Chapter 1 Newtonian Dynamics

Y.-H. Pao, L.-S. Wang and Y.-W Shau

Institute of Applied Mechanics,
National Taiwan University
(Fall 1999)
Section 1-1 Space and Time

1. Space - sense-impressions to perceive things apart

Private Space - individual sense of perception
visual
auditory
olfactory
gustatory
motor, tactile
Public Space - aggregate of the various modes of sense-perception.
Physical Space - used to describe the laboratory operations and experiments.
The dimension of space is measured in meters, which is originally defined as one
ten-millionth of the distance from the pole to the equator along the meridian
through Paris, and later defined as the length of a certain platinum-iridium bar
kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Geometric Space - idealization of the physical space

2. Time - perception of the succession of events

Private Time - individual sense of the order of events
Public Time - based on the recurrance of some simple phenomenon event to all normal
persons
Physical Time - used in the development of physical theories
The dimension of time is second, which is originally defined as the fraction 1/86400
of the mean solar day, and is now defined as the duration of 9192631770 periods
of the radiation of a certain state of the Cesium-133 atom.

3.

Reference: Foundations of Physocs by R. B. Linsay & H. Margenau, Dover Publications Inc.,

New York, 1957. (Chapter II)

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Section 1-2 Geometry of Space Curves

1. A curve in Cartesian space

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k,

where t can be any parameter.

Example.

helix : x(θ) = a cos θ, y(θ) = a sin θ, z(θ) = bθ,

straight line : x(s) = ls + x0 , y(s) = ms + y0 , z(s) = ns + z0 .

2. Tangent, Curvature, and Torsion of a Curve

Let t = s, the arc length of a curve from some point P . We have
dr dx dy dz dr
= i + j + k, =⇒ | | = 1.
ds ds ds ds ds

Define
dr
et = : unit tangent.
ds
Furthermore,
det
= κen ,
ds
where en is the principal normal, and κ is the curvature. Define the binormal vector,

eb = et × en .

We have
deb
= −τ en ,
ds
where τ is the torsion. As a result, the Frenet-Serret frame is defined as the frame
{et , en , eb }. The Frenet-Serret formula are

det den deb

= κen , = −κet + τ eb , = −τ en .
ds ds ds

3. Comment: For a curve on a plane,

∆et = et (s + ∆s) − et (s) = ∆θen ,

dθ
which implies κ = ds
.

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Section 1-3 Kinematics of Particles

Position : r(t)
dr(t)
Velocity : v(t) = = ṙ(t)
dt
dv(t) d2 r(t)
Acceleration : a(t) = = = r̈(t)
dt dt2
1. Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k

v(t) = ẋ(t)i + ẏ(t)j + ż(t)k
a(t) = ẍ(t)i + ÿ(t)j + z̈(t)k

2. Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z)

r(t) = ρeρ + z(t)ez

v(t) = ρ̇eρ + ρφ̇eφ + żez
a(t) = (ρ̈ − ρφ̇2 )eρ + (ρφ̈ + 2ρ̇φ̇)eρ + z̈ez
ėρ = φ̇eφ ; ėφ = −φ̇eρ ; ėz = 0

3. Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ)

r(t) = rer
v(t) = ṙer + rθ̇eθ + rsinθφ̇eφ
a(t) = (r̈ − rθ̇2 − rsin2 θφ̇2 )er +
(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ − rsinθcosθφ̇2 )eθ +
(rsinθφ̈ + 2ṙφ̇sinθ + 2rcosθφ̇θ̇)eφ
ėr = θ̇eθ + φ̇sinθeφ ;
ėθ = −θ̇er + φ̇cosθeφ ;
ėφ = −φ̇cosθeθ − φ̇sinθer

4. Path Coordinates (s)

ṡ2
v(t) = ṡet ; a(t) = s̈et + en
ρ

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Section 1-4 Newton’s Law

Newton in the ”Philosphiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” began his enunciation of

principles of mechanics with several definitions. The more important of these follow (in
somewhat abbreviation form)

1. The quantities of matter in a body will be measured by its density and volume
conjointly. This quantity of matter will be known by the name of body or mass; it will
also be known by the weight of the body in question. That mass is proportional to
weight has been found by very careful experiments on pendulums.

2. The quantity of motion is measured by the velocity and the quantity of matter
(mass) conjointly.

3. Innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body, as much as in it

lies, endeavors to persevere in its present state.

4. An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body in order to change its state either
of rest or of moving uniformly forward in a straight line.

