HEDGEHOG SIGNALLING IN
CANCER FORMATION AND
MAINTENANCE
Marina Pasca di Magliano and Matthias Hebrok
The Hedgehog signalling pathway is essential for numerous processes during embryonic
development. Members of this family of secreted proteins control cell proliferation, differentiation
and tissue patterning in a dose-dependent manner. Although the overall activity of the pathway is
diminished after embryogenesis, recent reports show that the pathway remains active in some
adult tissues, including adult stem cells in the brain and skin. There is also evidence that
uncontrolled activation of the pathway results in specific types of cancer.
apoptosis and loss of proliferation in 50% of the lines primary pancreatic tumours, and that were subse-
tested44. The observation that only half of the cell lines quently re-derived during several rounds of injection
responded to cyclopamine treatment could indicate that into nude mice. More importantly, metastatic cells
the non-responsive lines have developed activating remain susceptible to cyclopamine treatment, both in
mutations in components downstream of SMO — a cell culture and after xenotransplantation into nude
hypothesis that is supported by previous studies in mice44. Although it is unknown at present if increased
which only a subset of glioma cell lines were noted to be Hh signalling facilitates tumour metastasis, these find-
responsive to cyclopamine-mediated inhibition of HH ings are exciting, as inhibition of the pathway could
signalling50. Interestingly, most pancreatic cancer cell present novel avenues for therapy of primary and
lines that were tested were positive for SHH expression metastatic tumours (BOX 1). This is particularly impor-
by reverse transcription-PCR, indicating that tumour tant as the high frequency of metastasis in pancreatic
formation and growth might be elicited by an autocrine adenocarcinomas during early stages of the disease,
mechanism51. Similarly, other tumours that are derived often before diagnosis, is one of the complications that
from the digestive tract (oesophagus, stomach, biliary contribute to low survival rates46.
tract, but not colon) are also marked by increased levels Only a few familial cases of pancreatic adenocarci-
of HH pathway activity and increased levels of SHH lig- nomas have been described so far, and the involvement
and expression. As expected, cell lines that are derived of HH signalling in these cases not been addressed.
from these gastrointestinal tumours are also susceptible One family (family X) has been identified in which
to cylopamine-mediated growth inhibition51. pancreatic adenocarcinomas occur with a very high
It is interesting to note that Hh signalling remains frequency. The genomic location of the syndrome has
active in some pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines recently been mapped to the chromosomal region
that were originally isolated from liver metastases of 4q32-34 (REF. 52). Interestingly, HIP1, which encodes an
inhibitor of HH signalling, is located immediately Although we have learned much about the down-
adjacent to this region, raising the possibility that a stream target genes of Hh signalling, few studies have
hypomorphic mutation in HIP1 could activate HH addressed the upstream regulation of Hh signalling
signalling in pancreatic tissue. Although further stud- during cancer formation. A recent study presents
ies are required to address this hypothesis, it is impor- intriguing evidence that Notch signalling — another
tant to note that HIP1 expression is lost in most pathway that is known to regulate cell differentiation
human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines44. In and proliferation — regulates Gli2 expression in
addition, Hip1–/– mice have increased levels of Hh sig- mouse skin62. Inactivation of the Notch1 gene in epi-
nalling during pancreas development23. Most Hip1–/– dermis induces sustained expression of Gli2 and
mice, however, die shortly after birth53, and no pancre- causes formation of BCC-like tumours. By contrast,
atic lesions have been found in Hip+/– mice that survive recent evidence indicates that Notch pathway activa-
to adulthood. Sequence analysis of the HIP1 gene in tion is involved in pancreatic cancer formation63,
DNA samples from members of family X might there- although an interaction between Notch and Hh sig-
fore be required to determine whether mutations in nalling has not been described in this tissue. In the
HH inhibitors are associated with familial forms of skin, Notch-dependent transformation is associated
pancreatic adenocarcinomas. with the activation of β-catenin and Lef1 — two
markers of active Wnt signalling. Upregulation of
Target genes and interactions WNT expression has previously been observed in
Recent studies mark Hh signalling as a key contribu- human BCCs64, indicating that tumour progression is
tor to cancer formation and maintenance in a distinct mediated via interaction of distinct signalling path-
but restricted set of cell types43,44,54. Improving our ways that regulate organ development during embryo-
understanding of the mechanism that regulate Hh genesis. Further studies will be required to determine
signalling and that of its target genes could lead to if these interactions might open new avenues for
new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. As men- treatment of Hh-responsive tumours64.
tioned above, Hh signalling controls cell-cycle pro-
gression by regulating cyclin expression and activity. Future directions
Moreover, Hh signalling regulates the expression of Adult stem cells, Hh signalling and cancer. One of the
the oncogene n-Myc in the nervous system 55 and most important unresolved questions in cancer biol-
could regulate Myc expression in other tissues. Myc ogy concerns the identity of cells that become
transcription factors are important inducers of cell tumorigenic. Striking similarities between cancer and
proliferation, and cyclopamine treatment of a medul- stem cells have been previously reported, as both cell
loblastoma cell line decreases expression of c-Myc, types have the potential for unlimited self-renewal.
