FIBERGLASS REINFORCEMENT* 7

Dennis J. Vaughan

7.1 INTRODUCTION (2300°F). The molten glass then flows directly

The history of glass is ancient, but its engi- to the fiber-drawing furnace in a direct melt
neering scientific development is recent. flow process (Fig. 7.1) or into a marble making
machine. These marbles can be sorted and can
Glass was first produced some 4000 years
ago, probably in Egypt in the furnaces used to eventually be remelted and drawn into fibers.
produce pottery. Its first application was as a Continuous glass fibers are produced when
form of adornment in jewelry and as added molten glass from the fiber-drawing furnace is
gravity fed through numerous tiny openings
decoration to vases and drinking vessels.
in a platinum alloy tank called a bushing
The use of glass in fiber form dates back to
(Fig. 7.2). The droplets of molten glass that
the early seventeenth century when the
extrude from each of the bushing’s openings
Venetians utilized it to create specialized
(Fig. 7.3) are gathered together, mechanically
gowns. However, commercial fiberglass did
attenuated to the correct dimensions, passed
not become a reality until in 1939 the joint
through a water spray and over a revolving
research efforts of Owen-Illinois and Corning
belt that applies a protective and lubricating
Glass Works, resulted in the formation of
coating known as a size or binder. The fibers
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation.
are then gathered together in a suitably
Textile fiberglass has now grown into a
shaped shoe to form a bundle called a strand
multi-million dollar industry. Glass fiber can
which is wound onto a core at approximately
be obtained as a continuous fiber on staple or
190 km/h (120 mile/h). This package of fibers
discontinuous fiber. Both forms are made by
is then dried or conditioned prior to further
the same manufacturing process until the fiber
processing and eventually sold as a continu-
drawing operation.
ous filament yarn.
Staple fibers are produced by passing a jet of
7.2 FIBERGLASS PRODUCTION air across the openings at the base of the bush-
ing, which pulls individual fibers of
The production of glass fibers starts with the
approximately2040 cm (8-15 in) long from the
dry mixing of silica sand and limestone, boric
molten glass that is extruding from each open-
acid and a number of other products such as
ing. These filaments are collected on a rotating
clay, coal and fluorspar. These materials are
vacuum drum, sprayed with size and gathered
melted in a high-refractory furnace, the temper-
into a strand. This package of filaments is again
ature of the melt being dependent on the glass
conditioned or dried prior to processing into a
composition, but is generally about 1260°C
specific product for further use.

Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published * Significant portions of this article appeared in Handbook
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 of Composites, 1982, (G. Lubin ed.) Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
132 Fiberglass reinforcement

,CLAY , RAW MATERIALS

,COAL, F,LMRSPAR ,
LIMESTONE SILICA SAND BORIC ACID

FORYUUTION

U I
I I I

W
DECORATIVE AND
INDUSTRIAL YARN

-1
INSPECTION
AND

r
WEIGHING
TWISTING

OVEN HEAT TREATING

J
STRAND W
CHOPPING
7-77-

A capsule view of the fiber glass

manufacturing process lor yarn.
roving and chopped strand takes
PACKING the fiber from raw rnalerflals batch
slage lo 'inished products

Fig. 7.1 Direct-melt fiberglass manufacturing process.

 Glass composifion 133

Fig. 7.2 Molten glass flows from tiny orifices in Fig. 7.3 Molten glass flows from tiny orifices in
platinum bushings (Courtesy of PPG industries). platinum bushings (Courtesy of Owens-Corning
Fiberglas Industries).
Each individual fiber is drawn from the
bushing opening and must be controlled so that Table 7.1 Fiberglass filament designations
reproducible filaments, strand dimensions and
properties are obtained. This control is Filament Filament diameter
achieved by the regulation of the melt viscosity, designation
i n ~ l O - ~ Pm
temperature and drawing speed. It is possible,
B 1.5 3.8
therefore, to obtain a large number of filament C 1.8 4.5
diameters by varying the number of openings D 2.1 5
in the bushing and the drawing conditions. DE 2.5 6
As demand has dictated over the years, the E 2.9 7
fiberglass industry has established a number G 3.6 9
of standard filament diameters (Table 7.1). H 4.2 10
K 5.1 13

7.3 GLASS COMPOSITION

Glass is generally defined as an amorphous
material, being neither solid or liquid.
Chemically glass is made up of elements such
as silicon, boron and phosphorus that are con-
verted into glass when combined with oxygen,
sulfur, tellurium and selenium. The molecular
arrangement is conducive to formation of an
intricate three-dimensional network of oxygen
tetrahedra with a silicon atom in the middle,
bonded to each oxygen atom. Silicon by itself
requires extremely high temperatures for lique-
faction. Therefore, other elements are added to
the mix to reduce temperatures and to produce
134 Fiberglass reinforcement

a viscosity in the molten glass that will allow
easy drawing.
A number of glass compositions are avail-
able depending on the properties desired from
the resulting fibers (Table 7.2).
A-glass: A high alkali or soda glass is made
into fibers for use in applications where
good chemical resistance is needed.
E-glass: A low alkali glass, based on alu-
minum borosilicate. This glass possesses
excellent electrical insulation properties
and is the premium fiber used in the major-
ity of textile fiberglass production.
C-glass: A material based on soda borosili-
cate that produces a fiber that offers
excellent chemical resistance.
S-2 glass: This glass is made up of magne-
sium, aluminum silicate and offers higher
physical
-~ strength.
- Fibers produced from
this glass have an approximate per-
cent strength improvement Over
those of E-glass composition.
D-glass: This fiber made from a low dielec-
tric composition has dielectric loss
properties 'Onstant Of 3.8 at
mc s-l) superior to that of E-glass (6.O at
1mc s-l).
R-glass: A 'Pecial glass that
produces fiber that is alkali resistant and is
used in reinforcing concrete.
Low K: An experimental fiber produced to
Table 7.2 Fiberglass compositions (wt.%)
improve dielectric loss properties in electri-
cal applications (similar in performance to
D-glass).
0 Hollow fiber: A special glass whose fibers
are tube-like or hollow; the material has
specific applications in reinforced aircraft
parts where weight could be significant.
0 Te glass: A Japanese manufactured S-glass,
for higher strength structural application.
7.4 FIBERGLASS PROPERTIES
The composition of the original glass melt
probably plays the biggest role in determining
the properties of the fiberglass. The continuing
widespread use of fiberglass in numerous and
diverse applications can be directly related to
its inherent unique properties (Table 7.3). The
suppliers of these materials in the USA are
shown in Table 7.4.
0 High tensile strength: Fiberglass has an
exceptionally high tensile strength corn-
pared with other textile fibers. Its strength
to weight ratio exceeds steel wire in
applications.
0 Heat and fire resistance: Because fiberglass
is inorganic it does not burn or support
combustion.
0 Chemical resistance: Fiberglass has excel-
lent resistance to most chemicals and is
impervious to fungal, bacterial or insect
attack.

Components Grade of glass

~____._ ___
A C E s
(high alkali) (chemical) (electrical) (high strength)
Silicon oxide 72.0 64.6 54.3 64.2
Aluminum oxide 0.6 4.1 15.2 24.8
Ferrous oxide - - - 0.21
Calcium oxide 10.0 13.2 17.2 0.01
Magnesium oxide 2.5 3.3 4.7 10.27
Sodium oxide 14.2 7.7 0.6 0.27
Potassium oxide 1.7
Boron oxide 4.7 8.0 0.01
Barium oxide - 0.9 0.2
Miscellaneous 0.7
 Fiberglass properties 135
Table 7.3 Properties of fiberglass

Grade of glass
-
A C E 5
-
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.50 2.49 2.54 2.48
Mohs hardness - 6.5 6.5 6.5
Mechanical properties
Tensile strength, psi x lo3 (MPa)
At 72°F (22°C) 440 (3033) 440 (3033) 500 (3448) 665 (4585)
At 700°F (371°C) - - 380 (2620) 545 (3758)
At 1000°F (538°C) - - 250 (1724) 350 (2413)
Tensile modulus of elasticity at
72°F (22"C),psi X lo6 (GPa) - 10.0 (69.0) 10.5 (72.4) 12.4 (85.5)
Yield elongation, % - 4.8 4.8 5.7
Elastic recovery, % - 100 100 100
Thermal properties
Coefficient of thermal linear
expansion, OF-' x lo4
("C-1) 4.8 (8.6) 4.0 (7.2) 2.8 (5.0) 3.1 (5.6)
Coefficient of thermal
conductivity, Btu in h-' f f 2 OF-'
(Wm-' K-I 1 - - 72 (10.4) -
Specific heat at 72°F (22°C) - 0.212 0.197 0.176
Softening point, "F ("C) 1340 (727) 1380 (749) 1545 (841) -

