57

CHAPTER 3

THE ENERGY SOURCE - NUCLEAR FUSION

REACTORS
''Research can continue the 20-year trend toward greater plasma
confinementtimes,densities and temperatures, leading to the
full set of ignition parameters by the mid-1990s."
Harold P. Furth,
Physics Today
March 1985, page 53

Potential future energy sources were discussed in Chapter 2. The Fusion Energy source was shown to
possess the most desirable characteristics for the base load application. This chapter will address the
nature of the fusion reaction and the equipment used for the production of energy. There are several
types of reactors with promise. These will be described to provide insight into the type of reactor
potentially available as the basis for future energy systems.

THE FUSION REACTION

Energy is released by nuclear reactions between light atoms at temperatures of millions of degrees.
This process is called thermonuclear fusion because high temperatures cause light nuclei to fuse
together to produce heavier nuclei. For example, in the center of stars four hydrogen atoms (atomic
number 1) react to produce one atom of helium (atomic number 2). In the nuclear fusion process, the
weight of the hydrogen consumed is more than the weight of the helium atoms produced. The mass
difference is converted to energy. ^^^'

Thermonuclear fusion is the source of energy of most stars including the sun. At the center of the sun,
the high temperature and pressure drive a number of thermonuclear reactions. The majority of the
energy is produced by reactions of four hydrogen nuclei to form one helium nuclei. In this reaction,
0.711% of the mass of the four hydrogen atoms is converted into energy. This does not seem like a
large percentage change, but the energy equivalent of matter given by Einstein's E = mc^ is extremely
large. The conversion of one gram of hydrogen (a United States nickel weighs about 5 grams) to
helium produces as much energy as the combustion of 15 million grams of oil (112 barrels).

Based on the energy produced per liter, the conversion of hydrogen to helium at the center of the sun
proceeds at a relatively slow rate. The large energy production of the sun is the result of the colossal
volume of the core where hydrogen is converted to helium. In earth-based laboratories, using current
technology, it is impossible to produce the combination of temperature and pressure existing at the
core of the sun. Even if it were possible to produce solar conditions in an earth based reactor, the
energy output for a reasonable sized reactor would be small. If the solar conversion of hydrogen to
helium were the only fusion reaction known its use would be beyond current technology. Fortunately,
there are several other thermonuclear reactions with the potential for production of fusion energy on

Bromberg, J. L., "Fusion: Science, Politics and the Invention of a New Energy Source", MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1982
58 An End To Global Warming

earth. These reactions use a variety of hydrogen (deuterium) that was consumed in the core of the sun
in the first milUon years of its Ufe. Today it is only present as a trace constituent of the sun's outer
layers.

Hydrogen is unique among the elements because its isotopes (atoms of identical chemical properties
with different atomic weights) all have separate common names. The name hydrogen is appUed to the
mixture of isotopes found in nature. Hydrogen with an atomic weight of one is accurately called
protium. Hydrogen with an atomic weight of two is called deuterium (or in the vemacular "heavy
hydrogen"). Hydrogen with an atomic weight of three is called tritium. The hydrogen on earth is
composed of 99.985% protium and 0.015% deuterium. Tritium is unstable with a half-Hfe of 12.5
years and exists only in nearly undetectable quantities as a product of cosmic interactions with atoms
of other materials. The reactions of the heavy isotopes of hydrogen useful in producing energy are
defined in Table 3.1.''«

Most current research is probing the use and control of the D + T reaction because it requires the
lowest ignition energy (temperature) and produces the highest ratio of energy return. The disadvantage
to this reaction lies in its production of neutrons that cause induced radioactivity in the structure of the
reactor. Other, more challenging, reactions may be used if the proposed development shows that they
are feasible. The following discussion will concentrate on the D + T reaction because it can be used in
the near term.

Water is about 11% hydrogen. A metric ton of water (one cubic meter) contains 111 kilograms of
hydrogen. The hydrogen in water is 0.0157% deuterium, or 0.0174 kilograms deuterium per metric
ton of water. At first glance, this looks like a small number, but remember a huge amount of energy is
produced by each gram of deuterium. When reacted with tritium the 0.0174 kilograms of deuterium
will produce 1.4 xlO^^ Joules of energy. This is equivalent to about 2500 barrels of oil.

When considered with regard to the amount of water available on earth it is sufficient to provide
energy for many thousands of years. Moreover, deuterium can be separated from the water by
electrolysis. Electrolysis is a simple, efficient process. The other fuel, tritium, is a slighdy radioactive,
electron emitting, isotope of hydrogen with a 12.5 year half-life. Tritium is produced from lithium by
reaction with neutrons.

The requirement for a successful fusion reactor is the production of the proper conditions for the D + T
reaction to occur. The reaction rate must be fast enough to make up for the energy required to start and
maintain the reaction and provide net excess for use as the power output. To achieve a fusion reaction,
the nuclei of the atoms must be forced to collide with enough energy to react. This requires a
temperature of millions of degrees. There must be sufficient reactions in a volume to make up for the
heat loss and provide net excess energy for use. The reaction must continue long enough to be self-
sustaining. '^^' '^°

128
Fowler, T. K. and Post, Richard, "Progress Toward Fusion Power", Scientific American, Vol. 215, No. 6, December 1966, Page 23
129
Chen, Francis F., "The Leakage Problem in Fusion Reactors", Scientific American, Vol. 217, No. 1, July 1967, Page 76
130
Gough, William C. and Eastlund, Bernard J., "The Prospect of Fusion Power", Scientific American, Vol. 224, No. 2, February 1971,
Page 50
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 59

Nuclear fusion reaction -- Symbol definition

D = Deuterium (hydrogen isotope weight 2)

T = Tritium (hydrogen isotope weight 3)
He^ = Helium isotope, weight 3;
He^ = Helium isotope, weight 4;
P = proton
n = neutron
B = Boron isotope, weight 11
keV = energy in units of 1000 electron volts per particle
RATIO = energy produced/particle divided by the energy required to start the reaction

YIELD TEMP. RATIO (Y/T)

Reaction Products KeV KeV
1 D^ + T^ He^ + n^ 17,600 10 1760 1
D^ + D^ He^ + n^ 3,300 50 66
D^ + D^ T' + p^ 4,000 50 80
D + He' He^ + p^ 18,300 100 183
1 P' + B^^ 3He' 8,700 300 29 1
Table 3.1 Nuclear Fusion Reactions

At ordinary temperatures, the electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom serve as a buffer and
prevent the nuclei from colliding and reacting. As the temperature increases collisions become more
violent and ultimately the electrons are stripped from the atoms leaving bare nuclei. This mixture of
bare positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons is called plasma.