l-Myc, and n-Myc genes 54. Therefore, constitutive Hh signalling is active in and required to maintain
activation of Hh signalling could maintain the prolif- stem-cell or precursor populations in several organs,
erative state of cells through deregulated control of and deregulation is known to result in tumorigenesis
the cell cycle. (BOX 2). Increasing evidence also indicates that, at least
Other transcriptional targets of Hh signalling are in some organs, uncontrolled Hh signalling results in
of particular interest, as they are also genes that have unregulated self-renewal of progenitor cells. In skin,
been found to be upregulated during tumorigenesis. Hh signalling is required for hair morphogenesis
In Drosophila, Hh signalling promotes epidermal during embryonic development. In the mature tissue,
growth factor (Egf) signalling by inducing its expres- the multipotent skin and hair stem cells transiently
sion, along with expression of Egf receptors56. express Ptch during the proliferation phase 65.
Interestingly, the activation of the Egf-receptor path- Multipotent cells then give rise to two progenitor
way is considered to be an early event in pancreas populations — epithelial progenitors (which do not
tumorigenesis. Autocrine signalling of the Egf path- express Ptch and give rise to the stratified epithelium)
way becomes activated during early stages of adeno- and hair progenitors (which continue to express Ptch
carcinoma formation, and sustained expression of the while they proliferate and then differentiate into the
Egf ligand Tgf-α in Trp53-mutant mice results in different cell populations of the hair follicle). The
adenocarcinoma formation49,57,58. level of Hh signalling, which is mainly mediated by
The Ras–Erk (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) Gli2 (REF. 25), seems to be crucial — loss of Hh sig-
pathway, which is associated with cell proliferation, is nalling prevents proliferation, whereas increased Hh
activated by platelet-derived growth factor (Pdgf) sig- signalling results in formation of BCCs (BOX 2).
nalling59,60. The Pdgf receptor-α (Pdgfr-α) is expressed Within the adult lung, Hh expression is limited to
at high levels in human and murine BCC61. The inter- small patches of epithelial cells43. Expression becomes
action between Hh and Pdgf signalling has been shown transiently activated during acute airway epithelial regen-
in cultured murine fibroblasts, BCC cells and CNS eration after tissue injury, indicating that the pathway
tumours50. In these cells, ectopic expression of Gli1 might mark neuroendocrine progenitor cells within the
increases Pdgfr-α expression, whereas inhibition of the lung epithelium. SCLCs possess many primitive neuroen-
Hh pathway reduces Pdgfr-α levels61. Therefore, Hh docrine features, and some SCLCs require Hh signalling
signalling controls many important pathways that have for tumour maintenance. The similarities beween Hh
been associated with tumorigenesis. signalling during neuroendocrine-cell regeneration and
Hh signalling
Hair follicle upregulation
Pancreatic
adenocarcinoma
EP
Differentiation
Duct
Basal-cell
carcinoma
Pancreatic
stem cell? Self-renewal
MP
Differentiation
HP
Islet
Hh signalling Proliferation
upregulation
Exocrine acini
SCLC formation indicate that deregulation of the Identification of these cells would be important for both
pathway in epithelial precursors is involved in tumour generating more differentiated β-cells to treat diabetics, as
formation. Similarly, the duct structures that are believed well as to better understand the molecular and cellular
to harbour adult pancreatic progenitor cells express Ptch1 principles that result in adenocarcinoma formation.
(REF. 20). Although conclusive evidence is lacking, cells HH signalling is essential for numerous processes
within or attached to pancreatic ducts are thought to give during organ development and maintenance of organ
rise to endocrine and exocrine cells during regeneration66, function. However, its ability to regulate cell differenti-
and endocrine cells that are located in epithelial struc- ation and renewal in a dose-dependent manner also
EXOCRINE ACIN tures known as islets of Langerhans continue to express means that deregulation of this pathway can result in
Alveolar structures that are Ptch1. Although the issue is still controversial, pancreatic uncontrolled cell proliferation. Fortunately, specific
formed by the cells that produce
and release pancreatic digestive
adenocarcinomas are thought to arise from duct cells67,68, inhibitors of the pathway are available for basic
enzymes in the lumen of indicating that Hh expression could mark pancreatic research, and those with therapeutic potential are
collecting pancreatic ducts. progenitor cells and control their proliferative potential. being developed. However, it should be noted that
detailed molecular analysis of tumour types is required and function, and on the other hand its association
to determine which patients will respond to anti-HH with tumorigenesis — has proven that the study of sig-
therapy. Although all tested pancreatic adenocarci- nalling pathways in the developing embryo can lead to
noma cell lines seem to express HH signalling compo- important insights into disease progression and treat-
nents, only five out of ten SCLC tumours express both ment. In the case of Hh signalling, this knowledge
SHH and GLI1 (REF. 43). So, analysis of tumour gene- could lead to new therapeutic approaches to treat
expression profiles69 might be useful in determining tumours that have poor prognoses. Finally, Hh
which tumour types have activated HH signalling and signalling interacts with other embryonic signalling
therefore be useful in predicting the outcome of pathways that are known to be involved in cancer for-
potential treatments with HH inhibitors. mation. Analysis of these connections should provide
Discovering the dual role of this pathway — on one important insights into the molecular causes of cancer
hand its requirement for normal organ development formation and growth.
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