Electrical properties
Dielectric strength, V/mil - - 498 -
Dielectric constant at 72°F (22°C)
At 69 Hz - - 5.9-6.4 5.0-5.4
At lo6 Hz 6.9 7.0 6.3 5.1
Dissipation (power) factor at 72°F (22°C)
At 60 Hz - - 0.005 0.003
At lo6 Hz - - 0.002 0.003
Volume resistivity at 72°F (22°C)
and 500 V DC, ohm-cm - - 1015 10'6
Surface resistivity at 72°F (22°C)
and 500 V DC, ohm-cm - - 1013 1014
Optical properties
Index of refraction - - 1.547 1.523
Acoustical properties
Velocity of sound, ft/s (m/s) - - 17 500 (5330) 19 200 (5850)

0 Moisture resistance: Because fiberglass does
not absorb water, it neither swells, stretches
nor disintegrates. Fiberglass does not readily
rot and continues to maintain its mechanical
strength in humid environments.
0 Thermal properties: Due to its low coeffi-
cient of thermal linear expansion and high
coefficient of thermal conductivity, fiber-
glass exhibits excellent performance in
thermal environments.
136 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.4 Summary of available fibers from manufacturers

Type of glass S uppl ier

OCF PPG Nitto Boeski Vetrotex NEG
-- ___ __ --
E X X X X X
S X X
5-2 X
D X
R X X
A X
C X
Low K X
Te X
Hollow fiber X X

0 Electrical properties: Fiberglass being non- 7.5 FIBERGLASS TYPES

conductive is an ideal choice for electrical
insulation, where designers can make use of 7.5.1 FIBERGLASS ROVING
the high dielectric strength and low dielec- Fiberglass roving is a collection of parallel con-
tric loss properties. tinuous strands or filaments. Conventional
The user may take advantage of one or more rovings are manufactured by winding together
of the above properties in manufacturing rein- the number of single strands necessary to pro-
forced composites. By utilizing both the high duce the required yield (the number of yards of
strength and the excellent electrical properties roving weighing one pound). Single strand
of glass fiber, the aircraft industry has found roving, as the name implies, consist of a single
fiberglass an excellent reinforcement for strand of fiberglass filaments. These filaments
radome applications. are drawn from a bushing that has the correct
The printed circuit board industry has used number of openings, so that the single strand
the combination of electrical properties and will have the correct yield.
superior dimensional stability of fiberglass to Rovings are generally manufactured from
manufacture circuit boards that can be used G or K filaments (see Table 7.1), larger diame-
under the various adverse environmental con- ters are also available. Roving yields can vary
ditions. from 1800 to 225 yd/lb (276 to 222 Tex). The
In numerous applications glass reinforce- use of the word Tex indicates a unit of fiber
ment is chosen because it allows composites to fineness that is assessed by the weight in
retain maximum properties in high moisture grams of 1000 m of yarn, the lower the num-
environments. E-glass fibers are the material ber, the finer the yarn.
of choice because of their excellent water resis-
tance. (E-glass fibers exhibit only a 1-7%
7.5.2 WOVEN ROVING
weight loss when exposed to boiling water for
60 min.) This water resistance helps maintain A number of rovings are woven into heavy,
the physical and electrical characteristics of coarse weave fabrics for use in materials that
the composite over prolonged time exposure require a quick build-up of composite thick-
to aqueous atmospheres’. ness over relatively large areas, such as various
marine products and different types of tooling.
Woven rovings are manufactured in
weights ranging from 400-1400 g/m2 (1240
 Fiberglass types 137

oz/yd2) and thicknesses of from 0.7-1.5 mm wet layup techniques or by impregnating and
(0.02-0.04 in) (see Table 7.5). applying low pressure (RTM) (see Table 7.5).
The fiberglass rovings can be used in con-
junction with polyester
~. resins in hand lay-up 7.5.3 FIBERGLASS MAT
techniques that
typically be used in the The three basic forms of fiberglass mat, are
manufacture of boats. Woven roving reinforced
chopped strand, continuous and surfacing or
laminates can be made by using conventional
veil.
Table 7.5 Woven roving and polyester laminate data

Woven roving constructions and properties

Count, Weight, Thickness, Weave
per in oz/yd2 in
(per em) (g / m2) (mm)
5x8 18.0 0.031 Plain
(2 X 3.2) (610) (0.787)
5x8 24.0 0.038 Plain
(2 X 3.2) (814) (0.965)
5x6 30.0 0.049 Plain
(2 X 2.4) (1020) (1.24)
5x8 36.0 0.052 Plain
(2 x 3.2) (1220) (1.32)

Laminate properties - 24 oz (814 g ) woven roving reinforced

Resin type" FR Epoxy FR Epoxy GI' Epoxy
Resin content, wt.% 49.0 45.6 42.5
Thickness, in (mm) 0.299 (7.59) 0.265 (6.73) 0.263 (6.68)
Cureb RT P+T P+T
Flexural strength, psi (MPa)
Cond. A' 34 200 (235.8) 49 800 (343.4) 73 100 (504.0)
Cond. D2/100d 38 800 (267.5) 44 400 (306.1) 59 600 (410.9)
Flexural modulus, psi (GPa)
Cond. A 20.6 X lo6 (14.2) 2.41 X lo6 (16.6) 2.92 X 106(20.0)
Cond. D2/100 2.12 X lo6 (14.6) 2.31 X lo6 (15.9) 2.83 X lo6 (19.5)
Compressive strength, psi (MPa)
Cond. A 29 700 (204.8) 25 700 (177.2) 47 300 (326.1)
Cond. D2/100 27 300 (188.2) 25 200 (173.8) 40 100 (276.5)
Tensile strength, psi (MPa)
Cond. A 42 000 (289.6) 48 900 (337.2) 51 400 (354.4)
Cond. D2/100 40 600 (279.9) 47 400 (326.8) 50 400 (347.5)

"FR = Fire Retardant; GP = General Purpose

"RT = Room Temperature; P + T = Pressure and Elevated Temperature
'Cond. A = as-received condition
dCond. D2/100 = immersion for 2 h in water at 100°C.
138 Fiberglass reinforcement
Chopped strand mat is a non-woven mater-
ial which the fiberglass strands are chopped
into 2-5 cm (1-2 in) lengths and evenly distrib-
uted at random onto a horizontal plane, bound
together with some type of chemical size. The
mats so produced weigh from 2.6-12g/m2
(0.7-3.0 oz/ft2)and are available in a variety of
widths, 60-230 cm (24-90 in) with 9.6 cm (38
in) width being the most typical.
Continuous strand mat is made of
unchopped continuous strands of fiberglass
deposited and interlocked in spiral fashion.
This mat is open and flexible, but due to its
mechanical interlocking does not require
much application of size to achieve adequate
handling strength.
Surface mat, or veil as it is sometimes
called, is a very thin mat of single continuous
filaments used frequently as a decorative sur-
face reinforcing layer in hand lay-up or press
molding processes in order to minimize sur-
face defects and to prevent ’weep’ in
pressurized wound tanks.
7.5.4 TEXTILE FIBERGLASS YARN
A yarn can be described as an assembly of
fibers or strands which can be woven into
some form of textile material.
The continuous individual strand as it
emerges from the bushing opening represents
the simplest form of textile fiberglass yarn and
is designated ’singles’ yarn. However, to
ensure the correct and efficient utilization of
this yarn in a weaving operation, additional
strand integrity has to be added by twisting
the yarn slightly (less than one turn per inch).
A number of woven fabrics, however, require
heavier yarns than can be drawn from the
bushing. These heavier yarns can be achieved
by combining single strands using a twisting
and plying operation. This simply involves
twisting one or more single strands together or
subsequently plying together two or more of
the twisted strands.
A yarn can be defined as having an ‘S’
twist if when it is held in a vertical position,
the spirals conform in shape to the central
position of the letter ’S’. Alternatively, a yarn
is said to have a ’Z’ twist if the spiral con-
forms in shape to the central position of the
letter ‘Z’.
Strands that have a simple twist (greater
than one turn per inch) will kink, corkscrew
and unravel, because their twist is in only one
direction. The plying operation will normally
eliminate this problem by countering the twist
in a twisted ’singles’ yarn with an opposite
twist in the plied yarn. For instance, a ’singles’
yarns which have a ’Z’ twist are plied with an
’S’ twist that will result in a balanced yarn. The
twisting and plying operations allow the
yarn‘s strength, diameter and flexibility to be
varied, which in turn allows scope in produc-
ing a wide range of suitable woven fabrics.
7.5.5 TEXTURED YARN
’Singles’ or plied yarn can be textured by using
a jet of air directed onto the yarn’s surface
which results in random but controlled break-
age of surface filaments, producing a general
increased loft to the fiber surface. The term
used to describe such a process is texturizing
or bulking and the degree to which it occurs
can be controlled by regulating the air pres-
sure and yarn feed rate. The texturing process
opens the fiber bundles resulting in some
mechanical damage to the surface filaments.
The increased surface area allows higher resin
absorption during impregnation and produces
low glass-to-resin ratios, resulting in more eco-
nomical laminates.
7.5.6 YARN NOMENCLATURE
Because of the wide variety of fiberglass yarns
produced, it is necessary to have a precise sys-
tem for yarn identification. The standard
fiberglass yarn nomenclature is based on both
alphabetical and numerical designations.
The first alphabetical letter identifies the
glass composition (E-glass), the second letter
indicates filament type (C = continuous) and
 Fiberglass types 139