In plasma, the positive charged nuclei are strongly repelled from each other by electrostatic forces. At
low temperatures, the repulsion prevents any nuclear reactions. At higher temperatures, the nuclei
move faster and begin to overcome the repulsive forces. When the temperature approaches 100
million Kelvin (at this temperature the average kinetic energy of the particles is about 10 KeV) the
velocity of the nuclei are high enough to overcome the inter-nuclear electrostatic repulsion. At this,
and higher temperatures, they can react when they collide. Sufficient reactions occur, as outUned in
Table 3.1, (above) to keep the mixture hot and provide enough excess energy for external power
generation.

The number of positive and negative charges in the plasma is equal. The overall plasma has no charge
and is termed neutral plasma. The plasma exerts a pressure in the same manner as any confined gas.
Unlike most gas, the large number of electrically charged particles present in the plasma makes it an
exceedingly good conductor of electricity. The high conductivity allows intense electric currents to
flow through the plasma. The electric currents generate strong magnetic fields. The currents and
magnetic fields provide a handle by which the plasma can be manipulated and confined.

To achieve a thermonuclear reaction it is necessary to heat the plasma to the 100 million Kelvin
ignition temperature and contain it for sufficient time that more energy is produced than was used in
60 An End To Global Warming

the heating process. Heating, controlling, and maintaining this plasma is the central challenge in the
production of fusion energy.

To produce a fusion reaction the critical factors are the plasma confinement time, the ion density and
the temperature. When a reactor achieves a product of these three variables greater than 10^^, the
reactor is a net producer of energy. ^^* These factors can be traded against each other in the design of a
reactor. If the confinement time is long, the temperature and density can be low. If the confinement is
short, the temperature and ion density must be high. There are some practical limitations in this
relationship. If the ion density is low, even with a long confinement time at high temperature, the
reaction may produce net power, but at such a low rate per reactor volume that the reactor would be
too large for use. The various reactor schemes strive to produce a combination of temperature, density
and confinement time that will result in a practical reactor design.

MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT REACTORS

The electrical conductivity of plasma allows it to be shaped and controlled by magnetic fields. At
reactor start-up the D and T are heated to a temperature hot enough to strip the electrons from the
atoms and create plasma. A temperature of only 0.015 keV is all that is required to create plasma. This
relatively low temperature can be produced by simple high voltage discharges. The low temperature
plasma of D and T is captured and held in position by strong magnetic fields. To start the
thermonuclear reaction the D-T plasma is heated by external sources until a temperature equivalent to
10 keV is achieved. At this temperature, and above, with long confinement times and adequate
density, the fusion reaction becomes self-sustaining.

The product of the D + T reaction is a helium nucleus, He"^, or alpha particle, and a neutron (n). The
average kinetic energy of the He"^ is 3,500 keV and the n, 14,100 keV. The He"^ has a positive charge
of two. This charge forces it to strongly interact with the plasma. This interaction adds energy to the
plasma. Some helium ions produced by the reaction are lost from the plasma into the surrounding
vacuum and others lose energy by contact with the walls of the reactor. If the losses are not too great,
the interaction of the He"^ ions with the plasma can provide sufficient energy to keep the plasma at the
fusion temperature. The neutron has no charge and passes through the plasma with only shght
interaction. The occasional interactions of the neutrons add a small but valuable bit of heat to the
plasma.

After leaving the plasma, the neutrons interact with the reactor inner wall or the cooUng materials
behind it. The inner wall and the coolant are termed the blanket. When the neutrons react with the
blanket, their energy is deposited as heat. The resulting heat is used in conventional steam generation
to provide process heat for the generation of electricity.

Molten lithium metal is a potential candidate for the coolant to be circulated through the blanket.
Lithium is a light metal with a low melting point (186 degrees Celsius). In the liquid state, it has a
high specific heat and thermal conductivity. These properties make it an excellent heat transfer
material and thus, a good choice as a means of removing heat from the reactor. When lithium is used
in the blanket for heat transfer it also serves as the primary absorber of the 14,100 keV neutrons from
the D + T reaction.

Soures, John M., McCrory, Robert L. and Craxton, R. Stephen, "Progress in Laser Fusion", Scientific American, Vol. 255, No. 2,
August 1986, Page 68
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 61

Lithium is comprised of two isotopes in a ratio of 7.4% lithium 6 to 92.6% lithium 7. Some of the fast
neutrons from the D + T fusion react with a lithium 7 atom and split it into tritium and helium. The
neutron is slowed down by this collision. Some of the slow neutrons then react with lithium 6 to
produce another tritium and helium atom and 4,800 keV more energy. The tritium is extracted from
the liquid lithium blanket for use as fuel.

It is feasible to breed more tritium in a lithium cooled reactor than is used in the reaction. The excess
tritium can be used to start other reactors or in a reactor using some coolant other than lithium that
prevents it from breeding its own tritium. Nature has been kind with the properties of lithium. It is an
excellent choice for transferring heat from the reactor and it is the raw material needed for the
continual production of more fuel. Both these functions can be provided by the use of liquid lithium as
the blanket material. '^^ The isotopic composition of the lithium may be adjusted to provide the proper
balance of lithium 6 and lithium 7 to optimum heat transfer and production of tritium. The lithium can
also be diluted with metallic sodium or potassium to aid in adjusting the tritium production rate.

