Teaching Strategy Research Paper

Exploring Scaffolding

Section Page

The Literature and a Look at How 2

Scaffolding Works
Research and Theory 6
Opinion 11
References 13

Elvani Pennil
EDUC 0500A
Adolescent Learning and Development
Prof. H. J. Hartman
November 21, 2002
The Literature and a Look at How Scaffolding Works

True learning occurs when information is integrated into an individual’s knowledge base

(Hogan and Pressley, 1997). According to Graves and Braaten (1996), scaffolding is defined as

the process by which an expert provides temporary support to learners to “help bridge the gap

between what [the learner] know[s] and can do and what [he or she] need[s] to accomplish in

order to succeed at a particular learning task” (p. 169). Upon completion of this task, a learner is

better able make the connection between prior knowledge and new information. Scaffolding helps

this happen by allowing the teacher to interact with the student by asking leading questions and

providing information in order to help students discover the information they need to successfully

complete a task (1996).

Scaffolding is important because the “temporary and adjustable structure” provided by the

expert allows a student to complete a task that would have been impossible to complete without

the scaffold’s support (1996). However, part of the function of a scaffold is to “self-destruct”—the

student gains enough mastery to the point that he or she no longer needs scaffolding and it is no

longer provided (Bickmore-Brand 1990).

In Bickmore-Brand’s analysis of scaffolded styles in teaching mathematics, three

scaffolding styles emerged: task focused, child focused, and multi-focused (p. 51). The task

focused style is more concerned with the requirements of the task whereas the child focused style

allows the teacher to explore a task based on how the child chooses to explore the it. In the former

style the teacher asks a minimum number of formal questions. In the latter style the teacher asks a

lot of general questions, but mostly allows the child to direct the line of questioning. With each of

these styles also comes a specific way in which the teacher provides responses to the learner.

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 Task focused answers are “brief, unexpanded” and serves the purpose of letting the learner

know whether or not he or she is answering the questions correctly. Learner focused responses to

questions are “supportive…positive” and totally reflective of the child’s zone of proximal

development (p. 51).

The multi-focused style is a bit less reflective of a particular child’s zone of proximal

development. The instructor is just as concerned with task-oriented questions as he or she is with

the learner’s mastery of the task (p. 51). A this balance seems to be the most effective approach

because the teacher’s ability to address the student’s needs makes it easier for the student to

address the task’s requirements (Bickmore-Brand, p.54).

Below is an example of the possible questioning patterns for each scaffolding style

(A=Adult; B=Child; q=Question; c=Comment) (p. 51-2).

Scaffolding Style Questioning Pattern

Task focused A-B / A-B / sequence
Child focused • Few follow-up or specific questions

• Often directed to the child’s feelings or wishes

Multi-focused Aq—Aq—Ac—B/ Aq—Ac—B—Ac/ Ac—Bq—Ac/ Bq—Aq—Bc/

Hammond presents an example of multi-focused scaffolding in which cueing responses,

elaborating and redefining, and showing shared experience are employed. Below is an excerpt of

dialogue between a teacher and student that exemplifies the aforementioned approaches to

scaffolding (T=Teacher; S=Student) (p. 56-7):

1. T Good boy; very good. The background of Australia. What

else?

2. S Culture.

3. T Very good. I used that word this morning.

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 4. S Different places.

5. T Um.

6. S Features.

7. T That’s a good word. Different features of Australia.

8. S The climate.

9. T Yes, that’s a feature of Australia, the climate. The

landforms, the

mountains, the rivers.

10. S The beaches.

11. T Yes, that would be part of the landform. Apart from the natural

features, we used another word this morning that begins with ‘L’: the

Australian—a compound word—

12. S Lifestyle.

In exchange 3, the teacher refers to the shared response of reading

the picture book together: ‘I used that word this morning’. She then
acknowledges and repeats the next few student responses before she
cues a response (turn 11) by again referring to a previous shared
experience: ‘Apart from the natural features, we used another word
this morning that begins with ‘L’: the Australian—a compound word—’.
These are examples of explicit teacher scaffolding. (Hammond, p. 57)

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This lesson is like the multi-focused model provided by Bickmore-Brand. Both lessons take

the student’s knowledge base into consideration. This knowledge base is then further

reinforced through coaching. This lesson concluded after the teacher had the students working

in groups to help create a larger pool of ideas as to why people move to Australia. At the

conclusion of this lesson, “the teacher recaps…the task for the students. This means that

scaffolding has operated in two significant ways”: it added to the student’s knowledge base

by “clarifying and elaborating on the concept of migration” and built a clear focus that

allowed students to complete the group activity (Hammond p. 58-9). The different modes of

scaffolding help in reinforcing the new skills and knowledge the students presented as part of

the lesson. Because of the various methods the teacher employed in scaffolding the students’

acquisition of new knowledge, chances are they will be better able to apply these skills in

other contexts (Hammond p. 59).

Hammond best describes how scaffolding works by stating that “Knowing when and how to

intervene is what scaffolding is all about. It is about the teacher taking an informed and active

role in guiding students’ learning as they come to terms with new ideas and concepts. And as

seen in the classroom excerpts, scaffolding is far more than ‘helping out’ so that a student can

complete a task. I requires the teacher to act contingently, using a variety of strategies, so that

students can gain understanding and confidence to work independently in applying new

learning ...” (p. 60).

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 Research and Theory

McKenzie mentions the idea that the least successful approaches to teaching are the ones

that make way too many assumptions about student abilities and prior knowledge (2000,

http://fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html). He goes on to say “We should have learned by now that

exploration by students progresses most effectively when those students have been well equipped,

well prepared and well guided along the path” (McKenzie 2000). This theory suggests that

organization and attention to the nuances of student skill levels are the key to encouraging true

learning (McKenzie 2000).