the third and fourth letters identify filament ECG 150 4/2 3.8s
diameter (E 7 micron) [for details see Table 7.11. E = E-glass; C = Continuous filament; G =
The first series of numbers in the numerical Filament diameter
designation represents 1/1OOth of the basic 150 4/2 = Four basic strands of 150 1/0 are
strand yield, the second number series speci- twisted together to form 150 4/04
fies the number of single strands twisted 150 4/2 3.8s = Plying two strands of EGG
together and the number of twisted yarns 150 4/04 (using 'S' twist to create balance)
plied together. The total number of basic
The above yarn contains 8 (4 x 2) basic 150
strands in a plied yarn is found by multiplying
strands with a glass yield of 1875 (15 000 + 8)
these two figures. The yield of the yarns is
yards/pound.
obtained by dividing the basic strand yield by
The nomenclature and typical properties of
the total number of strands in the yarn. A third
commercially available weaving yarns can be
number combined with either the letter 'S' or
seen in Table 7.6.
'Z' (designating the type of twist) will some-
times also be included. For example:

Table 7.6 Commercially available fiberglass weaving yarns

Yarn designation Yield Minim um breaking strength

~. - ___
Glass system Tex system ydhb Tex Ib N
-~ ~~ -
E-glass Yarns
ECD 1800 1/0 EC5 2.75 1 x 0 180 000 2.75 0.25 1.11
ECD 1800 1/2 EC5 2.75 1 X 2 90 000 5.5 0.5 2.22
ECD 900 1/0 EC5 5.5 1 x 0 90 000 5.5 0.5 1.11
ECD 900 1/2 EC5 5.5 1 x 2 45 000 11 1.1 4.89
ECD 450 1/0 EC5 11 1 x 0 45 000 11 1.1 4.89
ECD 450 1/2 EC5 11 1 X2 22 500 22 2.2 9.79
ECD 450 1/3 EC5111x3 15 000 33 3.3 14.7
ECD 450 2/2 EC5112x2 11 250 44 4.4 19.6
ECD 450 3/2 EC5 11 3 X 2 7500 66 6.6 29.4
ECD 225 1/0 EC5 22 1 x 0 22 500 22 2.2 9.78
ECD 225 1/2 EC5 22 1 x 2 11250 44 4.4 19.6
ECD 225 1 / 3 EC5 22 1 X 3 7500 66 6.6 29.4
ECD 225 2/2 EC5 22 2 x 2 5625 88 8.8 39.1
ECD 225 2/3 EC5 22 2 X 3 3750 132 14.4 64.1
ECDE 150 1/0 EC6 33 1 X 0 15 000 33 3.5 15.6
ECDE 150 1/2 EC6 33 1X 2 7500 66 7.0 31.1
ECG 150 1/0 EC9 33 1x 0 15 000 33 3.5 15.6
ECG 150 1/2 EC933 1 X2 7500 66 7.0 31.1
ECG 150 1/3 EC9 33 1 x 3 5000 99 9.0 40.0
ECG 150 2/2 EC9 33 2 X 2 3750 132 12.0 53.4
ECG 150 2/3 EC9 33 2 x 3 2500 196 18.0 80.1
ECG 150 2/4 EC9 33 2 x 4 1875 264 24.0 107
ECG 150 3/3 EC9 33 3 x 3 1667 297 27.0 120
ECG 150 4/4 EC9 33 4 X 4 938 528 48.0 214
Continued on next page
140 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.6 Continued

Yarn designation Yield Minimum breaking strength

Glass system Tex system
ECDE 75 1 / 0 EC6 66 1 X 0 7500 66 5.7 25.4
ECG 75 1/0 EC9 66 1 X 0 7500 66 5.7 25.4
ECG 75 1 / 2 EC9 66 1 X 2 3750 132 11.4 50.7
ECG 75 1 / 3 EC9 66 1 X 3 2500 198 17.1 76.1
ECG 75 2/2 EC9 66 2 X 2 1875 264 22.8 101
ECG 75 2/3 EC9 66 2 X 3 1250 396 34.2 152
ECG 75 2/4 EC9 66 2 X 4 938 528 45.6 203
ECH 55 1/0 EClO 90 1 X 0 5500 90 9.5 42.3
ECDE 37 1/0 EC6 134 1 X 0 3700 134 11.2 49.8
ECG 37 1/0 EC9 134 1X 0 3700 134 11.2 49.8
ECG 37 1/2 EC9 134 1 X 2 1850 268 22.8 101
ECG 37 1 / 3 EC9 134 1 X 3 1230 403 34.2 152
ECH 25 1/0 EClO 198 1 X 0 2500 198 17.0 75.6
ECK 18 1 / 0 EC13 275 1 X 0 1800 275 23.0 102
S-glass Yarns
s c 5 11 1 x 1 22 500 22 - -
SCD 450 1/2
SCG 150 1/2 s c 9 33 1 x 2 7500 66 8.2 36.5
SCG 150 2/2 s c 9 33 2 x 2 3750 132 16.4 72.9
Textured Yarns
ETDE 150 1/0 ET6 33 1 X 0 14 200 35 1.24 5.52
ETDE 75 1/0 ET6 66 1 X 0 7100 70 2.2 9.79
ETDE 37 1/0 ET6 134 1 X 0 3450 144 4.7 29.0

7.5.7 FIBERGLASS FABRIC There is a variety of weave patterns

The effect that fiberglass fabrics have on the
properties of composite material is largely
dependent on the fabric’s construction, which
involves fabric count, warp and filling yarn
construction, weight and weave pattern.
The fabric’s count is made up of the number
of warp yarns (’ends’) per inch (cm) in the
width and the number of filling yarns (’picks’)
per inch (cm) in the lengthwise direction.
The warp yarn is the yarn that lies in the
lengthwise (machme) direction of the fabric.
The filling yarn is the yarn lying in the cross-
wise direction of the fabric. The physical
parameters of the fabric, such as weight, thick-
ness and tensile strength are directly
proportional to the types and numbers of yarns
used to weave it (see Table 7.7)
(Fig. 7.4) that can be used to combine warp and
filling yarns to form a fabric. This weave pat-
tern controls the handling characteristics of the
fabric and to a large extent the properties of the
composite that uses it as a reinforcement.
(a) Plain weave: This fabric is constructed so
that one warp yarn passes over and under
one filling yarn (and vice versa). While the
resulting fabric exhibits the greatest degree
of stability in respect to yarn slippage and
fabric distortion, this stability is also a func-
tion of the fabric count and yarn content.
(b) Basket weave: A basket weave fabric has
two or more warp yarns interlocking over
and under two or more filling yarns. While
a basket weave is less stable than a plain
weave, it is more pliable and will conform
or drape more readily to simple contours.
 Fiberglass types 141