Achieving a fusion reaction requires control of the 10 keV (100 million Kelvin) plasma. The plasma is
electrically conductive and can be shaped and confined by strong magnetic fields. The ion and
electrons tend to spiral around the magnetic lines of force, but do not move across them. In a linear
machine, magnetic coils around the cylindrical body generate a uniform field parallel to the axis of the
cylinder. The uniform field prevents plasma leakage perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. With a
uniform axial field, plasma can still be lost through the ends. The end loss allows a portion of the
plasma to leak from the reaction zone. If the leakage through the ends is large when compared to the
total plasma, it has the effect of cooling the plasma below the reaction temperature. Two techniques
are used to prevent leakage from the ends.

LINEAR MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT REACTORS

One method of reducing the effects of end leakage is to make the plasma confinement cylinder so long
the total volume is large compared to the leakage at the ends. Unfortunately, to confine the plasma in a
simple magnetic cylinder for sufficient time to generate power, the reactor may need to be so long it is
impractical.

Greatly increasing and shaping the magnetic field strength at the ends of the cylinder reduces the
plasma loss. If the magnetic field is increased to a high value, the ions tend to be reflected from the
high field strength area back toward the relatively lower field strength near the center of the cylindrical
chamber. Because the ions are reflected from the high field strength regions, this type of confinement
is called magnetic mirror confinement. Even with extremely strong fields at the ends, some plasma
still leaks from the reactor.

Part of the leakage from the ends is the result of ions striking the field at an angle too great to be
reflected. Other leakage results from the large difference in mass between the negatively charged
electrons and the positively charged helium, tritium and deuterium ions. The electrons and the ions
have the same thermal temperature, and thus energy. The velocity of the electrons is much higher
because they weigh only 0.0027 as much as a deuterium ion. In a machine with the ends terminating
in an increased strength magnetic field, with the same cylindrical cross section as the main body of the
reactor, the electrons penetrate much deeper into the pinched portion of the magnetic field. The greater

^^^ Coppi, Bruno and Rem, Jan, "The Tokamak Approach in Fusion", Scientific American, Vol. 227, No. 1, July 1972, Page 65
62 An End To Global Warming

penetration of the electrons produces a charge separation and the plasma is no longer neutral. A
charged increment of plasma at the end plug creates an instability causing the mirror effect to fail. The
charge induced mirror failure allows the remainder of the plasma to leak from confinement.

Several schemes for improving the simple pinched magnetic field plug at the ends of the reactor
section are under test. These involve the careful shaping of the cross section and linear shape of the
magnetic field at the ends of the cylindrical section. These concepts have been tested and they show
dramatic improvement in the confinement. Researchers working on the linear machines believe it is
possible to build a fusion power reactor today using the cylindrical section with shaped magnetic field
end plugs. The general outline of the machine would be as follows.

The central cylindrical section surrounded by magnetic field coils will be long, possibly as long as 100
meters. The surface of the cylinder will be fabricated with channels to carry the liquid metal coolant.
Each end of the cylindrical section would be fitted with an electrostatic/ magnetic end cap to prevent
excess leakage of the plasma from the ends. The magnetic field used to confine the plasma would rely
on superconducting coils to minimize the power required to sustain the confinement fields. ^^^' ^^'*' ^^^

A rudimentary diagram is of a linear machine shown in Figure 3.1. It is shown using superconducting
magnets to confine the plasma. Superconductivity is a property shown by many metals and alloys.
Among the most useful for the fabrication of powerful magnets are alloys of niobium, titanium,
vanadium and tin. When these alloys are cooled to the temperature of liquid helium, 4.2 Kelvin, they
lose all resistance to electrical current flow. If an electric current is started in a super conductive coil,
the coil acts much like a permanent magnet. The current flow generates a magnetic field. Since there
is no resistance to the current flow, the current continues and sustains the magnetic field indefinitely.
Super conducting coils are used to generate powerful magnetic fields without the continuous
consumption of energy. '^^' '^^

The requirement for exotic alloys and liquid heHum coolant makes superconducting magnets expensive
to build and complex to operate. In applications where strong magnetic fields are required for
sustained times, such as fusion reactors, their cost is low when compared to the cost of continuously
supplying electric power to room temperature magnets. There is currently much progress in this area
magnet technology. A class of ceramic superconductors has been discovered that Operate at much
higher temperatures. Some of these ceramic superconductors are making it into the demonstration
market. They are being used in short underground runs to supply power where overhead Unes are not
possible. '^^

New types of permanent magnets are available that produced very strong stable magnetic fields
without expending any power. These magnets are an alloy of iron, neodymium and boron. They are
currently applied to replace the superconducting magnets in nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging
machine (MRI) used in medical diagnosis. This technology may allow fusion reactors to be developed
without recourse to liquid helium cooled magnets.

133
Furth, Harold, "Progress Toward Tokamak Fusion Reactor", Scientific American, Vol. 241, No. 2, August 1970, Page 50
134
Conn, Robert W., "The Engineering of Magnetic Fusion Reactors", Scientific American, Vol. 249, No. 4, October 1983, Page 60
135
"Magnetic Fusion Development", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical And Electronic Engineer, Special Issue, 12 articles. Vol.
69, Number 9, August 1981
Bryant, Lynwood, "Advances in Superconducting Magnets", Scientific American, Vol. 216, No. 3, March 1967, Page 114
Wolsky, Alan M., Giese, Robert F., and Daniels, Edward J., "The New Super Conductors: Prospects for Applications", Scientific
American, Vol. 260, No. 2 February 1989, Page 60
Editors, "Superconducting power Cables, at last!". The Economist, Vol. 360, No. 8230, July 14 2001, Page 75
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 63

Liquid lithium will be pumped through the reactor walls where it would absorb the thermal energy and
neutrons generated by the plasma. The neutrons from the reaction will react with the lithium to provide
more tritium fuel. After passing through, and cooling the walls of the reactor, the hot lithium will be
conducted to heat exchangers to generate steam. The steam will be used to generate electric power by
use of conventional steam turbine generators. After it passes through the steam generators, the lithium
will be pumped back through the reactor. At some point in the heat exchange loop, a portion of the
lithium will be diverted through a tritium separation process where the tritium will be recovered for

-TWO MirrER MAN. AT SAME SCALE AS REACTOR

I— DEUTRON ACCELERATOR

ELECTRON ACCELERATOR

UTHIUM COOLANT CHANNELS

later use in the reactor.