There are four other definitions, concerning centripetal force, which we need not consider
here. The laws of motion placed after the definitions were then stated in the following form:

1. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, except
in so far as it is compelled by forces to change that state.

2. Change of motion is proportional to the force and takes place in the direction of straight
line in which the force acts.

3. To every action there is always an equal and contrary reaction; or, the mutual actions
of any two bodies are always equal and oppositely directed along the same straight
line.

*Lindsay R. B. and Margenau, H., Foundations of Physics, p.85, Dover(1959).

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Section 1-5 Mass and Force*
1. ”Mass” and ”Force” were not well-defined in Newton’s work. ”So far, my object has
been to explain the senses in which certain words little known are to be used in the
sequel. Time, space, place, and motion being words well known to everybody, I do not
define.” - Issac Newton**
2. Newton’s first law
(1) body means particle
(2) straight line is defined in Euclidean geometry.
(3) should not be regarded as definition of no force.
(4) accept the inertial frame in which Newton’s law can be applied.
3. Newton’s second law
(1) motion is described through the concept of momentum in the definition, but it
meant the velocity in the second law.
(2) should not be regarded as ”definition” of mass.
(3) should not be regarded as ”definition” for force. That concept would not work
for contact forces.
4. Newton’s third law
(1) accelerations of two interacting bodies always occur in pairs.
(2) give the relationship of forces, not to define force.
(3) conservation of momentum is implied.
5. E. Mach’s concept on mass (on which Section 1-1 of text is based): define mass as ratio
of accelerations, which dwells heavily upon Newton’s law.
6. Although not well-defined, mass and force are measured by definitive quantities in two
different systems:
(a) metric system (MKS) - the mass is a basic quantity, measured in Kg, which is
defined as the mass of a certain platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures. The force is then derived from Newton’s law
with the dimension Nt = kgm/sec2 .
(b) British System (FPS) - the force is treated as a basic quantity, measured by pound
(lb), which is defined as the weight at sea level and at a latitude of 45 degrees of
a platinum standard kept at the Bureau of Standards in Washington D.C. The
mass is then derived as slugs = lb sec2 /f t.
7. Since the length which measures the space, the time, the mass, and the force cannot
be well-defined, they are treated as primitives in modern physics.
Reference: * Foundations of Physics by R. B. Lindsay & H. Margenau, Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, 1957. ( Chapter III )
** The Science of Mechanics by E. Mach, p. 271, 1960.

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Section 1-6 Balance Laws of Motion of a Particle

1. Newton’s Law (Force and Momentum)

d
F= (mv) = ma (1)
dt
2. Impulse and Momentum
Z 2
F(t)dt = m(v2 − v1 ) (2)
1

3. Moment and Angular Momentum

dH
M= ; M = r × F ; H = r × (mv) (3)
dt
4. Work and Kinetic Energy
Z 2
1 1
F(r) · dr = mv22 − mv12 (4)
1 2 2
Conservative force : Fc = −∇V (r)
Z 2 Z 2
Work ≡ Fc · dr = [−dV (r)] = −[V (r2 ) − V (r1 )] (5)
1 1

1 1
mv12 + V1 = mv22 + V2 (6)
2 2
5. Integration of Newton’s Equation

d2 r(t)
F(r, ṙ, t) = m (7)
dt2

F = F(t) =⇒ Equation(2)
F = F(r) =⇒ Equation(4)
dv
F = F(v) =⇒ F(v) = m
dt

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 (Y.-H. Pao and Y.-W. Shau)

Section 1-7 Simple Pendulum in Plane Motion

F = (−S + mgcosθ)er − mgsinθeθ (1)

2
a(t) = (r̈ − rθ̇ )er + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)eθ (2)
r = l (constant) (3)
1. Equations of Motion
−S + mgcosθ = −mlθ̇2 (4)
−mgsinθ = mlθ̈ ∗(5)
2. Work-Energy Equation
dr = er dr + eθ rdθ (6)
F · dr = −mglsinθdθ = d(mglcosθ) = −d[mgl(1 − cosθ)] (7)
1
[mglcosθ]21 = [ m(lθ̇)2 ]21
2
l
cosθ(t) − cosθo = [θ̇2 (t) − θ̇o2 ] ∗ ∗ (8)
2g
3. Moment-Angular Momentum Equation

M = (ler ) × F = mglsinθez (9)