Table 7.7 Glass-fabricconstruction and properties: physical properties for loomstate fabrics (without finish)

Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Bveaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm stvengtlz,
/in US system US system ozf yd? in N/5 cm
lb/in

104 23.6 x 20.5 5 5.5 1x 0 5 2.75 1 x 0 Plain 19.7 0.030 350 x 130
60 x 52 D 900 1/0 D 1800 1/0 0.58 0.0012 40x15
106 22.0 x 22.0 D 5.5 1x 0 5 5.5 1x 0 Plain 24.7 0.038 394 x 350
56 x 56 D 900 1 / 0 D 900 1 / 0 0.73 n.nni
- _ -,5- 4.5
. x 40
.-

1Q7 236x138 D5.51~2 55.51~0 Plain 35.6 0.043 613x 175

60x35 D9001/2 D9001/0 1.05 0.0017 Mx20
108 23.6~18.5 D5.51~2 55.51~2 Plain 4.8.8 0.051 613x350
60x47 D9001/2 D9001/2 1.44 0.0020 70x40
1 151Fx95.4 5111x2 5111x2 Plain 71.9 0.076 718x700
6x39 I D4501/2 D4501/2 2.12 0.003 82x80
1 23.6x25.2 5111x2 5531x2 Plain 83.7 0.076 1077 x 525
60x64 DW1/2 D9001/2 2.47 0.003 123x60
116 236~22.8 D111x2 511 1 x 2 Plain 107 0.102 1095x1050
60x57 D 450 1/2 D 450 1/2 3.16 0.004 125x120
120 23.6 x 22.8 5 111x 2 5 1 11x 2 Crowfoot 107 0.102 1095 x 1050

220 23.6 x 22.8 7 22 1x 0 7 22 1x 0 Crowfoot 109.2 0.0889 1096 x 1051

60 x 58 E 225 1 / 0 E 225 1 / 0 3.22 0.0035 125 x 120
341 118~19.3 5111x2 5223x2 Crowfoot 298 0.229 438x5250
30x49. D4501/2 D2253/2 8.78 0.009 50x600
1070 23.6 x 13.8 5111x0 55.51~0 Plain 35.6 0.043 613 x 175
60 x 35 D 450 1/0 D 900 1/0 1.05 0.0017 70x20
1080 23.6 x 18.5 5111x0 5111x0 Plain 48.8 0.051 613 x 350
60 x 47 1.44 0 002 70 x 40
1 0.060 700x613
0.0024 80x70
1 0.089 788x1
0.0035 9 D x 1
1165 23.6 x 20.5 5111x2 9 331 x 0 Plain 124 0.109 1310 x 1180
60 x 52 D 450 1/2 G 150 1/0 3.66 0.0043 150 x 135
Continued on next page
142 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.7 Continued

Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Breaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm strength,
/in US system US system oz/yd2 in N/5 em
lb/in
-
-. _. - . _ - -
1560 1 9 . 3 ~16.5 7511x0 7511x0 Plain 167.8 0.132 2285 x 515
49x42 E 110 l / O E 110 1/0 4.95 0.0052 261x253
1501 18.2 x 12.7 751 1/0 751 1 x 0 Rain 166.1 0.127 2145 x 2102
46x45 E 110 1/0 E 110 1/0 4.90 o m 245x240
1504 23.6x19.7 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 147.8 0.127 2 6 8 8 ~2233
60x50 DE 150 1/0 DE 150 1/0 4.36 0.01)50 307x255
1522 9.1x 8.7 9331x2 9331 x 2 Plain 125 0.140 1400 x 1180
24 x 22 G 150 1 / 2 CG 150 1/2 3.70 0.0055 160 x 135
1523 11.0 x 7.9 9333x2 9333x2 Plain 403 0.356 4595 x 3500
28 x 20
-_ - G 150
...3.,/ 2
~
G 150 3 / 2 11.9 0.014 525 x 400
1526 13.4 x 12.6 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 185 0.165 1970 x 1705
34 x 32 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 5.45 0.0065 225x195
1527 6.7 x 6.7 9333x3 9333x3 Plain 437 0.381 4375 x 4245
17 x 17 G 150 3/ 3 G 150 3/ 3 12.9 0.015 500 x 485
1528 17.3 x 12.6 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 203 0.178 2185 x 1750
44 x 32 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 6.00 0.007 250 x 200
1543 19.3 x 11.8 9662x2 7221x2 Crowfoot 298 0.229 5250 x 525
49 x 30 G 75 2/2 D 225 1/2 8.34 0.009 600x60
1557 22.4 x 11.8 9331x2 7221x0 Crowfoot 184 0.140 3240 x 525
57 x 30 G 150 1 / 2 E 225 1/0 5.42 0.0055 370 x 60
1564 9241x2 9241x2 9334x2 Plain 431 0.406 4375 x 3940
G 37 1/2 G 37 1/2 G 150 4/2 12.7 0.016 500 x 450
1581 22.4 x 21.3 9331x2 9331x2 Satin 302 0.216 2975 x 2885
57 x 54 G 150 1/2 G 150 1 / 2 8.92 0.0085 340 x 330
1582 23.6 x 22.0 9331x3 9331x3 Satin 454 0.356 4595 x 4375
60 x 56 G 150 1/3 G 150 1/3 13.4 0.014 525 x 500
1583 21.3 x 18.9 9332x2 9332x2 Satin 570 0.457 5690 x 5165
54 x 48 G 150 2/2 G 150 2/2 16.8 0.018 650 x 590
1584 17.3 x 13.8 9684x2 9684x2 Satin 861 0.686 8315 x 7005
44 x 36 G 75 2/2 G 75 2/2 25.4 0.035 950 x 800
1588 16.5 x 14.2 9334x4 9334x4 Satin 1756 1.27 16 635 x 11820
42 x 36 G 150 4/4 G 150 4/4 51.8 0.050 1900 x 1350
1614 11.8 x 5.51 933 1x 0 968 1x 0 Len0 79.0 0.127 657x744
30 x 14 G 150 1 / 0 G 75 1 / 0 2.33 0.005 75 x 85
1652 20.5 x 20.5 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 141.7 0.114 2154 x 1926
52 x 52 G 150 1/0 G 150 1/0 4.18 0.00454 246 x 220
1665 15.7 x 9.5 9331x0 6681x0 Plain 141.7 0.114 2154 x 1926
40 x 24 G 150 1/0 DE 75 1/0 3.50 0.0049 180 x 180
1674 15.7 x 12.6 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 95.6 0.107 1225 x 832
40 x 32 G 150 1/0 G 150 1/0 2.82 0.0042 140 x 95
1675 15.7 x 12.6 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 95.6 0.107 1225 x 832
40 x 32 DE 150 1 / 0 DE 150 1/0 2.82 0.0042 140 x 95

1677 15.7 x 15.7 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 108 0.114 1225 x 1135
40 x 40 DE 150 1/0 DE 150 1/0 3.20 0.0045 140 x 130
Continued on next page
 Fiberglass types 143
Table 7.7 Continued
.
..

Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness Breaking
/cni 7ex system Tex system g/m’ mrn strength,
/in US system US system oz/yd2 in N/5 cm
lb/in
-~ ~~~ _ _ _ ~ _ _ ~ _ ~ ~
1678 15.7 x 15.7 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 108.5 0.109 1839 x 1751

16 x 14 K 18 1 / 0 R 18 1 / 0 9.66 0.014 o.
431 x 41_
2112 15.7 x 15.4 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 71.2 0.086 788x700
40x39 E2251/0 E2251/0 2.10 0.0034 90x80
2il3 23.6 x 22.0 7221x0 5111x0 Plain 80.7 0.081 1225X!i2B
60x56 E225L’O E4501/0 2.38 0.0032 14Ox~
2116 23.6 x 22.8 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 107 0.102 1095 x 1050
60 x 58 F 225 1/11 c 225 I / i ) 1.16 u.001 125 x 120
2117 26~21.6 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 20.4 0.085 1182xlfM9
66x55 E2251/0 R2251/0 3.18 0.0037 135x115
23.20 23.6~228 5221x0 5221 Crowfoot 107 002 1095XlW
60x58 D2251Jf) 0 2 2 5 3.16 0.004 W x 120.
2123 15.7x15.4 5221x0 9331x0 Plain 888 0.094 rnXlP35
80x39 D225 l / O G 150 1/0 2.62 0.0051 9ox13Q
2165 23.6x20.5 5221x0 9331x0 Plain 225 0.114 1095x1220
60 x 52 D 225 1/0 G 150 1/0 3.70 0.0045 125x140
2313 13.6 x 25.2 7221 x 0 511 1 x 0 Plain 80.7 0.81 3 1226 x 525
60 x 64 E 225 1 / 0 D 450 1 / 0 2.38 0.0032 140 x 60
2523 11.0 x 7.9 10 198 1x 0 10 198 1x 0 Plain 403 0.330 5075 x 3370
28 x 20 H 25 1 / 0 H 25 1/0 11.9 0.013 580 x 385
2532 6.3 x 5.5 10 198 1x 0 10 198 1x 0 Plain 246 0.254 2625 x 2450
16 x 14 H251/0
~ H251/0 7.25
~. n.nin 3nn x 2x13
3070 276x76 6 16.5 1 x 0 6 165 1 x 0 Plain 92.1 0.0788 1226xk26
70 x 70 DE 300 1/0 DE 300 1/0 2.74 0.0031 lLPoxlg0
3313 2.3.6 x 24.4 6 16.5 1 x 0 6 16.5 1x 0 Plain 81.4 0.0076 1050x2094
60x62 DE 300 1/0 DE 300 11’0 2.40 0.0030 120x125
34 1 91341 crowfoot 431 0.390 5900x3700
371 G 37 1 12.7 0.0134 571x423
3733 7 1 x7.1 91341x0 91341x0 Plain 197 0.203 2185 x 1750
18 x 18 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 5.80 0.008 250 x 200
3743 19.3 x 11.8 9 134 1x 0 5 22 1x 0 Crowfoot 286 0.203 5250 x 525
49 x 30 G 37 1/0 D 225 1/0 8.45 0.008 600 x 60
3783 21.2 x 18.9 9 134 1x 0 9 134 1x 0 8Harness 556 0.406 4816 x 4290
54 x 48 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 16.4 0.0160 550 x 490
4522 9.4 x 8.7 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 123.4 0.130 1226 x 1130
(6522) 24x22 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 3.64 0.0051 140 x 129
4533 7.1 x 7.1 9681x2 9681x2 Plain 200.7 0.188 2382 x 2601
(6533) 1 8 x 18 G 75 1/2 G 75 1/2 5.92 0.0071 272 x 297
Continued on next page
144 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.7 Continued

~~ ~

Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Breaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm strength,
/in US system US system oz/ydZ in a N/5 em
1b/in
- - - - - - -
4700 5.5 x 5.1 9681x0 9681x0 Rain 147.5 0.1% 2189x1445
14x 13 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 4.30 0.0077 250x165
6060 23.6x23.6 6 8 . 2 7 1 ~ 0 68271x0 Plain 39.0 0.0019 656.7 x 718
60x60 DH l b 0 DE 600 5 / 0 1.19 0.048 75x82
6581 22.4x21.3 9331x2 9331x2 8ws 301.8 0.228 3520x2846
57x54 f;1 9 1/2 G 150 112 8.90 0.90 400x325
6781 22.4 x 21.3 9681x0 9681x0 X HS 301.X 0.28 3320 x 28-36
57 x 54 S2C6 75 1 / 0 S2CG75 1 / 0 8.90 0.0090 400 x 325
7500 6.3 x5.5 9682x2 9682x2 Plain 327 0.356 3940 x 3590
16 x 14 G 75 2/2 G 75 2/2 9.66 0.014 450 x 410
7520 7.1 x 7.1 9681x3 9681x3 Plain 294.3 0.304 2890 x 2890
18 x 18 G 75 1/3 G 75 1/3 8.68 0.0120 338 x 330
7532 6.3 x 5.5 9681x3 9681x3 Plain 254 0.254 2930 x 2765
16 x 14 G 75 1 / 3 G 75 1 / 3 7.50 0.010 335 x 316
7533 7.1 x 7.1 9681x2 9681x2 Plain 193 0.203 2010 x 1925
18 x 18 G 75 1/2 G 75 1 / 2 5.70 0.008 230 x 220
7544 11.0 x 5.5 9682x2 9682x2 2xlBSK. 610 0.559 6520 x 7265

7626 13.4 x 12.6 9681x0 9681x0 Plain 183 0.168 1970 x 1750
34 x 32 G 75 1/0 G 75 1/0 5.40 0.0066 225 x 200
7628 17.3 x 12.6 968 1 x 0 968 1 x 0 Plain 203 0.178 2190 x 1750
44 x 32 G 75 1/0 G 75 1/0 6.00 0.007 250 x 200
7629 17.3 x 13.3 9681x0 9681x0 Plain 211.9 0.178 2190 x 1883
44 x 34 G 75 1 / 0 G 75 1 / 0 6.25 0.007 250 x 215

44 x 20 G 75 1/0 G 37 1/0 (Tex) 6.85 0.011 250 x 120

59 x 54 DE 75 1/0 DE 75 1 / 0 9.15 0.010 340 x 330

76281 17.3 x 12.6 968 1 x 0 9 6 8 1x 0 Crowfoot 203 0.173 2190 x 1750
44 x 32 G 75 1/0 G 75 1/0 6.00 0.0068 250 x 200

Shaded items may be obsolete or not in all vendor current catalogues

 Fiberglass types 145

Notes to Table 7.7

All fabrics listed in Table 7.7 which contain D 225 5 22 yam can also be woven with the original E
2257 22 yarn equivalents.
Breaking strength of fabrics in SI units: N was determined by testing a specimen of 5 cm width and is
for loomstate fabrics. Finishing reduces fabric strength.
This thickness is an estimate for dry ply thickness and is an average of several tests. The manufacturer
usually reports a range of thicknesses. To estimate the cured ply thickness, divide the dry estimate by
the expected fiber volume, i.e. if the dry thickness is 0.1 mm and the fiber volume is 0.5 then the
estimated cured ply thickness is 0.1/0.5 or 0.20 mm. See introduction for methods of converting
between weight and volume percent.
Styles 4522 (6522) and 4533 (6533) are S-2 glass; Styles 6581 and 6781 are S-glass.
a Data from Reference 3

Fig. 7.4 (a) Plain weave; (b)basket weave; (c) twill weave; (d) crowfoot satin (four harness weave; (e) eight-
harness satin weave.

