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GER-4190

GE Power Systems

Steam Turbine
Thermal Evaluation
and Assessment

Paul Albert
GE Power Systems
Schenectady, NY
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Baseline and Periodic Performance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ASME PTC 6S Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Capacity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Enthalpy Drop Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Evaluation of Performance Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Assessment of Turbine Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Turbine Steam Path Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Advanced Method for Assessing Stage Efficiency Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Loss Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Leakage Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Friction Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Aerodynamic Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Losses Due to Changes in Flow Passage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Steam Path Audit Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Advancements in the Evaluation and Assessment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Performance Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Plant Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ i
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ ii
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Introduction This data, with its associated results, will estab-


lish accurate trends of various performance
For a steam turbine-generator to operate at its
characteristics. The basic theory of the turbine
optimum level of thermal performance, it must
steam path flow, pressure, and temperature
achieve a high initial level of performance and
relationships is reviewed to improve under-
must be able to sustain thermal performance
standing of how these trends can be interpreted
over time. This is best achieved by an ongoing
and used to locate and identify the cause of the
program of evaluation and assessment of ther-
turbine deterioration. Some common causes of
mal performance data. This program has a
turbine deterioration include deposits, solid
three-fold purpose. The first is to detect deteri-
particle erosion, increased clearances in pack-
oration in the thermal performance by trend-
ings and tip spill strips, and foreign object dam-
ing changes in various performance parame-
age.
ters. The second is to identify the cause of per-
formance degradation by proper data evalua- This paper also reviews the value of conducting
tion and interpretation. The third is to develop a turbine steam path evaluation to identify the
cost-effective solutions to correct operational specific components contributing to the loss in
and equipment problems, which are contribut- thermal performance. In addition, this inspec-
ing to the degradation in thermal performance. tion can be used to verify the predictions of tur-
To meet these objectives, a thermal perform- bine conditions from the monitoring program.
ance program should include the following Technological advancements of GE’s
essential factors: Performance Evaluation Services is also dis-
cussed.
■ Obtain baseline performance data on
individual turbines and cycle
components during initial operation
Baseline and Periodic Performance
and after a maintenance outage to Testing
establish a base for identifying specific A performance test conducted in accordance
areas of performance losses with the ANSI/ASME PTC 6-1996 “Steam
■ Periodic acquisition of repeatable Turbine” Code (Reference 1) is an accurate
performance data method of establishing the performance of a
turbine-generator unit. The test requires the
■ Proper evaluation and assessment of
use of highly accurate calibrated instrumenta-
performance data so that
tion and highly controlled measurement proce-
deterioration can be detected, located,
dures. When this code is used to conduct
trended, and corrected in a cost-
Acceptance tests, the uncertainty of the test
effective manner
result is very small. Although this code test pro-
■ Detailed inspection of and vides excellent baseline performance, it gener-
quantification of the expected ally is not economically justifiable for periodic
performance recovery from testing as part of monitoring performance.
restoration of turbine steam path However, the test code is useful in developing a
This paper identifies testing procedures and basic understanding of the required measure-
monitoring activities that are effective for ments and procedures for determining the per-
obtaining and evaluating performance data. formance of a turbine-generator unit.

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 1
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

The value of the analysis of performance test pressure transducer on the primary flow ele-
data greatly depends on the quality of the data. ment should be calibrated prior to the test. In
The use of “Acceptance” test procedures to addition, mechanical station watthour meters
obtain periodic performance results yields the usually have to be read by counting disk revolu-
most accurate test data for analysis and evalua- tions to obtain a precise reading of kilowatt out-
tion. Fortunately, performance monitoring put. Temperatures and pressures at the inlet
does not necessarily require absolute accuracy, and outlet of the HP and IP sections should be
but it demands repeatable data for establishing made with instruments capable of producing
accurate trends of various performance charac- high repeatability.
teristics so simplified procedures can be used. The repeatable determination of the turbine
ASME PTC 6S Report cycle heat rate also depends on cycle isolation.
Since primary flow is measured in the feedwater
The ANSI/ASME PTC 6S Report “Simplified
line, any leakage between the flow measure-
Procedures for Routine Performance Tests of
ment and the turbine stop valve must be elimi-
Steam Turbines” (Reference 2) provides guidance
nated or the test results adjusted accordingly.
in developing procedures to monitor perform-
Otherwise, an erroneous measurement of heat
ance. This procedure provides the necessary
rate will be obtained. Steam and water leakages
data to determine turbine cycle heat rate, kilo-
within the turbine cycle do not affect the meas-
watt capacity, HP and IP section efficiencies,
urement of heat rate, but these leakages can
and turbine stage pressures and flow capacities.
cause a significant loss in the actual heat rate
The essential measurements for ASME PTC 6S and kilowatt capacity.
Report tests are shown in Figure 1. For this test,
like other heat rate tests, the most important Capacity Test
measurements are electrical load and primary When a repeatable measurement of primary
flow, which is usually measured in the feedwater flow cannot be obtained, another practical,
line. To assure repeatability, the differential effective method of trending the performance

V
W
P.T. w 3
Power w Phases A
Transf .
From Reheater
C.T.
From Superheater T
T T
T T P P P T
T
P

P
Generator
H.P. Turb I.P. Turb L.P. Turbine
P
P T T
P P
T T P T
T T P
T T P P P
P P P P P P

To Reheater

Aux.
Turb. To Air
Preheater
To Cond .