H = (ler ) × m(ṙer + rθ̇eθ ) = ml2 θ̇ez (10)
ml2 θ̈ = −mglsinθ ∗(11)
4. Integration of Equation of Motion
g
θ̈ = − sinθ ; θ|t=0 = θo ; θ̇|t=0 = θ̇o (12)
l
dθ̇ dθ̇ dθ d 1
θ̇ = = = ( θ̇2 );
dt dθ dt dt 2
2 2g
θ̇2 − θ˙o = (cosθ − cosθo ) ∗ ∗ (13)
l
dθ 2 2g 2g
( ) = cosθ + C1 ; C1 = θo − cosθo
dt l l
Z θ
dθ
t= q + to (14)
2g
θo C1 + l
cosθ
5. Elliptic Integrals
Z y Z Φ
dy dΦ0
x = F (k, y) ≡ = ≡ F (k, Φ) (15)
o [(1 − y 02 )(1 − k2 y 02 )]1/2 o (1 − k 2 sin2 Φ0 )1/2

(0 < k < 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1)
y = sn(x) = sin(Φ) ; x = sn−1 (y) ; cn(x) = (1 − sn2 x)1/2 (16)
sn(x) = sn(x + 4K) where K ≡ F (k, 1) (17)

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Section 1-8 Motion in a Central Force Field

mr̈ = F(r, ṙ, t) = F (r)er , (Central Force)

1. Angular momentum law

d H0
(r × mṙ) = r × F = 0, ⇒ mr × v = H0 = constant, or r × v = h0 = .
dt m
Orbit must be in a plane formed by r and v at any time and perpendicular to H0 .
2. Force depends on r and θ, the polar coordinates in the plane of motion

mr̈ = F (r, θ)er ,

with initial conditions: r = r0 , θ = θ0 , vr = ṙ0 ≡ (ṙ)0 , vθ = r0 θ̇0 , θ̇0 = (θ̇)0 at t = t0 .

Since er · dr = dr, we have
1 2 1 2 Zr
mv − mv0 = F (r, θ)dr,
2 2 r0

in which
h20
v 2 = |ṙ|2 = ṙ2 + (rθ̇)2 = ṙ2 + ,
r2
where
h0 = |h0 | = r2 θ̇ = r02 θ00 .

3. Force depends on the distance r

Z r
V (r) = − F (r)dr, — the potential.

1 2
mv − T0 = −V (r) + V0 .
2
The total energy
1
E0 = T0 + V0 = m(ṙ02 + r02 θ̇02 ) + V0 .
2
Thus à !
dr 2 mh2
( )2 = E0 − V (r) − 20 .
dt m 2r

Since θ̇ = h0 /r2 , we can derive

√ 2s
dr 2r mh2
=√ E0 − V (r) − 20 .
dθ mh0 2r
As a result, the orbit can be described by
H0 Z r2 dr
θ2 − θ1 = √ q .
2m r1 r2 E0 − V (r) − H02
2mr2

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4. Force is a power function of r
We have
F (r) = k(n + 1)rn , V (r) = −krn+1 ,
and
H0 Z r2
1
du
θ2 − θ1 = − √ q .
2m r11 H02 2
E0 + ku−n−1 − 2m
u
The solution can be expressed as circular functions if n = 1, −2, −3; and elliptic
functions if n = 5, 3, 0, −4, −5, −7.

5. Inverse square force, i.e. n = −2

The orbits are conic sections,
l
= 1 + ² cos θ,
r
where s
2E0 H02 H02 m
²= 1+ , l= = h20 .
mk2 mk k

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 (Y.-H. Pao and Y.-W. Shau)

Section 1-9 Motion of a System of Particles

We consider the system of N particles of masses mi at positions ri , for i = 1, · · · , N. Let

the applied force on each particle be denoted by Fi , and the interacting force on mi by mj
be written as fij . Thus by Newton’s third law

fij = −fji , i, j = 1, · · · , N, (1)

and by Newton’s second law

d X0
mi ṙi = Fi + fij , i = 1, · · · , N, (2)
dt j

with
X0 N
X X N
X
≡ , ≡ .
j j=1,j6=i i=1

1. Motion of the center of mass

X X
mrC ≡ mi ri , m= mi , (3)
d X
⇒ mṙC = F, F= Fi , (4)
dt
PN P 0
since i=1 fj ij = 0.