(c) Twill weave: This fabric consists of one or
more warp yarns over and under two or
more filling yarns in a regular pattern. This
produces either a straight or a broken diag-
onal line in the fabric, which produces
greater drapeability and stability.
(d) Crowfoot satin weave: This weave pattern
has one warp yarn interlocking over three
and under one filling yarn in an irregular
pattern. The fabric that results is extremely
pliable and lends itself to conforming to
complex contours.
(e) Eight-harness satin weave: A fabric con-
structed with one warp yarn interlocking
over seven and under one filling yam in an
irregular pattern. The resulting fabric is
very pliable and readily conforms to com-
pound contours. Because this weave
pattern allows comparatively high fabric
counts, it contributes maximum strength to
composites reinforced by it.
(f) Unidirectional fabrics: Fabrics produced
with heavy warp yarns and light filling
yarns, in either crowfoot or long shaft satin
weaves. The filling yarns can also be com-
posed of yarns other than glass. These
fabrics offer high strength reinforcements
in the heavy yarn direction.
146 Fiberglass reinforcement
(g) Non-woven: Unidirectional fabrics that can
be produced by sticking the 'warp' and 'fill-
ing' yarns together chemically. Although
this chemical bonding contributes to the
fabric's stability, these fabrics have a firm
hand and do not drape over complex con-
tours.
7.5.8 OTHER WOVEN FORMS
Fiberglass yarns can also be woven into tapes,
contoured fabrics, fluted core fabrics and three
dimensional fabrics.
Tapes are usually narrow fabrics [less than
30 cm (12 in) wide], with a secured selvedge to
prevent unravelling. Contoured fabrics are
woven into a specific geometrical shape.
Fluted core fabrics are two parallel layers of
fabric tied together by stringers of woven fab-
rics so that the cross-section is triangular or
rectangular. Three dimensional fabrics are
really planar or fabrics woven with yarns in
three distinct directions within the fabric plane.
That is, yams are interwoven in: (i) the machine
direction, (ii) +45" from the machine direction,
or (iii) -45" from the machine direction.
7.5.9 MILLED FIBERS
Continuous fiberglass strands can be hammer
milled into very short fiber lengths [approx.
2-6 mm ( H 6 - X in) long]. The actual fiber
lengths are determined by the diameter of the
screen openings through which the fibers pass
during milling. These milled fibers are usually
used as inert fillers for thermoplastic and ther-
moset resin systems.
7.6 SURFACE TREATMENTS
7.6.1 ROVINGS
In order for fiberglass rovings to be compatible
with processing methods and materials, a
chemical size is applied during the basic fiber
forming operation. The formulation of this size
is designed to hold the individual glass fila-
ments together, lubricate the roving for contact
with various processing equipment, and to
permit the glass filaments to be thoroughly
wetted when combined with other materials.
Fiberglass roving sizes consist of polyvinyl
acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, or PVA/starch as a
film former with the addition of such chemi-
cals as chrome complexes, organosilane
antistatic agents and lubricants that impart the
desired strand characteristics.The film former
aids in adhering the filaments together and
giving strand integrity that will reduce fila-
ment abrasion during fiber drawing, strand
conversion and the end use of the rovings by
the fabricator.
An organosilane or coupling agent is
added, that can react with hydroxyl groups on
the glass fiber surface and also possesses one
or more reactive groups to react with other
materials, specifically those present in thermo-
plastic and thermosetting resins. The silane
produces a form of chemical bridge between
the glass surface and the resin matrix.
The inclusion of antistatic agents and lubri-
cants improves the softness and choppability
of the roving. The selection of a roving size is
based on its resin compatibility, processing
and the expected end use performance.
The largest percentage of rovings are used in
processes that require relatively short fiber
lengths (1-5 cm, 0.5-2.0 in). This type is used in
processes such as spray-up, preform molding,
bulk molding compounds and continuous
lamination.
Rovings suitable for chopping are available
in varying degrees of softness; the softer rov-
ings are generally more difficult to chop, but
they are recommended for use in applications
that require intricate shapes, sharp comers
and difficult radii. Conversely, the harder
types of rovings are generally recommended
for use where the choppability is of prime
importance and they are used in simple parts
with minimum contours and radii.
Single strand rovings that are commonly
used in filament winding and pultrusion
should have good strand integrity, controlled

level of broken filaments, good wettability and
uniform processability under controlled ten-
sion.
S-glass based rovings have been used in
applications where the composite needs
increased physical properties ( e g filament
wound pressure vessels).
7.6.2 FIBERGLASS TEXTILE YARNS
The continuous fiberglass strands that will be
used in weaving are treated at the bushing
with a starch-oil binder; the general formula
for such a binder can be a partially or fully
dextrinized starch or amylose hydrogenated
vegetable oil, a cationic wetting agent, emulsi-
fying agent and water. These sizes or binders
are intended to protect the fibers from damage
during their formation and subsequent opera-
tions of twisting, plying and weaving.
7.6.3 FIBERGLASS FABRICS
Fabrics directly from the loom still have the
original binders that were applied at the yarn
bushing; the warp yarns have also been treated
with a polyvinyl alcohol solution to help pro-
tect them during weaving. These binders and
sizes are not compatible with the resins used
by the composite manufacturers and must be
removed prior to impregnation with other
polymers. This is usually accomplished by
treating the fabric to carefully controlled
time-temperature cycles, which results in com-
plete removal of all organic material. However,
after this heat treatment no suitable interface
exists between the fiberglass surface and the
resin matrices that will eventually be used. An
improved interface with resulting good adhe-
sion even in adverse environment conditions
can be achieved by the application of a cou-
pling agent to the glass fiber surface.
The most commonly used coupling agents
in current use are those termed silanes. The
coupling agent mechanism of these
organofunctional silanes depends on a link
between the organofunctional group (desig-
Design considerations 147
nated Y) and hydrolyzable groups (designated
X) in materials with a generic structure X,SiRY.
The hydrolyzable groups are intermediaries in
the formation of silanol groups that bond to
the glass surface, whereas the organofunc-
tional groups are designed for reactivity or
compatibility with the polymer to be used by
the composite manufacturer. (Table 7.8)
The chemical functionability of the cou-
pling agent can determine the resistance to
varied environments, chemical, physical and
thermal (Table 7.9). There are many functions
that may be attributed to coupling agents at
the glass-resin interface. They may provide
lubrication to protect against abrasion during
fabrication. The coupling agent mechanism
can protect against stress corrosion as a result
of water incursion and can help improve the
mechanical and electrical properties of rein-
forced composites.
7.7 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
It is only recently that the engineering and
design criteria in the combination of such dif-
ferent materials as thermosetting and
thermoplastic polymers with reinforcing of
glass were properly understood. There are a
number of basic considerations that are com-
mon to the use of fiberglass as a reinforcing
media in the production of composites. The
type form, weave pattern, weight, permeabil-
ity and alignment of the fibers have direct
bearing on the mechanical properties of the
composite. Also in some instances the chemi-
cal, thermal and electrical properties may also
be influenced by the judicious choice of rein-
forcing material (Table 7.10).
7.7.1 GLASS COMPOSITION
The chemical composition of the glass can
have a direct bearing on the fiber properties
which can indirectly affect composite perfor-
mance.
It has been noted that 'E' glass composition
fibers can contribute 210 000-225 000 psi to the
148 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.8 Commercial coupling agents

Organofunctionalgroup Clzemical structure

Vinyl CH,= CHSi(OCH,),
Chloropropyl ClCH,CH,CH,Si(OCH,),

/”\
EPOXY CH2CHCH20CH2CH2CH2Si(OCH3)3
CH2
I
Methacrylate (CH2=C-COOCH2CH2CH2Si(OCH3)3
Primary amine H,NCH,CH,CH,Si(OC,H,),
Diamine H,NCH,CH,NHCH,CH,CH,Si(OCH,)3
Mercapto HSCH,CH,CH,Si(OCH,),
Cationic styryl CH,=CHC,H,CH,NHCH,CH~NH(CH~),Si(OCH,),HCl
CH3 c1
I I +
Cationic methacrylate CH2=CXOOCH2CH2- N(Me2)CH2CH2CH2Si(OCH&

CH3
I
CH,=C
I
Chrome complex

CH2
I
Titanate (CH2=C-C00)3 TiOCH(CH&
Cross-linker (CH,O), SiCH,CH,Si (OCH,),
Mixed silanes C,H,Si(OCH,), + F
Formulated Melamine resin + C

tensile strength of a composite which they 7.7.2 FILAMENT DIAMETER

reinforce. A number of different ’E’ glass filament diam-
Other glass compositions/ ’” and eters have been evaluated comparing the
’2’ glass, have produced even greater strength influence of filament diameter on resulting
improvements in reinforced composites. laminate properties. The fabrics evaluated
were woven with the same count and weave
pattern as Style 1581, using both plied and sin-
gles yarn containing different filament
diameters (Tables 7.11 and 7.12).
 Design considerations 149

Table 7.9 Effect of coupling agents on the mechanical strength properties of laminates