Cond.
P P P

T T T
P P P
T T P
T T
To Steam T
T T P T T T T P T
Generator Deaer . ^ T
T T T T T P T

T T T
T Feedwater T T T T
To Superheater Heater ( Typ.)
To Reheater
GT25647

Figure 1. Test instrumentation location for a PTC 6S Test - fossil unit


GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)
■ ■ 2
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

of the turbine-generator unit is to make period-


ic measurements with the turbine control valves HP Section at
he
wide open (VWO). This test, usually referred to ott
le
t Re
P Thr P Ho
as a Capacity Test, determines the generator
output capacity, HP and IP enthalpy drop effi- UE ea
t
AE R eh IP Section
ciency, and turbine stage pressures. Co
ld wl
P
P Bo
In rare cases, when steam generator capacity
UE

ENTHALPY
may be inadequate to drive the unit to a VWO Efficiency =
position at rated pressure, one alternative is to AE
reduce pressure to permit opening all inlet con- LP Section
Sa
trol valves. This procedure is preferred over the tur
ati
on
more demanding method of accurately repro- Lin
e
ducing positions of partially opened control
valves or for correcting results for valve posi- g
3”H
P=
tion.
The Capacity Test, like the simplified heat rate
ENTROPY
test, depends on repeatable measurements of
electrical output and the pressures and temper- Figure 2. Enthalpy Drop Test
atures at the inlet and outlet of the HP and IP couple wells should be located ahead of the tur-
turbine sections. Isolation of the turbine cycle is bine stop valve, ahead of the intercept valve, in
also important because it can significantly affect each cold reheat pipe, and in the crossover or
the electrical output of the unit. low-pressure section bowl. In the cold reheat
Enthalpy Drop Test pipes, the pressure taps should be near the HP
section exhaust connection, and the thermo-
The Enthalpy Drop Test is used frequently for
couple wells should be in the horizontal pipe
monitoring steam turbines. This test involves a
after the first elbow to ensure good mixing
minimum number of instruments, but estab-
before measuring the temperature.
lishes the efficiency of those turbine sections
most susceptible to deterioration. An Enthalpy Duplicate temperature instrumentation should
Drop Test can be conducted on any turbine sec- be used to conduct an Enthalpy Drop Test. This
tion operating entirely in the superheat region, will not only improve the accuracy of the data,
such as the HP and IP sections of fossil reheat but will also detect a faulty temperature meas-
units and the HP section of automatic extrac- urement. When there are two separate steam
tion units. The pressure and temperature ahead leads from the boiler to the turbine, duplicate
of and at the exhaust of the section being tested instrumentation is recommended in each lead.
must be measured. The efficiency of the section
can then be calculated from the ratio of actual Evaluation of Performance Data
to isentropic enthalpy drop. The turbine expan- The effort of obtaining good repeatable test
sion line in Figure 2 illustrates this relationship. data will be lost unless that data is properly eval-
The measurements required to determine the uated. The generator output and turbine cycle
HP and IP turbine section efficiencies are heat rate depends on the operating conditions
shown in Figure 3. Pressure taps and thermo- of the turbine cycle and the performance of the

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 3
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Main Steam Main Reheat


Steam

T T T T
T P P T T P P T
Stop & Intercept
Stop Valves Valves P

Control Valve Chest Intermediate T


P
T
Pressure
Turbine

LP Turbine
Cold Reheat P
Steam T T P P

High Pressure
Turbine
T T
Extraction
Steam

Extraction
Steam

Figure 3. HP & IP efficiency measurement locations

many individual equipment components. If the ■ Reheat temperature


test results indicate that heat rate has deterio- ■ Reheater pressure drop
rated or the maximum electrical capacity of the
■ Condenser vacuum
unit has changed, any of the following condi-
tions could be contributing factors: Heat rate and generator electrical output must
be corrected for these operating conditions
■ Turbine steam flow using correction factor curves normally provid-
■ Efficiency of the turbine steam path ed in the unit's thermal kit. Figure 4 is a sample
■ Available energy of the turbine (i.e., of a correction curve. Variations in throttle
steam conditions) pressure and temperature also change mass
flow due to their effect on the specific volume
■ Performance and operation of the
of steam. This effect is typically combined with
balance of plant components
the available energy effect in the relevant cor-
To assess the turbine condition and its contri- rection factors. Keep in mind that these correc-
bution to any deterioration in thermal per- tions also represent an accounting of perform-
formance, output and heat rate must be cor- ance losses due to operating conditions.
rected for the influence of two non-turbine When assessing the turbine condition, it is nec-
related factors: (1) the available energy of the essary to account for variations in the perform-
turbine and (2) the performance and opera- ance and operation of balance of plant compo-
tion of the balance of plant components. nents, such as feedwater heaters and auxiliary
The available energy of the turbine is affected process flows. Every effort should be made to
by variations in the following operating condi- eliminate or minimize flows which might vary
tions: due to seasonal changes or other causes. A
thermal model program or valid correction
■ Throttle pressure curves can be used to correct for cycle or bal-
■ Throttle temperature ance of plant changes.