Figure 3.1 A Linear Fusion Reactor

Author's notional drawing of a linear reactor

The plasma is confined within the reactor by magnetic mirrors at each end of the cylindrical section.
The mirror concept relies on charged particles of the plasma being reflected or turned back on
themselves by magnetic field gradients at the ends of the cylindrical section. In the seventies research
at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, in Livermore, California, investigated a variety of mirror
magnetic shapes. One example was the tandem mirror machine. It uses linear cyUndrical plasma,
plugged at the ends by magnetic mirrors to prevent the plasma leakage. A mirror fusion facility was
built to test this concept. Unfortunately, the facility was mothballed before testing due to a shortage of
funds. If and/or when these tests are performed, it will establish the laws for scaUng the mirror
confinement concept and provide a basis for comparing mirrors with other types of plasma
confinement schemes. Tandem mirror systems were also under investigation at the University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin and Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

TOROIDAL MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT REACTOR (TOKAMAK)

The second method for the prevention of leakage of ions through the ends of the magnetic confinement
is to eliminate the ends. This is achieved by wrapping the confining magnetic fields up to form a torus
64 An End To Global Warming

(doughnut) shape. This eUminates the ends, but presents a new problem. It is difficult to stabihze a
magnetic field bent into a toroidal shape.

Many of the fusion research machines employ the torus shaped vacuum chamber and magnetic fields.
External magnets are used to generate part of the field that confines the plasma, but much of the
confinement is produced by the magnetic fields induced by electric currents in the continuous ring of
plasma. This ring current not only helps generate the confinement magnetic field but it supplies part of
the energy necessary to heat the plasma. These machines are called Tokamaks, a name given to them
by Russian researchers who were the first to use them in fusion experiments. Fusion research
machines of this type are operating in the United States at Princeton University, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, General Atomics Corporation and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ^^^

The toroidal machines have provided a solution for the leakage of the plasma from the ends of the
reaction volume at the cost of greater instability of the fields and complex physical access problems to
the reaction zone. In the early toroidal machines, powerful electric currents flowing in the plasma ring
generated the magnetic field. This generated a uniform field that wraps around the small diameter of
the plasma like hoops around a barrel. The magnetic field lines were closer together (the field was
stronger) on the inside of the torus than on the outside. This resulted in non-uniform heating of the
plasma and allowed it to leak out from the outer surface of the torus at a high rate. With great
difficulty, external coils were added to produce a twist in the magnetic field. The twisted toroidal
fields improved the plasma confinement. Unfortunately, a combination of complex magnetic field
coils and the piping for heat removal had to be squeezed into the narrow bore in the center of the
toroidal machines. The complexity and lack of space made construction exceedingly difficult.

In the toroidal machines, significant heating can be achieved by generating a large current flow in the
plasma. This technique is simple and efficient for initial heating. Before the plasma reaches fusion
temperature, the electrical resistance becomes so low heating stops. Final ignition temperatures must
be produced by some other method of heating. ^"^ Figure 3.2 shows the International Toroidal
Experimental Reactor (ITER).

A number of methods of heating both linear and toroidal plasma are in test. Energy can be pumped
into the plasma by means of microwave or laser beams. The wavelength of the energy beams must be
carefully selected to achieve good absorption of the energy by the plasma. Additionally, as the plasma
gets hotter the absorption factors change and the beams must be altered to achieve good efficiency.
High intensity sources with the proper wavelength require further development.

Encouraging results have been obtained by a technique called neutral beam heating. This is shown in
the diagram of the linear machine. Figure 3.1. In this technique, a separate particle accelerator
produces an intense beam of deuterium ions. The velocity and thus energy of the deuterium ions in the
beam is equivalent to a temperature much higher than needed for ignition of the D + T reaction. The
beam of charged particles cannot penetrate the magnetic fields confining the plasma because the
charged ions would be scattered by the powerful magnetic fields. To achieve penetration, electrons are
added to the beam to neutralize the charge of the ions. The neutral atoms formed by the combination
of the ion beam and the electrons still have the same effective temperature but can now penetrate the
magnetic field. The neutral beam enters the plasma and its particles collide with the plasma particles.

Furth, Harold P. "Reaching Ignition in the Tokamak", Physics Today, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1985, Page 52
Davidson, D. C. and 7 others, "Soviet Magnetic Confinement Fusion Research", Science Applications International Corporation,
October 1987
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 65

The collision transfers the energy of the beam to the plasma increasing its temperature. The collision
also ionizes the neutral beam particles that then become part of the plasma. Neutral beam heating has
been tested in both linear and toroidal machines. This method appears to provide a method of heating
the plasma to the ignition temperature.

With both Unear and toroidal machines, it is necessary to keep the reacting plasma extremely pure.
Electrons in the plasma are moving at high velocities. As they pass through the plasma, they encounter
the positive charged nuclei repeatedly. Each time the electron passes a nucleus its path is changed and
it releases part of its energy as radiation. This radiation travels to the wall of the reactor where it is
adsorbed. This process tends to cool the bulk plasma. The amount the electron's path is changed is
controlled by the strength of the electric charge on the nuclei. Atoms of high nuclear charge produce
far more radiation heat loss than atoms of small nuclear charge. The losses from the interaction of the
electrons with the D, T, and He nuclei are acceptable, but the loss from impurity atoms such as carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen are unacceptably high. Atoms of metals used in construction, such as iron, cause
catastrophic radiation heat loss. The initial vacuum in the reaction chamber must be of extremely high
quality. Impurities must be continually removed to keep the energy loss from the plasma at an
acceptably low level. This removal process must also remove the helium that is produced by the
reaction. Excess helium can lead to excessive radiation losses.

Much progress has been made in developing methods of maintaining the high purity levels in the
plasma. It is now possible to produce plasma with minimum necessary purity and maintain it for the
duration (a few seconds) of current experiments. On November 7, 1991 near Oxford in the United
Kingdom, the Joint European Torus experiment generated 2 miUion watts of power in two seconds. ^"^^
The demonstration used a blend of 14% tritium with 86% deuterium as fuel. This success clearly
demonstrated the scientific feasibility of the generation of energy from fusion reactions. ^"^^ Refinement
and extension of the techniques used in the research machines will lead to the techniques and hardware
suitable for continuous operations of a base load power plant. ^'^^' ^'^^' As early as 1976 fusion power
plant demonstrations were seriously considered to be feasible. ^"^^

There are a number researchers working to produce or promote magnetically confined fusion reactors.