Finish Loomstate 112 Volan A1 72 A174,26030

Polyester laminates reinforced with style 1581 glass fabric
Flexural strength,
psi X lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 40.4 (278.6) 32.3 (222.7) 73.2 (504.7) 68.8 (474.4) 75.5 (520.6)
Cond. D2/100 25.3 (174.4) 31.8 (219.3) 59.0 (406.8) 66.1 (455.8) 77.3 (533.0)
Compressive strength,
psi X lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 23.8 (164.1) 40.4 (278.6) 48.0 (331.0) 47.1 (324.8) 66.2 (456.4)
Cond. D2/100 12.5 (86.2) 12.1 (83.4) 38.9 (268.2) 44.9 (309.6) 58.8 (405.4)
Tensile strength,
psi X lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 48.1 (331.6) 20.6 (142.0) 49.9 (344.1) 50.0 (344.8) 52.2 (359.9)
Cond. D2/100 48.8 (336.5) 51.2 (353.7) 50.7 (349.6)
Epoxy laminates reinforced with style 1581 glass fabric
Flexural strength,
psi X lo" (MPa)
Cond. A 78.2 (539.2) 76.0 (524.0) 80.9 (557.8) 71.3 (491.6) 85.7 (590.9)
Cond. D2/100 76.7 (528.8) 72.4 (499.2) 83.1 (573.0) 68.9 (475.1) 82.4 (568.1)
Compressive strength,
psi X lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 64.3 (443.3) 63.4 (437.1) 70.7 (487.5) 63.0 (434.4) 67.5 (465.4)
Cond. D2/100 58.5 (403.3) 54.1 (373.0) 64.7 (446.1) 62.9 (433.7) 59.5 (410.3)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 56.9 (392.3) 48.8 (336.5) 57.8 (398.5) 50.9 (351.0) 58.2 (401.3)
Cond. D2/100 55.8 (384.7) 47.2 (325.4) 56.1 (386.8) 49.4 (340.6) 52.2 (359.9)

Filament diameter does not appear to play
an important role in the determination of the
mechanical properties of such plied yarn fab-
rics as Style 1581 woven with ECG 150 1/2
(EC 9 33 1 x 2 yarn and style) and Style 1281
woven with ECB 150 1/2 (EC 3.8 33 1 x 2
yarn). However, in comparison with commer-
cially available singles yarn Style 7781 woven
with ECDE 75 1 / 0 (EC 6.66 1 x 0) yarn, sin-
gles yarn Style B 7781 woven with finer
filaments [ECB 75 1/0 (EC3 8.66 1 x 0 yarn)]
gives laminates with higher flexural
strengths, flexural modulus and tensile
strengths. Conversely a singles yarn G 7681
woven with coarser filaments [ECG 75 1/0
(EC9 66 1 x 0 yarn)] gives composites with
improved compressive strengths.
The effect of variation in the available sur-
face area for stress transfer is affected by the
coupling agent-resin interaction. Larger sur-
face areas with poor coupling agents reduces
specific shear loading on the interface and so
produces high laminate flexural strengths. But
with improved interfacial bonding the surface
areas effect disappears because other failure
modes appear first. Singles yarns produce
higher composite strengths due to the smaller
angle between fiber axis and load axis in the
lower twist yarns. This produces less tensile
loading across the interface; the magnitude of
this effect will vary with the resin coupling
agent efficiency and the function of the twist of
the yarn or the angle of the spiral of the fila-
ments.
150 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.10 The effect of fabric construction on laminate mechanical properties2

Fabric construction
Fabric no. E1581 51581 YM31A"
Count/in (cm) 57 X 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3)
Warp yarn
Glass system ECG 150 1/2 SCG 150 1/ 2 MCG 150 1 / 2
Tex system EC933 1 x 2 SC933 1 x 2 MC9 33 1 x 2
Filling yarn
Glass system ECG 150 1/2 SCG 150 1/2 MCG 150 1/2
Tex system EC9 33 1 x 2 s c 9 33 1 x 2 MC9 33 1 x 2
Weave Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin

Laminate mechanical properties

Fabric no. E1581 S1581 YM31A"
Flexural strength,
psi x lo" (MPa)
Cond. A 88.6 (610.9) 87.1 (600.6) 89.8 (619.2)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x loh (GPa)
Cond. A 3.78 (26.1) 3.79 (26.1) 5.00 (34.5)
Compressive strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 64.8 (446.8) 56.4 (388.9) 61.0 (420.6)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo" (MPa)
Cond. A 60.0 (413.7) 61.4 (423.4) 64.5 (444.7)

a Data from Reference 4

7.7.3 WEAVE PATTERN or more yarns lying 90 degrees to it), the

The amount of yarn and the pattern of the
weave often determine the handling character-
istics of a fabric. If a fabric is too tightly woven,
it will not readily drape and conform to vari-
ous contours during molding; a tight weave
can also adversely affect impregnation of the
fabric by the resin. If a fabric has a weave pat-
tern that is very open, this can produce a
weaker reinforcement due to insufficient fiber,
a tendency to distort and in horizontal treater,
difficulty in impregnation.
A general assumption can be made in the
longer the float (Le. the portion of a warp or
filling yarn that will extend unbound over two
higher the reinforced composite strength. So
by extending the length of the float which
reduces the interlocking frequency, the result-
ing composite's strength will be increased.
Changing the weave, for example from a plain
weave to a crowfoot weave, will also achieve
improved composites strength properties
(Table 7.13).
7.7.4 GLASS-TO-RESIN RATIO
In general, approximation of physical proper-
ties for fiber glass reinforced composites
follows the 'rule of mixtures'. The calculation of
loads stresses and strains parallel to the fibers
 Design considerations 151

Table 7.11 Composite mechanical properties as a function of glass-filament diameter

Plied-yarn fabrics
~-
Fabric style 181 1581 1281
Count/in (cm) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3)
Warp yam
Glass system ECE 225 1/3 ECG 150 1/2 ECB 150 l / 2
Tex system EC7 22 1 x 3 EC9 33 1 x 2 EC3.8 33 1 x 2
Filling yarn
Glass system ECE 225 1 / 3 ECG 150 1 / 2 ECB 150 1/2
Tex system EC7 22 1x 3 EC9 33 1 x 2 EC3.8 33 1x 2
Weave Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin
Flexural strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 93.0 (641.2) 88.6 (610.9) 92.4 (637.1)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x 106(GPa)
Cond. A 3.88 (26.8) 3.78 (26.1) 4.06 (28.0)
Compressive strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 58.1 (400.6) 64.8 (446.8) 64.9 (447.5)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 60.0 (413.7) 60.0 (413.7) 64.8 (446.8)
~.

Singles-yarn fabrics
~ _ _ _ _

Fabric style G7681 DE7781 B7781

Count/in (cm) 60 x 54 (23.6 x 21.3) 60 x 54 (23.6 x 21.3) 60 x 54 (23.6 x 21.3)
Warp yarn
Glass system ECG 75 1/0 ECDE 75 1/ 0 ECB 75 1/0
Tex system EC9661x0 EC6 66 1x 0 EC3.8 66 1 x 0
Filling yarn
Glass system ECG 75 1/0 ECDE 75 1/0 ECB 75 1/0
Tex system EC9 66 1 x 0 EC6 66 1 x 0 EC3.8 66 1 x 0
Weave Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin
Flexural strength,
psi x 10’ (MPa)
Cond. A 92.6 (638.5) 94.9 (654.3) 101.1 (696.4)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x lo6 (GPa)
Cond. A 3.78 (26.1) 3.90 (26.9) 4.02 (27.7)
Compressive strength,
psi x 10’ (MPa)
Cond. A 76.7 (528.8) 67.7 (466.8) 69.9 (482.0)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo1 (MPa)
Cond. A 64.2 (442.7) 66.3 (457.1) 69.4 (478.5)
152 Fiberglass reinforcement

Table 7.12 Mechanical properties of S-glass fabrics-epoxy composites as a function of plied compared
with unplied yarn