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 4
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

6
1/4 Load
% change kilowatt load % increase 1/2 Load
5 Rated Load

Method of Using Correction Curves


3

These correction factors assume


2
constant control valve opening and
are to be applied to heat rates and
1 kilowatt load at specified steam
conditions.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

% change in pressure (1) The heat rate at the specified


condition can be found by dividing
1
the heat rate at test condition by the
following:
2

3 % change in gross heat rate


1+
100
4
(2) The kilowatt load at the specified
condition can be found by dividing
5 the kilowatt load at test conditions by
% decrease the following:
6

% change in kW load
% change in heat rate
2 1+
% increase
100
1
% change in pressure
+1 +2 +3 +4 +5
-5 -4 +3 -2 -1 0
Rated Load
1/2 Load
1 1/4 Load GT 25649
% decrease

Figure 4. Throttle pressure correction for single reheat units

The generic correction curves from the ASME trend in heat rate and/or generator output can
PTC 6S Report test code for the more signifi- be used to assess the turbine condition. Steam
cant cycle changes are listed below: flow and steam turbine efficiency are the two
■ Final feedwater temperature relevant factors which must now be considered.
If the efficiencies of the superheated turbine
■ Auxiliary extractions
■ Main steam attemperation .8

■ Reheat steam attemperation .7


Load Correction

Reheat Steam Desuperheat


■ Condensate sub-cooling
.6

■ Condenser make-up
% Correction for 1% Desuperheating Flow

.5

A sample correction curve is presented in


.4
Figure 5.
Occasionally, it may be necessary to make cor- .3

rections for out-of-service feedwater heaters or .2


Heat Rate Correction
Reheat Steam Desuperheat
for cycle leakages. These effects can best be cal-
.1
culated by heat balance calculations, but often Load Correction Main Steam Desuperheat

Heat Rate Correction Main Steam Desuperheat


can be adequately estimated by simplified cal- 0 Heat Rate Correction Main Steam Desuperheat
75 100
Test VWO Throttle Flow %
culations which consider first order effects. A
% desuperheating flow is % of throttle flow
rigorous program should be in place to identify, Desuperheating flow supply is from BFP
Apply corrections at constant main steam & reheat temperatures
quantify, and eliminate cycle leakages because Corrected HR = Test HR/D
Corrected Load = Test Load/D
they typically affect the thermal performance of 50

the plant by more than one percent during nor-


where D = 1+
( %Corr
100 )
X % Desuperheating Flow

mal operation. Figure 5. Correction for main steam and reheat


Once these corrections have been made the steam desuperheating flow

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 5
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

sections have been established, a change in effi- wide-open flow (at rated throttle pressure and
ciency can be expressed in terms of a change in temperature) or a pressure ratio, such as first
heat rate and generator output. Some typical stage pressure divided by throttle pressure. The
values for the percent change in heat rate for a upper curve represents a partial arc or partial-
one-percent change in section efficiencies for a admission unit with the first stage nozzles divid-
single reheat unit are: ed into four separate nozzle arcs, each being
HP turbine = 0.17 supplied with steam from its own control valve.
The lower curve represents full arc or single
IP turbine = 0.12 to 0.25
admission with all control valves connected into
IP and LP turbine = 0.72 a common chamber ahead of the first stage noz-
For non-reheat and industrial turbines with zles. Both curves demonstrate the significant
more than one turbine section, the effect on effect of valve position on HP efficiency and the
overall performance due to a change in the effi- need for testing at valve positions, which can be
ciency of one section can be estimated by mul- set repeatedly and held constant for the test.
tiplying that change by the proportion of total
Assessment of Turbine Conditions
unit power produced in that section.
The proper interpretation of test results can
The turbine efficiency characteristics must be
lead to an assessment of the internal condition
understood in order to compare test results to
of the turbine which can assist in prioritizing
design or to previous test results. For example,
maintenance activities. There may be indica-
Figure 6 illustrates the efficiency characteristics
tions of mechanical damage in a turbine sec-
of an HP turbine section in a fossil unit applica-
tion, deposits or solid particle erosion.
tion.
Knowledge of the turbine characteristics is nec-
An HP turbine achieves its best efficiency with essary to understand why the performance has
all control valves wide open (VWO) and, as the changed.
control valves are closed (or throttled), the effi-
Maximum generator output is directly affected
ciency decreases. The parameters usually used
by changes in the efficiencies of the various tur-
to represent valve position are a percent of valve
bine sections and changes in the flow capacity
of the first three or four stages of the high-pres-
Locus of Valve
Best Points sure turbine. Changes in the flow capacity of fol-
lowing stages may indicate a physical change in
the steam path and consequential effects on
Partial
Arc Full Arc local steam path efficiency. A change in the flow
HP Turbine capacity of the turbine or the flow capacity of a
Efficiency
particular turbine stage is reflected in the stage
pressure, temperature, and flow relationship.
VWO Section 6 of the ASME PTC 6S Report contains
a detailed discussion of these turbine character-
Percent Flow 100
istics. For all turbine stages except the first and
last stage, the stage pressure ratios are essential-
P1ST/PT
ly constant and the basic flow equation simpli-
Figure 6. HP turbine efficiency fies to:

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 6
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

W = KACq √ P / v (1) the stage. However, the flow function is not pro-
where: portional to the area change as implied in the
equation. It is important to note that the deri-
W = Flow to the following stage
vation of the flow function equation is based on
K = A constant a constant pressure ratio across the stage. When
A = Nozzle area the effective flow area of a stage changes, the
Cq = Coefficient of discharge stage pressure ratio also changes. Thus the rela-
tionship of the flow capacity to nozzle area is
P = Inlet stage pressure
somewhat more complex. Figure 7 shows the
v = Specific volume at stage inlet flow capacity change that can be expected for a
The equation can be rearranged as: change in nozzle area of an impulse-type tur-
W / √ P / v = KACq (2) bine. For example, a 10% reduction in the noz-
zle area of the first stage would reduce the max-
From the equation of state of an ideal gas
imum capacity of the unit by about 3%.
(Pv = RT) the equation can be arranged as:
Since the Capacity Test does not provide a
repeatable measure of the primary steam flow,
W / P √ 1/R * T = KACq (3) the flow function cannot be calculated. An
option is to trend turbine stage pressures. As
where: shown by equation 1, the steam flow divided by
the absolute pressure ahead of a stage is pro-
R = Universal gas constant
portional to the effective area of the following
T = Inlet stage temperature stage, provided that the temperature remains
This equation states that the flow function constant. For a constant valve position and con-
(W / √ P/v) is related to the flow passage area stant inlet steam conditions, a change in a tur-
of the stage (A) and the design and condition bine stage pressure indicates either a change in
of the stage passage (Cq). In more general the effective area downstream of the stage or a
terms, the flow function relates to the steam change in the flow capacity of the unit.
path condition. If a particular stage flow func- To use the trend of turbine stage pressures to
tion has changed, then the downstream condi- predict the internal condition of the turbine,
tion of the turbine steam path must have the stage pressures during the test must be cor-
changed. This is a powerful diagnostic tool in rected to reference steam conditions. The first
identifying damage, deposits, erosion or other stage pressure observed during a test on the HP
problems which have affected a group of stages section of a reheat turbine, or the pressure for
within the turbine steam path. If the effective any stage on a non-reheat turbine, should be
flow area of a stage increases due to erosion or corrected to reference conditions by the follow-
other problems, the flow function will also ing equation:
increase. Some problems, such as deposits,
Pc = Po * Pd / Pt (4)
cause a reduction in the effective area of stage
and a corresponding decrease in the flow func- where:
tion. Pc = Corrected pressure for plotting
The flow function can be used to recognize that Po = Measured stage or shell pressure
a change has occurred in the effective area of

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 7
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

2 STG 1

STG2

STG3
STG4
1

2 4 6 8 10

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2
CHANGE IN NOZZLE AREA (PERCENT)

-1
STG 4

STG 3
-2

STG 2

-3
STG 1

CHANGE IN CAPACITY (PERCENT) GT 25687

Figure 7. Effect of change in nozzle area on flow capacity for impulse-type turbines

Pt = Test throttle pressure where:


Pd = Design, or reference, throttle pressure vd = Design, or reference throttle
specific volume
When an extraction for feedwater heating is
taken from an intermediate stage in the HP tur- vt = Test throttle specific volume
bine section, the measured stage or shell pres- vtr = Specific volume at test temperature
sure should also be corrected using the same and test pressure at inlet to
equation. Although not theoretically accurate, intercept valves
this correction is a very close approximation.
vdr = Specific volume at design reheat
For stage or shell test pressures at or following
temperature and test pressure
the inlet to the reheat section of the turbine,
at inlet to intercept valves
and for the exit from the last stage of the HP
section, additional corrections must be made Wrhs = Reheat spray flow to the boiler
for variations in throttle temperature, reheat
Wrhb = Reheat bowl flow
temperature, and reheat spray flow to the boil-
er. The correction equation to be used is: Once the turbine stage pressures are standard-
ized, the percent difference from a reference or
Pc = Po * (Throttle pressure and
design value should be calculated. Then the
temperature correction)
values can be plotted vs. chronological test
* (Reheat temp. correction) dates as shown in Figure 8. The percent change
* (Reheat spray correction) in other performance parameters such as heat
rate, generator output, section efficiencies, flow
Pc = Po * √ ((Pd * vt) / (Pt * v d))
function, etc., can all be plotted on similar
* √(vdr/vtr) * (1 - (Wrhs/Wrhb)) (5) graphs.