Those currently active are:

CRPP EPFL Lausanne, Switzerland Fusion Power Associates, Maryland USA

http://crppwww.epfl.ch/ http://www.fusionpower.org/

General Atomics, San Diego USA Georgia Tech Fusion Research Center, Georgia USA
http://fusioned.gat.com/ http://fusion.gat.edu/

Jet Joint Undertaking, United Kingdom Max-Planck-Institut fur Plasmaphysik, Garching Ger.
http://www.jet.uk/tour.html http://www.ipp.mpg.de/

141
http://www.fusion.org.uk/
142
Hamilton, David P, EDITOR "A Fusion First", Science Scope, Science, Vol. 254, No. 5034, November 15, 1991, Page 927
143
Sweet, William, "Super Powers Promote Design Effort for Fusion Demonstration Reactor", Physics Today, January 1988, Page 75
Thomsen, D. E., "Charging Their Way Toward Fusion", Science News, December 21, 1985, Page 389
"Fusion Power by Magnetic Confinement", Prepared by the Division of Magnetic Fusion Energy of the U. S. Energy Research and
Development administration (ERDA-76/110/1 UC-20)
66 An End To Global Warming

NIFS, Toki, Japan Princeton Plasma Physics Lab New Jersey USA
http ://nifs. ac j p/ http://www.pppl. gov/

UKAEA Culham Lab. United Kingdom University of Texas, USA

http://www.fusion.org.uk/ http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/

University of Wisconsin-Madison Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico USA

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/ http://fusionenergy.lanl.gov/

MIT Plasma Science & Fusion Center Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Massachusetts, USA Tennessee USA
http://www.psfc.mit.edu

University of California at Berkeley USA

These studies are examining various aspects of producing fusion energy. They cover a host of
approaches. One interesting alternative uses magnetic fields that are produced only out side the
reactors. ^"^^ This reactor is termed the CFBR and is discussed below in Other Magnetic Confinement
Techniques.

Ongoing research is producing new and useful results. Recently the United States National Fusion
Facility in San Diego (Operated by General Atomics Corporation) announced that they had quadrupled
the rate of fusion in deuterium plasma. "'^^ They attempted to increase the stability and lifetime of the
plasma by causing it to spin around the axis of the Tokamak reactor. They found that they could spin
the plasma and that spinning increased stability. They also found that the plasma spin tended to slow
down at an undesirable rate. Further analysis showed that small variations in the smoothness of the
magnetic fields were the cause of the slowing. By detecting these small variations and correcting them
in real time, the plasma spin did not slow down. The long duration spin stabilized the plasma and
allowed a significantly increase the plasma pressure and temperature. The smoothing of the magnetic
field required very little power because the variations were small. There is good reason to expect this
technique will be useful in all magnetic confinement fusion reactors.

Power plant size will be a major factor in the implementation of fusion energy. Very large machines
can function with less intense magnetic fields. Low intensity fields can be operated with less stringent
control. Large size provides more room for the placement and access of support equipment such as
heat exchangers, magnetic field coils, impurity removal equipment, external heating equipment,
vacuum pumps and reactor support structures. The workers involved with both the linear and toroidal
machines agree, using today's knowledge it is possible to design a large reactor that will produce
power at practical efficiencies. The sizes projected for the operational reactors are in the range of
30,000 to 50,000 Megawatts electrical (MWe), much larger than the 300 to 2,000 MWe of current
power stations. The developers of the fusion reactors have seen this large size as a barrier to the near-
term implementation of fusion power. In Chapter 6, we will show this large size is not a barrier, but is
highly advantageous and will allow these large reactors to serve as the backbone of the future power
system.

http://ftision.ps.uci.edu/beam/introb.html
Samuel, Engenie, "Here Comes The Sun", New Scientist, Vol. 171, No. 2299, July 14, 2001, Page 4
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 67

Figure 3.2 The ITER Tokamak Reactor

Picture Down-Loaded from ITER Web Site

OTHER MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT TECHNIQUES

A spherical configuration of a tokomak has shown significant advantages over the design used in
ITER. It is not clear if the advantages will remain when this type of reactor is scaled to larger sizes.
Another alternate magnetic confinement scheme is under investigation with funding from the Office of
Naval Research. The University of California, Irvine, the University of Florida, Gainesville and the
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee are members of the team. They hope to
demonstrate a "Reverse Field" confinement that will permit the use of the boron + proton reaction.
They call it the Colliding Beam Fusion Reactor (CBFR). Such a reactor would be a very desirable
break through because the boron-proton reaction produces no radioactivity. These reactors also use a
68 An End To Global Warming

linear configuration. They would superficially be similar to the drawing shown in Figure 3.1. During
the initial research phase of the program suggested in Chapter 9, the CBFR should be given much
attention. It would offer a fusion reactor with very low radiation hazard. The presence of side
reactions may produce a small number of neutrons but the promise is a reactor that will be radiation
free and easy and low cost to decommission.

INERTIAL CONFINEMENT REACTORS

Inertial confinement reactors will likely use the same D and T fusion reaction as proposed for the
magnetic confinement machines. Magnetic confinement reactors operate at low pressures and
densities and confine the plasma with magnetic fields for a relatively long time. Inertial confinement
reactors operate at high densities and attempt to create the reaction in a very short time; a time so short,
that a significant portion of the deuterium and tritium react before expansion cools the mixture enough
to stop the reaction. The reacting plasma is confined by its own inertia. As with the magnetic
confinement reactors there are several different techniques under investigation.

Of these techniques laser driven implosions have received the most attention. In this technique, a
small sphere of deuterium and tritium is frozen solid at about 10-15 Kelvin. A group of powerful
lasers capable of short pulses is focused symmetrically on the sphere. With the sphere at the proper
location, the lasers are pulsed. The laser energy converges on the sphere from all directions
compressing and heating it to fusion ignition temperatures. The ignition of the fusion reaction causes
the sphere to explode. The energy from the explosion of the deuterium and tritium sphere is captured
as the useful output of the reactor.