Fabric style S1581 S7682 57681

~~~ ~~ - -~
-
Finish Volan A Volan A CS-310
Flexural strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 84.8 (584.7) 120.0 (827.4) 116.0 (799.8)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x 10" (GPa)
Cond. A 3.10 (21.4) 4.18 (28.8) 5.21 (35.9)
Compressive strength,
psi x lo3(MPa)
Cond. A 61.3 (422.7) 55.8 (384.7) 73.9 (509.5)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo1 (MPa)
Cond. A 70.6 (486.8) 87.5 (603.3) 86.4 (595.7)

Table 7.13 Effect of weave pattern on composite mechanical properties

Fabric style 7628" 76281h 16-149' 7781d

Finish Volan Volan A Volan A Volan A
Resin Polyester Polyester Polyester Polyester
Plies 18 18 12 12
Resin content, wt.% 37.1 36.7 36.5 37.6
Thickness, in (mm) 0.124 (3.15) 0.121 (3.07) 0.120 (3.05) 0.120 (3.05)
Flexural strength,
psi X 10' (MPa)
Cond. A 53.8 (371.0) 84.7 (584.0) 63.2 (435.8) 87.0 (600.0)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x 1Oh (GPa)
Cond. A 3.89 (26.8) 3.41 (23.5) 3.81 (26.3) 3.24 (22.3)
Compressive strength,
psi X lo1 (MPa)
Cond. A 25.7 (177.2) 57.0 (393.0) 48.0 (331.0) 64.3 (443.3)
Tensile strength,
psi x 103(MPa)
Cond. A 45.9 (316.5) 59.2 (408.2) 58.7 (404.7) 60.0 (413.7)

Plain weave, data from Reference 3 A 5-shaft satin weave version of Style 7781
Crowfoot satin weave, data from Reference 3 li An 8-shaft satin weave
 Design considerations 153

and perpendicular to the fibers is quite differ-
ent. Also, the stress transfer across the material
boundaries is greatly affected by the degree of
adhesion at the reinforcement-resin interface.
A more subtle effect is the possibility that
wall effects at the surface may alter the matrix
orientation and mechanical properties.
It must also be assumed that there will be
sufficient resin present to fill all of the spaces
between the fibers. Internal voids have been
shown to produce considerable stress concen-
trations resulting in premature mechanical
failure of the laminate. Woven fiberglass fabrics
by virtue of the weave interlocking reduce the
effective glass-to-resin ratio below those of fila-
ment wound structures. The optimum glass to
resin ratio then becomes dependent on weave
pattern, weave density and yarn diameters. The
optimum strengths of laminates are obtained
with the lowest practical resin content.
With coarse plain weave fabrics using hand
lay-up, laminates can be produced with resin
contents of 36-38%; with other weaves using
less twist in the yarn and optimum yarn spac-
ing, excellent physical properties can be
achieved in the 25% resin content range. Plain
weave fabrics with higher twist yarn will
require higher resin contents than low twist
singles fabrics of equivalent weave.
In filament winding applications parallel
strands of fiberglass are wound around a cylin-
drical mandrel, the resulting cross-section of
round filaments provides a close packing,
resulting in low resin contents of the final part.

Table 7.14 Laminate mechanical properties as a function of glass-to-resin ratio (Style 181 glass
fabric-epoxy resin composites)

Plies 7 9 11 13 14 16 18 20
~ ~ ~ ___
Resin content, wt.% 55.0 49.2 44.0 35.6 31.2 28.0 22.5 22.2
Thickness, in 0.117 0.126 0.127 0.126 0.125 0.131 0.132 0.147
mm 2.97 3.20 3.23 3.20 3.18 3.33 3.35 3.73
Flexural strength,
Cond. A
psi x103 45.6 58.8 64.8 83.0 81.2 92.1 87.4 91.9
MPa 314.4 405.4 446.8 572.3 559.9 635.0 602.6 633.7
Flexural modulus
of elasticity,
Cond. A
psi x l o h 2.26 2.62 2.92 3.33 3.82 4.04 4.37 4.64
GPa 15.6 18.1 20.1 23.0 26.3 27.9 30.1 32.0

Compressive strength,
Cond. A
psi x lo3 45.2 47.9 44.7 53.2 56.9 52.4 54.3 67.8
MPa 311.7 330.3 308.2 366.8 392.3 361.3 374.4 467.5
Tensile strength,
Cond. A
psi x 103 30.8 35.7 40.5 51.3 53.7 61.0 64.7 65.1
MPa 212.4 246.2 279.2 353.7 370.3 420.6 446.1 448.9
Tensile load/ply,
lb 514 494 468 498 480 500 476 480
N 2286 2197 2082 2215 2135 2224 2117 2135
154 Fiberglass reinforcement

For example, resin contents of 25-30% with
glass fiber content of 70-75% product final
composites with high physical strengths. But, if
there is any variation from the parallel align-
ment of the glass fibers, this will reduce the
degree of packing and inevitably the optimum
glass-to-resin ratio. The weaving of glass fab-
rics will of course reduce the effective
glass-to-resin ratios because of the weave inter-
locking. The correlation between glass-to-resin
ratios and composite strength is well known,
the composite's strength increases as resin con-
tents are reduced (see Table 7.14 and Fig. 7.4).
7.7.5 FIBER DISTRIBUTION
Reinforced composites that have the glass
strands aligned parallel to each other have
their maximum strength and stiffness in the
direction of the alignment. This type of paral-
lel alignment is conducive to certain filament
winding and pultrusion operations.
When the reinforcement is aligned at right
angles to itself (half of the strands are laid at
right angles to the other half), the resulting
mechanical strengths at either angle is less than
that of the parallel alignment. As the distribu-
tion of strands varies between 0" to 90"
alignment to a +45" to a 45", this further
reduces mechanical strength in the primary
direction, but shows an increase in the +45"and
4 5 " directions. Of course the yarn distribution
can be varied from 0" and 90" directions as part
of the fabric design. A so called %balanced' fab-
ric, that is one with equal yarn distribution in
the warp and filling directions, will have com-
parable composite properties in both directions.
When fiberglass yarn is woven with yarn
primarily in the warp direction with only the
minimum amount of filling yarn (enough to
give the fabric stability), the result is a unidi-
rectional fabric. Composites reinforced with
this type of fabric have the maximum mechan-
ical strength in the direction of the greatest
concentration of yarn5.
The differences between the mechanical
properties, bidirectional and unidirectional
reinforced composites, can be seen in Table 7.15.

Table 7.15 Effect of fabric yarn distribution on laminate mechanical properties

Fabric type (style) Bidirectional (2582) Unidirectional (7743)

_ _ ~ ~

Test direction Warp Filling Warp Filling

Yarn content, 'lo 52 48 90 10
Flexural strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 84.2 (586.0) 78.2 (539.2) 95.0 (655.0) 23.3 (160.6)
Cond. D2/100 75.5 (520.5) 68.5 (472.3) 87.4 (602.6) 24.1 (166.2)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x loh (GPa)
Cond. A 4.02 (27.7) 3.65 (25.2) 4.95 (34.1) 2.47 (17.0)
Cond. D2/100 3.87 (26.7) 3.41 (23.5) 4.80 (33.1) 1.46 (10.1)
Compressive strength,
psi X lo" (MPa)
Cond. A 62.7 (432.3) 63.4 (437.1) 64.5 (444.7) 28.9 (199.3)
Cond. D2/100 51.8 (357.2) 54.5 (375.8) 51.1 (352.3) 23.6 (162.7)
Tensile strength,
psi X lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 57.9 (399.2) 54.9 (378.5) 94.0 (648.1) 12.1 (83.4)
Cond. D2/100 55.7 (384.0) 50.2 (346.1) 91.6 (631.6) 11.7 (80.7)
 References 155

Table 7.16 Mechanical properties of polyester lam- Fiberglass remforcement aligned in a ran-
inate reinforced with chopped strand mat dom manner within the polymer matrix (e.g.
chopped strand mat) produces composites with
Resin content, wt.'%, 69.8 fairly uniform mechanical strengths in all direc-
Thickness, in (mm) 0.238 (6.05) tions. However, this also tends to produce
Flexural strength, psi (MPa)
composites that have relatively low physical
Cond. A 26 400 (182.0) properties in all directions (Table 7.16).
Cond. D2/100 30 400 (209.6)
Flexural modulus of elasticity, REFERENCES
psi (GPa)
1. Pitt, C.F. and Harvey J. 20th Anniversary
Cond. A 0.99 x lob (6.83)
Technical Conference, SPI Reinforced Plastics
Cond. D2/100 0.94 x lo6 (6.48)
Division, 1965, Section 9-C.
Compressive strength, psi (MPa) 2. Knox, C.E. Non-Metallic Materials (SAMPE) 4,
Cond. A 27 600 (190.3) 127 1972.
Cond. D2/100 23 200 (160.0) 3. Horton, R.C. and Adams, R.G. 21st Annual
Conference, SPI Reinforced Plastics Division,
Tensile strength, psi (MPa) 1966, Section 10-A.
Cond. A 14 100 (97.2) 4. Knox, C.E. New Horizons in Materials and
Cond. D2/100 13 800 (95.1) Processing (SAMPE) 18, 527 1973.
5. Peterson, G.P. Properties of High Modulus
Reinforced Plastics, S.P.E.J., 57, 1961 January.