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


■ ■ 8
Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

% Departure from Reference


Initial

Plus
Test
Date
0
Minus

GT 25688
Test Dates
Figure 8. Pressure or capability curve vs. chronological test dates

Turbine Steam Path Evaluation The steam path evaluation should categorize
the identified stage performance losses into six
The interpretation of the results of perform-
components: excess diaphragm packing leak-
ance monitoring activities can be used to iden-
age loss, excess radial tip spill strip leakage loss,
tify turbine internal problems causing a deteri-
nozzle recoverable and unrecoverable losses,
oration in performance, and assist in planning
and bucket recoverable and unrecoverable loss-
maintenance required to address the problems.
es. Recoverable losses are defined as those that
However, to restore performance during a tur-
can be recovered by cleaning, dressing, repair
bine maintenance outage, the turbine compo-
of the components, or replacement of clear-
nents contributing to the performance loss
ance controls. The unrecoverable loss is that
need to be identified. This can best be done by
part of the performance loss that can only be
conducting a turbine steam path evaluation.
recovered by replacement with new compo-
A steam path evaluation should include a nents, such as new diaphragms or buckets.
detailed visual inspection of the steam path
Advanced Method for Assessing Stage
components and clearance measurements of
the packings; and tip spill strips. The visual Efficiency Losses
inspection should evaluate and quantify the Most steam path audit thermodynamic evalua-
performance impact of degradation effects tions performed in the past were based on con-
such as erosion, deposits, damage, peening, etc. sideration of steam path components and tur-
Clearance measurements at multiple circumfer- bine sections as discrete entities. The complex
ential positions of the diaphragm packings, tip interplay of the effect of observed losses on a
radial spill strips, and end shaft packings should given stage upon another stage was more diffi-
be used to quantify the effect of increased clear- cult to discern. With the capability of a PC it is
ances. With this information, decisions can be now possible to employ the capabilities of more
made based on the economics associated with sophisticated analysis programs that were, in
the repair and replacement of turbine compo- the past, only available on a mainframe com-
nents, and the priority of necessary repair work. puter. Advanced methods being used consider

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00) ■ ■ 9


Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment
not only the effect of the observed component Loss Mechanisms
losses on the steam path efficiency, but also the
Stage efficiency losses may be caused by a num-
interaction between these complex loss mecha-
ber of reasons, such as deposits, solid particle
nisms. In other words, the feedback effect of the
erosion (SPE); foreign object damage (FOD),
observed losses can now be calculated in
rubbed or damaged packings, or rubbed or
greater detail and with greater accuracy.
damaged spill strips. Regardless of the causes
GE has introduced a new tool for assessing the leading to losses, stage efficiency losses may be
loss mechanisms that are evaluated during a quantified by sorting the losses into one of the
Steam Path Audit. This new tool is called SPA following four categories:
2000, and is a PC-based program that uses a
■ Leakage loss
stage-by-stage calculation to analyze the per-
■ Friction loss
formance of a turbine section. This program,
which is a user-friendly version of the same ■ Aerodynamic loss
analysis program used by GE design engineers, ■ Loss caused by changes in flow passage
is calibrated based on many years of field test areas
data and GE lab test data. It is the most accurate
These losses prevent the efficient transfer of the
tool available to the auditor for the prediction
energy into shaft work as the steam is expanded
of turbine section performance and flow capac-
through a turbine stage.
ity. SPA 2000 is used for obtaining input of
design data and inspection data, as well as for Leakage Losses
reporting stage and turbine performance out- In order for a turbine to produce shaft power,
put data. Additional input parameters have steam must pass through both the nozzle and
been added to allow the auditor to input specif- bucket flow passages. Steam bypassing either
ic component losses observed on the nozzle the nozzles and/or buckets due to diaphragm
and bucket profiles. interstage packing leakage, bucket root leakage
SPA 2000 is a FORTRAN-based program that or bucket tip radial spill strip leakage, will not
uses a closed system for making comprehensive produce kilowatts. It may also disrupt the flow
performance calculations, including the follow- through the nozzles and buckets in such a way
ing: as to further decrease turbine shaft output.
Leakage losses are caused by increased clear-
■ Nozzle and bucket efficiency
ances between the rotating and stationary com-
■ Flow passing capability
ponents. These increased clearances are caused
■ Leakage flow calculations by rubbing between components, solid particle
■ Rotation losses erosion or foreign object damage. The amount
of the loss will be a function of the amount of
■ Carryover loss between stages
the leakage flow. The amount of leakage flow is
■ Supercritical and wet expansions
a function of the clearance (leakage) area, the
■ Partial arc stages geometry of the leakage path, and the pressure
■ Moisture loss drop (pressure ratio) across the component
that the leaking steam is bypassing. Equations
■ Idle bucket loss
can be used for the discrete calculation of leak-
■ Non-uniform discharge pressure
age flow through an interstage diaphragm pack-
■ Governing stage calculation ing, or a tip or root spill strip. However, this