To achieve a net output of energy the laser pulse must be exceedingly powerful, carefully shaped and
aimed with great precision. The high pulse power is required to compress the deuterium and tritium
sphere from its normal density of 0.1 gram per cubic centimeter to 10 or more grams per cubic
centimeter. The compression and heating from the laser energy heats the sphere to a temperature far
higher than the minimum necessary to achieve fusion. The enormous compression and extreme
temperature is necessary to achieve the highest possible percentage of energy released in the short time
available. The sphere is small and will explode, expand, and cool in nanoseconds.

To achieve substantial energy release a large fraction of the potential fusion energy reactions must take
place. ^'^^' ^^' ^ The laser pulse must perform the compression and heating in a time so short the hot
expanding deuterium reacts with the tritium before the gas can expand and cool. The laser pulse
compressing and heating the sphere must be symmetrically applied and accurately aimed or it will
drive the sphere from the focus point of the lasers before it is fully heated.

Progress has been made in understanding the requirements of laser energy, pulse shape and duration.
Neutrons have been detected from spheres ignited in laser fusion experiments. The neutrons indicate
some fusion reactions have occurred. Unfortunately, the amount of energy released is many times
smaller than was used to ignite the reaction. The current goal is "break even". This is defined as
equality of energy input for ignition and energy produced by fusion reactions. There is still much work
to be performed to achieve break even. Achieving a net excess of energy, required if laser fusion is to
be used as an energy source, will be even more difficult.

Emmett, John L., Nuckolls, John and Wood, Lx)well, "Fusion Power by Laser Implosion", Scientific American, Vol. 230, No. 6, June
1974, Page 24
Lubin, Moshe J. and Fraas, Arthur P., "Fusion by Laser", Scientific American, Vol. 224, No. 6, June 1971, Page 21
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 69

One of the topics receiving much attention is the efficiency of the lasers. The largest laser is at the
Nova facility located at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in California. The Nova test facility uses
neodymium glass lasers having an efficiency of between one and two percent. This means for every
100 watts of input power only one to two watts of laser radiation are produced. The wavelength of this
type of laser is 1090 nanometers (nm). This radiation is just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum
at 700 nm and is termed the near infrared. This wavelength has been shown to be longer than desirable
for optimum heating and compression of the deuterium and tritium fuel pellet. By the use of non-
linear optical effects, it is possible to double the frequency, and thus halve the wavelength of this
radiation, to provide 545 nm radiation. The doubling process does not convert all the energy in the
laser beam to the shorter wavelength. Conversion efficiencies of 30 to 60 percent may be possible.
This frequency doubling process can be applied a second time to provide radiation with a wavelength
of 272 nm. The shorter wavelength radiation may be more useful in igniting the fusion reaction, but its
production further lowers the efficiency of the laser system.

The consequence of the low laser efficiency is low overall power generation efficiency and a large
amount of circulating power within the plant. The low overall efficiency is of little consequence from
the standpoint of the utilization of fuel, but it creates a major problem of waste heat rejection. If much
of the input laser energy is converted to waste heat, the heat rejection by the plant will be extreme. For
example, if the laser system delivers 2% efficiency, 50 units of energy must be supplied to the laser to
place one unit of energy on the target. The electrical generators used to convert the energy from the
target reactions to electricity will be no more than 40% efficient. To obtain the 50 units of laser drive
energy the target must release 125 units. At this break even point the reactor is producing no usable
output but is only sustaining its own operation. It is producing 125 units of energy, one used to ignite
the reaction and 124 expended as waste heat. To achieve a useful energy output the reactor must
produce far more than 125 units of energy for every one unit used to ignite the reaction.

The low energy efficiency laser presents a near insurmountable challenge. With a 1% efficiency laser
at least 14% of the total available energy from the deuterium tritium reaction must be recovered just to
break even; that is, to produce enough energy just to keep the plant operating. This leaves no output
energy, or zero plant efficiency. If it is possible to achieve 25% energy release, the plant will have an
overall efficiency of 17%, with 56.8% of the total energy released by the fusion reaction being used
just to run the laser system. In the research performed thus far, the amount of fusion energy released
has been less than 0.01%. It is not clear if it will ever be possible to achieve the large fraction of
energy release necessary to design a system producing net power.

Current research is investigating two approaches to achieve inertial confinement fusion. In the direct
approach a short wavelength, high intensity laser pulse is focused directly on the pellet containing the
fusion fuel. The outer layers of the pellet are violently vaporized and heated to a high temperature.
This process is termed ablation. The expansion of the hot outer layer compresses the inner core of the
pellet causing it to implode. Energy from the hot outer layers and the laser continue to heat the inner
core until it reaches fusion temperatures.

In the indirect approach, an outer layer surrounding the deuterium tritium pellet absorbs the driver
beam energy. This outer layer is made of elements that generate X-ray when heated by the laser
beams. This outer layer converts the driver beam energy into X-rays. The X-rays implode and heat
the core of the target. To achieve a net energy gains the driver must achieve energy coupling to the
70 An End To Global Warming

target with high ablation pressure (greater than 50 miUion atmospheres) with low fuel preheat and
highly compressed fuel (density greater than 200 grams per centimeter).

Several facilities are performing experiments. The NOVA at Lawrence Livermore in California is the
most powerful neodymium laser system in the world. It has the capability of delivering a burst of
50,000 to 70,000 joules (a 100 watt electric light uses energy at a rate of 100 joules per second) of
infrared energy at a wavelength of 1,054 nanometers (one nanometer is one billionth of a meter, that is,
10'^ meters). With frequency conversion, it can deliver about half this energy at 527 (visible green)
and a third at 264 (ultraviolet) nanometers. Using the ultraviolet radiation the NOVA facility has
achieved target compression to 24 grams per centimeter.

The OMEGA laser at the University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, uses a glass laser and can
deliver 2,400 joules at a wavelength of 350 nanometers. OMEGA has generated 2 xlO^^ fusion
neutrons for a reaction efficiency of about 0.001%. This efficiency is far below the 25% to 75%
needed for a fusion reactor.