Similarly, the U.S. Department of Education states that “Other studies suggest that active

learning in combination with "scaffolding" (building upon the cultural knowledge that children

bring to the classroom) may enhance the learning of young people of color (Guitierrez, 1992; Lee,

1992; Peterson, 1991). Analyzing the effects of scaffolding on black students, Lee (1992)

compares the pre- and post-test results of students who received traditional reading instruction and

students who participated in an innovative reading program that drew upon African-American

culture. Lee reports that the students in the innovative program achieved statistically significant

reading skills gains three times as great as the control students.” (Education Reforms and Students

at Risk: A Review of the Current State of the Art Page, January 1994 ).

This information implies that students’ academic performance improves when they can

make personal connections to the skills and knowledge they are supposed to acquire. This site also

goes further to say that scaffolding is not only provided by teachers, but students can also be

instrumental in scaffolding each other.

Yet another important aspect to scaffolding is the relationship it fosters between teacher

and student. In order for students to get excited about acquiring new skills, they have to feel

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comfortable in knowing that the learning atmosphere the teacher will provide will be interesting,

level-appropriate, and enriching. The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory states that

“How teachers interact with students as they complete a task is important to the students' ability to

perform the activity (Issues: scaffolding, 17 October 2002).

This idea is the basis of Vygotsky’s theory on social constructivism. This theory states that

a teacher cannot ignore the knowledge base that students bring to their educational experiences.

This means that stereotypes and similar misconceptions must also be taken into account before

students can acquire new knowledge. Based on overwhelming scientific evidence, we as human

beings tend to hold on to our initial beliefs about the world around us. These beliefs, which may

also exist unbeknownst to the student, need to be brought to the forefront before instruction that

leads to true learning can begin. Without this kind of mental adjustment , new knowledge will not

be internalized—if the learner is lucky I his situation, this knowledge will be used for the

immediate purpose of answering a few comprehension questions only to be forgotten after

assessment is complete.

Students’ knowledge about their own misconceptions, or knowledge of what they do and

do not know, requires metacognitive skills. Metacognitive instruction, in the form of discussions,

experiments, and inquiry activities help students become more self-reflective. It gives them the

opportunity to become more empowered and take ownership for their education.

Learner-centered schools and classrooms create a safe environment where students feel like

it’s okay to open themselves up to new educational experiences and ideas. Conversely, a

constricting learning environment will not be a safe place to think freely, let alone in a more

formal manner.

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 Opinion

I cannot think of a time when my formal educational experiences were not scaffolded to

some degree. Whether it was in the form of directions necessary to complete a task, pointed

questions that helped me solve problems on my own, or just encouraging words that assured me

that I was on the right track toward completing a task, I always received some kind of support

when there was a new or particularly difficult task to be completed.

Furthermore, all other teaching strategies require some level of scaffolding before they can

be effectively employed. The use of scaffolding is particularly effective in its ability to build a

student’s confidence so that he or she is better able to address future challenging tasks. Also, it

provides the scaffolder the opportunity to make meaningful connections so they incorporate new

knowledge into their schemata.

Once a learner has the benefit of both prior knowledge and a guide to help connect prior

knowledge to new knowledge, both kinds of knowledge become more meaningful to the learner.

The confusion and frustration that often accompanies being assigned a task that is too hard to

complete can be avoided. Imagine giving a new reader who has never used a computer before a

computer program manual to read. Without the reading skills to decipher the text—much of which

might seem like jargon to computer novice —and the practical experience necessary to imagine

how the program might be useful, a student would probably fail at completing this task and would

probably avoid similar tasks. With scaffolding in the form of reading, hands-on guidance, and

coaching from an expert, the student can be given the opportunity to complete this difficult task.

This will create a student who is more liable to be confident in taking on new tasks and is a more

willing learner. Starr has this to say about scaffolding :

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 [It] Focuses on active learning and student choice. The technique works especially well with
technology-based learning, in which students need to be more self-reliant. Scaffolding allows them
to work self-reliantly while receiving adequate support.

There are no drawbacks to using scaffolding as a teaching strategy if it is utilized properly.

The only time it would be detrimental is if it is somehow implemented in such a way that the

student is never weaned off the support the expert provides. In this case the learner does not

master the skill of being able to complete the initial task by him or herself. In this scenario, the

kind of thinking may be retarded instead of nurtured. If this happens, the odds of producing

intelligent and enlightened members of society do not look good.

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 References

Bickmore-Brand, J. and Gawned S. (1990). Scaffolding for improved mathematical

understanding. In Bickmore-Brand (Ed.), Language in mathematics (pp. 43-58).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Education Reforms and Students at Risk: A Review of the Current State of the Art Page. (1994
January). U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved October 17, 2002 from
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdReforms/chap3a.html.

Graves, M.F. and Braaten, S. (1996). Scaffolded reading experiences: bridges to success
[Electronic version]. Preventing School Failure, v40 n4, 169-73.

Hammond, J. (Ed.). (2001). Scaffolding: teaching and learning in language and literacy
education. Newtown (Australia): Primary English Teaching Association.

Hogan, K. and Pressley, M. (Eds). (1997). Scaffolding student learning: instructional

approaches and issues. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Issues: scaffolding. (2002) North Central Regional Education Laboratory. Retrieved

October 17, 2002 from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr1scaf.htm.

McKenzie, J. (2000). Beyond technology: questioning, research and the information literate
school community, chapter 19 - scaffolding for success. Bellingham, WA: FNO Press. Retrieved
October 17, 2002 from http://fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html.

Starr, Linda. (4 2000 April). Teaching the american revolution: scaffolding to success.
Education World: Curriculum Page. Retrieved October 17, 2002 from
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr218.shtml.

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