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

does not account for the effect of the increased side), the orientation, the size, and the geome-
leakage on the energy distribution on the stage try of the projections on the airfoil surface. It is
or the consequence of it on the downstream customary when evaluating friction losses to
stage. For example, if there is excess root clear- divide the airfoil into three regions: leading
ance on a diaphragm spill strip, there will be an edge, suction side trailing edge, and pressure
increase in the flow entering or leaving the side trailing edge. Nozzle suction side rough-
steam path, which, in turn, affects the root reac- ness affects stage efficiency approximately three
tion of the stage and the amount of flow which times more than pressure side roughness. The
passes through the bucket dovetail hole or the leading edge roughness will have the greatest
wheel hole. Similarly, if additional leakage flow contribution to stage efficiency loss occurring
is calculated over the tip spill strip of a bucket, on the bucket. Bucket leading edge suction side
the tip reaction of the stage will also be affected, roughness affects stage efficiency approximate-
which affects the energy distribution on the ly two times more than pressure side roughness.
stage as well as on the stage immediately down- Also, because of the higher-pressure drop
stream. The stage-by-stage analysis program uti- through the nozzles relative to the buckets on
lized by SPA 2000 calculates the various leakage an impulse design stage, approximately 75% of
flows in the steam path based on all of the meas- a stage efficiency loss caused by surface rough-
ured clearances during the audit. Furthermore, ness is attributed to the nozzles. Figure 9 shows
the complex interplay of the increase or the approximate loss in stage efficiency as a
decrease in any of these flows relative to the function of surface finish for GE steam tur-
design case for each stage is determined. bines. This information is separated by turbine
section. Since higher Reynolds Numbers are
Friction Losses found in the High-Pressure section (smaller
Stage efficiency losses due to an increase in the boundary layer), the smaller the projections
measurable roughness of a nozzle partition or have to be in order to avoid an increase in fric-
bucket vane surface will be a function of the tion loss. This plot assumes a 63 micro-inch fin-
ratio of the height of the projections to the ish for the as-built surface finish of the parti-
thickness of the boundary layer, and whether tions. Common causes for friction losses
this flow is laminar or turbulent (Reynolds include deposits and foreign object damage.
Number). The thinner the boundary layer Although the Steam Path Audit inspection
(higher Reynolds Number), the more signifi- requires an evaluation of the surface roughness
cant the friction loss becomes, even for small on each of the turbine components, as well as
projections. Projections are caused by contami- the location of particular grades of roughness,
nates in the steam which deposit on the surface the SPA 2000 program only requires the auditor
of the partitions. Projections are also caused to assess the roughness on the particular com-
when foreign particles collide against partition ponent, and not to evaluate the roughness on a
surfaces, leaving behind small indentations in stage based on an assumed level of reaction for
these surfaces. Quantifying friction losses in the stage. Because other loss mechanisms may
steam turbine airfoils is a complex topic, which affect the stage reaction and the energy distri-
is further explained in Reference 3. Many factors bution on the stage, the effect of increased
contribute to the amount of this loss. Such fac- roughness on a component may have a more or
tors include the location (suction vs. pressure less severe effect on the stage efficiency than if

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

L.P. Turbine

2
Loss in Stage Efficiency (Percent)

I.P. Turbine
4

500 Mw Unit
200 Mw Unit H.P. Turbine
6

8 16 32 63 125 250 500


8
Surface Finish, Micro-Inches C.L.A. (Flow Across Cut)
16 32 63 125 250 500 1000
Surface Finish, Micro-Inches C.L.A. (Flow With Cut)
900 600 400 240
10
Emery Grade

0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Equivalent Sand Grain Size (Mils)

Figure 9. Approximate loss in stage efficiency as a function of surface roughness