The current research into laser based inertial confinement fusion energy is conducted at:

University of Rochester, New York. http://www.lle.Rochester.edu.exterual_index.html and

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California http://www-lasers.llnl.gov/

Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico has terminated its work with the ANT ARES system operating
at 10.6 micrometers because it was shown it would not be possible to generate sufficient heating or
compression with the 10.6 micrometer wave length radiation. They have turned their efforts to the
development of krypton-fluorine lasers. They have generated 10,000 joules pulses at 250 nanometers
at efficiency of 1.5%. In 1989, this laser system had not yet been incorporated into a fusion test
apparatus and little recent data is available.

Sandia Laboratory has been working with a compression heating system using beams of charged
particles to irradiate the targets. The charged ions tend to repel each other. The more powerful the
beam the more the charged particles interact. This produces great difficulties in focusing the beam to
strike the tiny fusion target. Progress is being made, but this system is well behind the laser systems. ^^^'

Production of the laser or particle beam capable of igniting the fusion reaction is only part of the
challenge in the development of the inertial confinement fusion reactor. The beams must have targets
upon which to act. The targets must be small spheres fabricated from solid mixtures of deuterium and
tritium. To provide a solid target the spheres must be encapsulated in a strong material that will not
interfere with the fusion reaction, or they must be held at temperatures well under the solidification
temperature of hydrogen (14 Kelvin). Solid particle targets are necessary so they can be handled and
placed at the exact focus of the ignition beams.

The amount of energy release from the reaction of a single target pellet is not large. To achieve a high
rate of energy production, to provide a continuous power output, the reactor must sequentially ignite a

Yonas, Ceroid, "Fusion Power with Particle Beams", Scientific American, Vol. 239, No. 5, November 1978, Page 50
VanDever
VanDevender, J. Pace and Cook, Donald, "Inertial Confinement Fusion with Light Ion Beams", Science, Vol. 232, May 16, 1986,
Page 831
 rhe hinergy Source - Nuclear l*usion Reactors 71

continuous stream of target pellets at a high rate. The target particles must be placed at the target point
with great accuracy so that the energy beams can cause uniform ignition. These are difficult problems
and, thus far, little progress has been made at providing solutions useful for an operational power plant.

Some of these schemes may ultimately be developed to a level where it is possible to use them to build
a practical fusion power plant, but for the near term, planning should be based on magnetic
confinement concepts.

The linear or toroidal magnetic confinement machines are the fusion reactor system most nearly ready
for implementation. Researchers from the primary developers of these machines have written that a
machine of appropriate size can be designed that would produce useful power. With current
understanding, engineering skill and materials they estimate the power output of a full-scale
operational plant will be in the range of 30,000 to 50,000 Megawatts electric (100,000 to 150,000
Megawatts thermal). A simplified schematic diagram of such a reactor was shown in Figure 3.1. This
output level is 15 to 25 times larger than the current largest power plants. The developers see this large
power output as a barrier to the use of fusion energy and are directing their efforts at achieving fusion
reactions in smaller reactors. Chapter 6 will show large size is not a barrier, but will be an advantage
in the construction of the energy systems needed for the future.

There are other approaches to fusion under discussion or investigation. Cold fusion generated much
interest several years ago but no one has been successful at reproducing consistent experimental
results. ^^^ Investigators of sonoluminescence have measured some very high temperatures at the
center of collapsing gas bubbles. Some have speculated that a temperature high enough to product
fusion might be possible. *^^ At the time of this writing, neither of them seems to offer much promise.
However, it would be foolish not monitor these efforts to ensure we use the best methods.

FUSION REACTOR SAFETY

Fusion power generators are inherently safe. The magnetic confinement of the plasma must be
carefully controlled and balanced to sustain the nuclear reaction. Any disturbance of the operating
conditions will result in termination of the reaction. No combination of system failure, operator error,
natural disaster or sabotage can cause the fusion reaction to run away. A nuclear explosion, melt down
or similar catastrophic accident is not possible. A violent event, one of sufficient magnitude to disrupt
the total reactor, could cause a chemical or electrical fire similar to any industrial fire.

Fission reactors produce of kilograms quantities of highly radioactive cesium 137, iodine 131, and
strontium 90. Tons of uranium and plutonium are also present in a fission reactor. If released in an
accident these radioactive isotopes can be absorbed by the body and retained for some length of time.
The fusion reactions do not use or produce any of these toxic elements.

Tritium is the only radioactive material used in the fusion reaction. Tritium has a half-Ufe of about
12.5 years and gives off relatively low energy electrons. It is one of the least hazardous radioactive
elements. If released, the tritium would combine with oxygen to form water. Ingested tritium would
tend to be eliminated within a few days. Consumption of large quantities of tritium free water would
be a major element in the treatment for tritium exposure.

Rafelski, Johann and Jones, Steven E., "Cold Nuclear Fusion", Scientific American, Vol. 257, No. 1, July 1987, Page 84
^^^ Crum, Lawrence A., and Matula, Thomas J., "Shocking Revelations", Science, Vol. 276 30 May 1997, Page 1348
72 An End To Global Warming

Contamination from a fission reaction can last for thousands of years because of the long half-life of
the fission-produced radioactive isotopes. If, by an unusual set of circumstances a plot of ground
becomes contaminated with a hazardous amount of tritium the area would be safe within a few decades
because of the short half-life of the tritium.

Using the design postulated above the hazard of a fusion reactor can be estimated. Fusion reactors will
present only a tiny fraction of the radiation hazard potential of a uranium fission reactor. There is only
a small quantity of radioactive tritium present in the reactor. Based on the tritium usage in research
reactors it would seem likely a power reactor would have less than a few kilograms of tritium at the
power plant at any given time. This would probably be distributed 10% to 20% in the plasma, 20% to
40% ready for future insertion in the plasma and the un-recovered tritium present in the lithium
coolant.

