

↓
The total force on mass m1 is given by

F1 = −kx1 − k2 (x1 − x2 ) − c2 (x˙1 − x˙2 ) + Fext ,

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Modelling and Control of Multibody Mechanical Systems
and the total force on mass m2 is given by

F2 = k2 (x1 − x2 ) + c2 (x˙1 − x˙2 ).

Use of Newton’s Second Law on each mass gives

m1 x¨1 = −k1 x1 − k2 (x1 − x2 ) − c2 (x˙1 − x˙2 ) + Fext ,

m2 x¨2 = k2 (x1 − x2 ) + c2 (x˙1 − x˙2 ).

In matrix form the equations become
          
m1 0 ẍ1 c2 −c2 ẋ1 k1 + k2 −k2 x1 Fext
+ + = .
0 m2 ẍ2 −c2 c2 ẋ2 −k2 k2 x2 0

This is of the form

M Ẍ + C Ẋ + KX = F,
where  
x1
X= ,
x2
M is the mass matrix and is given by
 
m1 0
M= ,
0 m2

C is the damping matrix and is given by

 
c2 −c2
,
−c2 c2

K is the stiffness matrix and is given by

 
k1 + k2 −k2
−k2 k2

and F is the force vector and is given by

 
Fext
.
0

We can also define the state vector x as

 
x1
 x2 
 ẋ1  ,
x= 

ẋ2

the input
u = Fext ,
and write the equations of motion in state space form

ẋ = Ax + Bu,

10
where  
0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 
A=
 − mk1 − k2 k2
,
1 m1 m1
− mc21 c2
m1

k2 k2 c2
m2
−m 2 m2
− mc22
and 
0
 0 
 1 .
B= 
m1
0
These equations are linear and in order to solve them we can make use of well developed
techniques.
↑

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Modelling and Control of Multibody Mechanical Systems