2. Impulse and Momentum Equation

Z t2
C C
mṙ (t2 ) − mṙ (t1 ) = F(t)dt. (5)
t1

3. Work-energy Equation
ri = rC + ρi , vi = ṙC + ρ̇i , (6)
X X 1 1 1X
T = Ti = mi vi2 = m|ṙC |2 + mi |ρ̇i |2 . (7)
2 2 2
Thus X X X0
dT = Fi · dri + fij · dri . (8)
j

For conservative forces,

Fi · dri = −dVi (ri ), fij · dri + fji · drj = fij · drij = −dVij (rij ), (9)

where rij = ri − rj . We have

 2
hX i2 X 1 X X0
Ti = − Vi (ri ) − Vij (rij ) . (10)
1 2 j 1

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4. Principle of Angular Momentum about the origin O
X X X X
HO ≡ HO
i = ri × mi ṙi . MO ≡ MO
i = ri × Fi , (11)

We postulate fij k rij , then

dHO
= MO . (12)
dt
5. Equations of Angular Momentum about a Moving Point A
Let ri = rA + si = rC + ρi . Define
X X
HA ≡ si × mi ṡi , MA ≡ si × Fi . (13)

It can be derived that

dHA X
= MA + r̈A × mi si . (14)
dt

For the special case of A being the center of mass,

X X X
HC ≡ ρi × mi ρ̇i = ρi × mi ṙi , MC = ρi × Fi . (15)

dHC
⇒ = MC . (16)
dt

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Section 1-10 Two-Body Problems

Consider a pair of particles m1 and m2 , at positions r1 and r2 respectively under the

action of internal forces only

m1 r̈1 = f12 (1)

m2 r̈2 = f21 = f12 (2)

1. Relative motion of two body

m1 + m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
r̈1 − r̈2 = f12 or r̈12 = (r̈1 − r̈2 ) = f12 (3)
m1 m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2. Motion of a Rocket
Consider a rocket with velocity v and mass M = Mo − µt where M is the initial mass
of the rocket and µ is the rate at which mass is ejected. The exhaust gases have a
constant velocity ve relative to the rocket.

dm2 dm1
m1 = Mo − µt ; m2 = µt ( =− ) (4)
dt dt
dv dv dm2
m1 = (Mo − µt) = f12 = ve = µve (5)
dt dt dt

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Section 1-11 The Law of Universal Gravitation and Planetary Motion

1. Conic Section
l l = semi-latus rectum
r= ; (1)
1 + ²cosθ ² = eccentricity,
² = 0 circle ; < 0 ellipse ; = 1 parabola ; > 1 hyperbola
For an ellipse with semi-axes a, b:

b2 1√ 2 l
l= 2
; ² = a − b2 ; a = (2)
a a 1 − ²2

2. Kepler’s Laws (1609, 1619)

(1) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
(2) The planets, in revolving about the sun, sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
(3) The square of the periodic time of each planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.

3. The Law of Universal Gravitation (1687)

(i) Elliptic orbit -

dA 1 2 1
= r θ̇ = ho (constant) (3)
dt 2 2
r(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = 0 (4)
(ii) F = Fr er + Fθ eθ = m(ar er + aθ eθ )

Fr = m(r̈ − rθ̇2 ) ; Fθ = m(rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) = 0 (5)

(ii) mr̈ = Fr er
1
d( mv 2 ) = Fr dr (7)
2
For an ellipse : p/r = vθ /v, p=perpendicular distance to the tangent
1 1 a
pv = rvθ = ho ; 2
= 2 (2 − 1) (8)
p b r

1 d(v2 ) ho dp ah2 1
Fr = m = −m 3 = −m 2o 2 (9)
2 dr p dr b r
(iv) Area
1
A = πab = ho T ⇒ ho = 2πab/T. (T - period) (10)
2
a3 m m
Fr = −4π 2 ( 2 ) 2 = −Gm0 2 (11)
T r r

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4. Planetary Motion
dv µ
= − 2 er µ = Gm0 (12)
dt r
r × v = ho (13)
d(v × ho ) µ der 1
= − 2 er × ho = µ ; (v × ho ) = er + ²o (14)
dt r dt µ
1
r · (v × ho ) = r + r · ²o (15)
µ
ho
r(1 + ²cosθ) = ≡l (16)
µ

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Section 1-12 Collision of Particles

Two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving in space and collide at t = t1 with velocity
ṙ1 = V1 and ṙ2 = V2 respectively. Determine the velocity after impact ḟ1 = bv1 , and ṙ2 = v2
at the instant of separation t = t2 .
Z t2
m1 v1 − m1 V1 = f12 dt (1)
t1
Z t2
m2 v2 − m2 V2 = f21 dt (2)
t1

Eliminating the unknown impulses, we obtain the following vector equations for the unknown
velocities v1 and v2

m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 V1 + m2 V2 (3)