the roughness is applied as discrete loss in stage zle throat widths. HP and IP turbine section
efficiency relative to the stage in a new and diaphragms are designed with nozzle trailing
clean condition with all other geometrical edge thickness in the range of 15 to 25 mils,
parameters equivalent to their design values. depending on the stage. The most common
causes of off-angle losses are due to erosion of
Aerodynamic Losses nozzle trailing edges and poor quality repairs.
As previously mentioned, turbine nozzle and When nozzle trailing edges become eroded, the
bucket profiles and geometry are designed so nozzle trailing edges decrease until, when
that steam accelerating through nozzle passages enough material is lost, pieces of trailing edges
can be redirected onto the buckets at optimum begin to break off. When this occurs the trailing
entrance angles and velocities. Any changes to edge thickness will increase and the off-angle
nozzle and/or bucket profiles will change the losses will increase. Diaphragm repairs which
entrance and/or exit steam angles, increasing increase nozzle trailing edge thickness above
the aerodynamic losses within a stage. These the design thickness will also increase the
factors are critical considerations when repairs amount of off-angle losses. The SPA 2000 pro-
are made to these components. gram uses the loss curves presented in Figure 10,
but it is only necessary for the auditor to input
Three critical parameters which should be rou-
the design and measured trailing edge thick-
tinely inspected during the Steam Path Audit to
ness for each diaphragm and the program will
quantify these “off-angle” steam losses include
automatically calculate the loss (or gain) in effi-
nozzle trailing edge thickness, nozzle throat
ciency on the turbine stage, and its associated
widths, and bucket leading edge profiles. Figure
affect on the inlet conditions to the down-
10 shows a plot of stage efficiency loss as a func-
stream stage.
tion of trailing edge thickness for different noz-

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00) ■ ■ 12


Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Nozzle Trailing Edge Thickness Loss stant valve position. Deposits in the nozzle
Percent of Nozzle Efficiency
throat area will decrease the efficiency as well as
Percent Nozzle Efficiency Loss the flow passing capability (and therefore kilo-
10

0.045 watt capability) of the unit, while erosion of noz-


9
zle flow passages will decrease the efficiency but
8
increase the turbine's flow passing capability.
0.035
7
However, with the introduction of the SPA 2000
6 program, the geometry specific to the steam
5
0.25 path is used to calculate the flow passage
through the turbine stages and a more accurate
4
prediction of the flow capacity of the unit can
3 0.015
be determined. This analysis also includes the
2 effect of the change in the stage flow coeffi-
1 cients due to the presence of the observed loss
0
mechanisms, such as steam path erosion or
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
deposits on the turbine stages.
Nozzle Throat - Inches
SPE damage to the turbine steam path can also
Figure 10. Estimated loss in stage efficiency for
result in secondary cycle losses caused by
different trailing edge thickness
changes in section efficiencies and stage pres-
Losses Due to Changes in Flow sures. For example, higher-than-design cold
reheat temperatures (caused by erosion in the
Passage Areas
HP section) may necessitate the need for reheat
If the flow passage area of a stage changes, the attemperation. First reheat stage erosion will
initial pressure into that stage must change in reduce cold reheat pressure, resulting in a
order to pass a constant steam flow. This change lower pressure to the final feedwater heater and
in the initial pressure will change the amount of thus a reduced final feedwater temperature
available energy to the stage, which in turn will when the turbine extraction to the top heater is
affect the efficiency of the stage. Changes to at the reheat point. First reheat stage erosion
flow passage areas are commonly caused by will also reduce the reheat bowl pressure, thus
deposits (area reduction), erosion (area increasing the velocity through the reheater
increase), or mechanical damage (area reduc- and the reheater pressure drop.
tion or increase). An approximate rule of
thumb for an impulse-type stage is a 10% Steam Path Audit Reporting
increase in nozzle throat area will result in a 3% Immediately following the conclusion of the
stage efficiency loss for a stage other than a con- steam path audit, a preliminary report is pre-
trol stage. pared which contains the thermodynamic and
In addition to the effects on stage efficiency, structural evaluations of the audit so that the
changes in stage areas will also affect the flow findings and recommendations can be incorpo-
passing capability of the turbine. This will in rated and implemented in a timely fashion dur-
turn have an additional effect on the kilowatt ing the outage period. The performance or
generating capability of the turbine for a con- thermodynamic evaluation portion of a Steam

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Path Audit report, using SPA 2000, will include ■ Color photographs of steam path
the following information:
Photos of the major components and each stage
■ Background information on unit which is inspected are made using either tradi-
inspected tional photography or employing the latest in
■ Efficiency appraisal evaluation digital camera technology. Digital photography
summary (see Figure 12) allows the auditor to make a quick
review of the quality of the photographs. This
■ Tabular breakdown of losses
format makes the photos easily available via e-
1. End shaft packings and snout rings.
mail to GE turbine experts who are not present
2. Recoverable losses for each section at the site. This enhances the comprehensive
showing losses by component (on analysis that is presented to the customer in a
each stage inspected). report-out at the conclusion of the audit.
3. Unrecoverable losses for each
section showing losses by Advancements in the Evaluation and
component (on each stage
inspected). (See Figure 11.)
Assessment of Data
The prior section explained the value of an
■ Graphical presentation of results
Advanced Steam Path Audit (SPA 2000) during
1. Recovered losses for each turbine a steam turbine maintenance outage.
section inspected (pie charts). Advancements are also ongoing for acquiring,
2. Summary of losses by stage and type evaluating, and assessing thermal performance
(bar charts). of operating power plants. To deliver more cus-
3. Summary of losses by stage for each tomer value, the focus of advancement is on
major component, i.e., bucket, automation, remote access for timely diagnostic
nozzle, tip leakage, root leakage assistance, and expansion of expertise to cover
(bar charts). the entire power plant.