A violent event, such as the breaking of the vacuum chamber, would result in exposure of the plasma
to the surrounding air. The tritium and deuterium from the plasma would react with the atmosphere to
form water. The helium would mix with the atmosphere without reaction. The reaction products
would be tritium and deuterium containing water. The deuterium containing water and the helium are
both entirely non-toxic and could be ignored. Water containing weakly radioactive tritium is a mild
hazard. The total amount of water resulting from the reaction would be in the range of 10 grams to 5
kilograms depending on the size of the reactor and its operating conditions. This small amount could
easily be adsorbed by an atmosphere drier protection system. If the atmosphere drier system were to
fail at the same time as the reactor, or be damaged by the same event that broke the vacuum chamber,
little hazard would result. On escape from the system, the tritium would be diluted by the water in the
atmosphere. It would present only a slight hazard to the environment. This would dissipate in a few
years.

When the reactor is operating normally, the tritium is removed from the lithium continuously and the
amount present at any given time is small. If an event breached the hthium cooling system, a Hthium
fire would be possible. In a Hthium fire, any residual tritium remaining would be burned to water and
released. The violence of the lithium fire will increase the mechanical difficulty of trapping the water
containing the tritium. Fortunately, when lithium bums at high temperature the product is hthium
oxide. As lithium oxide cools it becomes an excellent absorber of water. The oxide reacts strongly
with water to form lithium hydroxide, a solid. To whatever degree this reaction occurred, the tritium
would be tied up as a solid within the confines of the reactor complex. The amount of tritium released
would be highly dependent on the details of the accident, condition of the reactor, weather and other
similar variables. In general, should a lithium fire occur, the probability of some tritium escaping the
reactor would be increased.

During its lifetime, a fusion reactor presents litde radiation hazard. The internal structure, particularly
the vacuum containment vessel and the heat exchanger, will be subject to intense neutron
bombardment. The neutrons will convert some of the elements of the structure into long-lived
radioactive isotopes. Selecting construction materials that do not easily become activated can
minimize radioisotope production. No material is entirely resistant to neutron activation, thus the
decommissioning of a fusion reactor will require the handling and disposal of potentially hazardous
radioactive isotopes. Because of the lack of uranium, plutonium, and fission products, the total
radiation exposure hazard from the decommissioned fusion reactor is 10,000 to 1,000,000 less than
from a decommissioned fission reactor.
 The Energy Source - Nuclear Fusion Reactors 73

If the initial development effort is successful at implementing a CBFR using the boron-proton reaction,
virtually all the hazard arising from radioactivity is eliminated. Table 3.1 shows that the boron proton
reaction produces only helium and energy.

DECOMMISSIONING FUSION POWER PLANTS

One of the major problems for the fission power industry is the disposal of the highly radioactive waste
remaining when an old reactor is decommissioned. When the fission industry started, reactor
decommissioning was largely ignored. Little effort was made to develop the necessary technology to
protect the environment from exposure to used fuel elements, containment vessels and other
radioactive materials resulting from the disassembly of a worn out reactor. Today the fission power
industry is confronted with an enormous task of waste disposal with no clearly satisfactory method of
performing the job.

It will be wise to draw detailed plans for decommissioning fusion reactors at the beginning of their
development. This will avoid the wretched waste disposal problems that plague the fission reactor
industry. The fusion reactors will contain far less radioactive material than a fission reactor. Whatever
the amount, one hundredth to one millionth, proper disposal will be required.

Unlike the waste from fission reactors, none of the radioactive materials present in the
decommissioned fusion reactor can be used to make bombs. The expended fusion reactor parts will
hold no interest for terrorist groups. The materials are only radioactive isotopes formed in the
structural elements of the reactor caused by the neutrons from the fusion reaction. There are no fertile
elements or isotopes. No dangerous fission products are produced by the fusion reaction. Disposal of
worn out fusion reactors will be safe and simple as compared to the disposal of waste and structures of
decommissioned fission reactors.

Even though the challenge posed by decommissioning and disposal of fusion reactors is small, none of
the current schemes for the disposal of radioactive materials is satisfying. The current schemes
provide short-term protection and storage, but the waste can pose a hazard for 25,000 years. It is
difficult to imagine a place on earth where it can be stored with total assurance no future problem can
occur. Whether buried in stable rock formations on land or buried under the floor of the ocean, one
can always postulate a natural disaster capable of causing the release of some of the radioactive waste
products. There is always a potential for recovery by terrorists. None of the current earth based
schemes can provide the level of protection desired.

At this time, only space disposal can provide absolute protection for humanity, its descendants and the
planet earth. New methods may be discovered in the future, but current planning should include the
accounting for disposal of decommissioned reactor materials in space. Whatever method is selected,
good initial planning will make the disposal of the old fusion reactors a safe, relatively easy, and cost
effective process.

The potential for the CBFR reactor is for a reactor that has no radioactivity associated with its use or
decommissioning. If feasible, this type of reactor should be given first priority in the development
effort described in Chapter 6.
74 An End To Global Warming

SUMMARY
This chapter covered the production of heat by fusion reactors and from heat electricity. It showed that
the raw materials used in the production of energy with fusion, deuterium and lithium, were
sufficiently abundant to serve humanity for centuries. These materials have little competing uses. It
described the several paths available for the development of a fusion reactor, linear or toroidal
magnetic confinement and laser or particle beam particle beam compression. Each type has its
particular merits and challenges, but the magnetic confined plasma reactor appears nearest to
implementation in a form most suitable for a future energy system. It evaluated the potential
environmental impact of the use of fusion reactors and showed that, while there are potential hazards,
proper reactor design and planning should reduce the hazards to an acceptable level. This chapter
attempts to show that fusion reactors will be a satisfactory source of energy to provide an energy
system that will supply human needs without harm to the environment. ^^"^

Many current energy needs cannot be easily satisfied by heat and electricity produced by fusion
reactors. For credible use of a fusion energy system it will be necessary to produce a manufactured
chemical fuel to serve as the medium for the storage and transport of fusion derived energy. Chapter 4
will show there is only one choice for the manufactured chemical fuel, hydrogen.

^^'^ Holdren, John P., "Fusion Energy in Context: Its Fitness for the Long Term", Science, Vol. 200, April 14, 1978, Page 168