(1) Assign finite dimension to the particles , r12 ≡ r1 − r2 6= 0 (along the line of collision).
Assume that f12 is colinear with r12 . Let n, s and t be three vectors perpendicular to
each other, where n is the normal vector perpendicular to the contact surface. We can
decompose the velocity vectors into three directions, i.e. v = vn n + vs vs + vt t. Thus

v1s = V1s ; v2s = V2s (4)

v1t = V1t ; v2t = V2t (5)

m1 v1n + m2 v2n = m1 V1n + m2 V2n (6)

(2) Law of Impact - Empirical law proposed by J. Wallis and C. Wren (1668)*

”When two bodies collide, the values of the relative velocity of the surfaces in contact
(estimated normal to the surfaces) at instant immediately after and immediately before
impact bear a definite ratio to each other; this ratio (-e) depends only on the material
of which the bodies are composed.”

v1n − v2n velocity of separation

−e = = (7)
V1n − V2n velocity of approach
The e is called the coefficient of restitution. if e = 1, the bodies are said to be elastic;
if 0 ≤ e < 1, the bodies are inelastic.
From equations (6) and (7), the normal component of the velocity vector of the two
particles can be determined by

(m1 + m2 )v1n = (m1 − em2 )V1n + m2 (1 + e)V2n (8a)

(m1 + m2 )v2n = m1 (1 + e)V1n + (m2 − em1 )V2n (8b)

* Whittaker E., A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies,
Dover, New York, 1944. P.264

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(3) Loss of kinetic energy in collision
Work-Energy relation:
Z 2 Z 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
m1 r1 |1 = f12 · dr1 ; m2 r2 |1 = f21 · dr2 (9)
2 1 2 1
Z 2 Z 2
1 1 1 1
( m1 v12 + m2 v22 ) − ( m1 V12 + m2 V22 ) = f12 · dr12 = f12 dr12 (10)
2 2 2 2 1 1
R2
where 1 f12 dr12 is the total work done by the internal forces during the impact.
The change of kinetic energy can be written in terms of the coefficient of restitution
(e) as
X2 X2 2
1 1 1−e X 1
mi vi2 − mi Vi2 = −( ) mi (vi − Vi )2 (11)
i=1 2 i=1 2 1 + e i=1 2

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Section 1-13 The Many Body problem

We consider the case,

d X0
mi ṙi = Fi + fij , i = 1, · · · , N, (1)
dt j

where
mi mj
Fi = 0, fij = −G 3
rij , rij = ri − rj , rij = |rij |. (2)
rij
There are 3N second-order ordinary differential equations.

1. Conservation of Linear Momentum

X X
mi r̈i = 0 ⇒ mi ri = mR = c1 t + c2 , with 6 constant. (3)

2. Conservation of Angular Momentum

X
ri × mi ṙi = H0 , with 3 constant. (4)

Also X
si × mi si = HC ,
is conserved as well.

3. Conservation of Energy

fij · dri + fji · drj = −dVij (rij ), (5)

where
mi mj
Vij (rij ) = −G 3
. (6)
rij
Thus
X 0
1 XX
Ti + Vij (rij ) = E0 = a constant. (7)
2 i j
There are thus generally 10 integrals (ten integration constants).

4. Two-body problem and perturbation

For the case case of motion of three bodies (N = 3), there are 9 second-order ODE, and
thus requiring 18 constants to determine the motion. ”The problem of three bodies
connot be solved in finite terms by means of any of the functions at the present known
to analysis.” (p.339 of Whittaker).

1—17
5. Motion of a system with Two Massive Bodies
Consider a system consisting of a primary body m1 and a secondary primary body m2 .

XN XN
1 1
r̈1 = (f12 + f1j ), r̈2 = (f21 + f2j ). (8)
m1 j=3 m2 j=3

Thus
XN
m1 + m2 f2j f1j
r̈2 − r̈1 = f12 + − . (9)
m1 m2 j=3 m2 m1

In particular, if N = 2, we have the two-body problem,

m1 + m2 m1 + m2
r̈21 = f12 + 0 = −G 3
r21 , (10)
m1 m2 r21
which is equivalent to a central force problem with increased mass m1 +m2 . For N > 3,
we have the many-body problem in which
N
X f2j f1j
− (11)
j=3 m2 m1

can be regarded as perturbation force when m1 , m2 >> mj , or rj2 , rj1 >> r21 for
j = 3, · · · , N.
In particular, the restricted three-body problem refers to the motion of an infinitesimally
small particle moving in the plane under the influence of the gravitational attraction
of two finite particles which revolve around each other in a circular orbit with uniform
velocity.

1—18