Figure 11. Overall summary of losses

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

Figure 12. Digital photography

Performance Monitoring mize overall plant profitability at any given time


and operating conditions. The On-Line
Performance Monitoring is an ongoing diag-
Optimizer uses real time data, allowing opera-
nostic activity coupled with software tools that
tors to determine how best to adjust control-
allow the collection and presentation of data.
lable parameters to maximize profit. The Off-
Preliminary interpretation of the data can be
Line Module simulates the plant performance
performed automatically. A detailed review and
based upon specific user inputs to the heat bal-
determination of data requires periodic review
ance model.
by an engineer and/or plant operator. GE now
offers performance monitoring products for The Data Module consists of an embedded
steam turbines / gas turbines / combined cycle Plant Information (PI™) System by OSI
plants which have a suite of related modules Software, Inc., which communicates measured
that provide on-line plant performance moni- tag values from the plant DCS and serves as
toring. The performance monitor powered by EfficiencyMaps’ historian.
GE Enter Software’s EfficiencyMap and Gate Plant diagnostic assistance, remote software
Cycle software provide real-time guidance to support and consulting services are provided
plant owners and operators with four modules. upon request by experienced GE Enter
The On-line Heat Balance Module validates and Software engineers and experienced GE ther-
reconciles measured data from the plant to mal performance engineers. With the cus-
allow operators to conserve mass and energy tomer’s permission, data and results can easily
around each of the major components. be communicated to GE’s Monitoring and
Diagnostic center in Atlanta, GA.
The Performance Module calculates plant and
component efficiencies, and resulting equip- Plant Evaluations
ment degradation. GE is now positioned to leverage EER's* fossil
The Optimizer Module recommends the opti- boiler thermal and emission expertise along
mum plant equipment configuration to maxi- with GE's steam turbine cycle thermal perform-

GE Power Systems GER-4190 (10/00)


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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

ance expertise to deliver a Total Plant ing methods for periodic data acquisition, inter-
Evaluation Service. This service enables the cus- pretation of performance data, inspection of
tomer to make cost-effective business decisions the turbine steam path, monitoring the per-
to improve plant efficiency or increase plant formance of your steam turbine and evaluating
electrical output capacity. This service begins by the total plant. These programs are essential in
gathering plant design data to understand the order to achieve and maintain the highest level
expected performance and operating con- of thermal performance of a turbine-generator
straints of a plant. Next, performance engineers unit.
visit the plant to gather performance data and
GE continues to look for better ways to service
to gain a first-hand understanding of the oper-
customers by improving the thermal efficiency
ating requirements and limitations. A detailed
and kilowatt capacity of power plants. Today’s
assessment is completed to identify loss per-
internet and e-Business technology is under
formance and recommend about operational
development to better compare unit perform-
changes or maintenance actions to recover per-
ance with fleet data and quickly assess pertinent
formance. The study can also include a thermal
information.
model study of equipment uprates/upgrades or
cycle modifications for improving plant effi-
References
ciency or kilowatt capacity.
1. ANSI/ASME PTC 6-1996, “Steam Turbines”.
* EER Energy and Environmental Research
Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of 2. ANSI/ASME PTC 6S Report - 1974,
General Electric Company “Simplified Procedures for Routine
Performance Tests of Steam Turbines”.
Summary
3. Forster, V.T., “Performance Loss of Modern
Over the next few years, becoming the “low- Steam Turbine Plant Due to Surface
cost” power producer will be increasingly Roughness”, The Institution of Mechanical
important. Power plant owners can make a sig- Engineers Proceedings, 1966-67, vol. 181,
nificant contribution toward achieving this goal Part I, Number 17, England.
by implementing a well-organized perform-
ance-diagnostic program, which will reduce fuel
Acknowledgements
costs and facilitate cost-effective maintenance.
Marriner, Brian W., “Advanced Method for
This paper has presented some of the latest
Analyzing Steam Path Audit Data”. Presented at
advancements used for evaluating and assessing
Power-Gen International Conference 1999.
the performance of your steam turbine, includ-

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

List of Figures
Figure 1. Test instrumentation location for a PTC 6S Test - fossil unit
Figure 2. Enthalpy Drop Test
Figure 3. HP & IP efficiency measurement locations
Figure 4. Throttle pressure correction for single reheat units
Figure 5. Correction for main steam and reheat steam desuperheating flow
Figure 6. HP turbine efficiency
Figure 7. Effect of change in nozzle area on flow capacity for impulse-type turbines
Figure 8. Pressure or capability curve vs. chronological test dates
Figure 9. Approximate loss in stage efficiency as a function of surface roughness
Figure 10. Estimated loss in stage efficiency for different trailing edge thickness
Figure 11. Overall summary of losses
Figure 12. Digital photography

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Steam Turbine Thermal Evaluation and Assessment

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