PULTRUSION 23

Brian A. Wilson

23.1 INTRODUCTION ment and manufactured the equipment to pro-

duce structural elements by the method. A
The word pultrusion is used to describe a com-
typical pultrusion machine is shown in Fig.
mercial fabrication process for the production
23.1. The process has a relationship to extru-
of fiber reinforced composite elements. First
sion, which is used primarily with metals and
mention of the process is recorded in a patent
describes the process of forming a shape using
in 1951 with much of the early work in the
a closed die and pushing normally hot metallic
1950s attributed to W. Brandt Goldsworthyl.
materials through the die. Pultrusion differs in
He performed much of the process develop-

Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published Fig. 23-1Typical Pulkusion machine. (Courtesy of
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 W. Brant Goldsworthy and Associates Inc.)

that it takes advantage of the strength of the
longitudinal fibers in the section to pull the
extruded shape through the forming die and
the heated curing die to create a constant cross
section structural element from a composite
materials system. Hence the name pultrusion.
Use of this-processhas now expanded both in
the USA and around the world with many
manufacturers equipped to produce the simple
structural elements which are the main pultru-
sion products. The process was labeled for the
first 30 years or so of its existence as a com-
mercial production method. This was owing to
the nature of the method, using longitudinal
fibers and a simple thermoset resin system to
produce a structural shape which had its pri-
mary strength in the longitudinal direction and
properties in the transverse and third axis
relating only to those of the resin system. The
ability to incorporate three-dimensional
strength first occurred in the mid 1960s when it
became possible to include layers of mat/fab-
ric and circumferentially wound layers of fiber
both w i t h the body and on the surface of the
structural shapes. Multi-directional reinforce-
ment was used extensively starting in the
1970s2,3 . These developments, plus the intro-
duction of thermoplastic resin matrices, have
brought the pultrusion process into the manu-
facturing arena of the aerospace, defense and
aircraft businesses as a relatively inexpensive
and repeatable method of producing a constant
cross-section structural element48 *.
In this chapter, the basic process, variations
on the process, pultrusion equipment, materi-
als including fiber, fabric, resin matrices,
additives, tooling, curing, structural connec-
tion methods, equipment manufacturers,
pultrusion fabricators and potential markets
and applications will be reviewed"".
23.2 THE BASIC PROCESS
The basic pultrusion process as originally con-
ceived consisted of creating a cured composite
shape by pulling a bundle of resin impregnated
fibers through a heated die, providing sufficient
The basic process 489
curing energy in the heated die to cure the com-
posite into a hard structural product and using
the resulting shape as a unidirectional strength
element for commercial structures.
The primary advantages of pultrusion are
as follows:
~roductioniscontinuous~
0 labor requirements are low;
0 material scrap rate is low;
0 the requirement for support materials is
eliminated, i.e. breathers, bleeder cloth, sep-
arator film, bagging film, edge tape.
23.2.1 VARIATIONS IN PROCESSING
The original process of pulling a bundle of
unidirectional fibers through a curing die
remained without variation until the middle
of the 1960s. At this point, pultruders, both in
Europe and the USA, developed the process of
adding fabric in strip or sheet form and fiber
mat to the pultrusion system in order to pro-
vide transverse strength and shear strength in
the corner sections of complex pultruded
shapes. In addition, the concept was devel-
oped for a filament winding head to be added
to the pultrusion machine to provide a hoop
wrap around a pultruded form. This process is
known as 'pull winding' and is primarily used
with tubular or rod shapes. It is not feasible to
add the filament winding process to a struc-
tural shape that has a concave curvature, such
as angles, channels and I-beams. A typical
process of pull winding is shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 23.212.
During the 1970s, the concept of pull form-
ing was developed by Brandt Goldsworthy.
Three versions of this forming process were
developed.
The first was actually named 'curved pultru-
sion' by Goldsworthy Engineering. The method
was developed under a NASA contract and
resulted in a pure, constant radius section with
a constant cross section. A curved die was used,
with a reduced radius, smaller than the
required part radius. This allows for a degree of
490 Pultvusion

COUNTER-ROTATING

MANDREL
AND

LAYER 1. LAYER 2. LAYER 3. LAYER 4. LAYE&S. FIBERS

FIBERS WOUND FIBERS FIBERS WOUND FIBERS

Fig. 23.2 5-Layer tube on double head pull winder. (Courtesyof Pultrex Ltd.)

spring back after the product is removed from response to a specific production require-
the diel3. The die was split along its length, in rnentl4,l5.The pull forming process still uses
the vertical plane. One half of the curved unit the basic principles of pultrusion since it has a
was fixed in place. The internal radius portion continuous strand of fiberglass roving within
of the die was further split in half vertically, the product and this roving is used to pull the
along the central radius plane, forming two product through the sequence of the forming
quadrants. Each of the quadrants had a slightly process. Goldsworthy Associates have
longer circumferential length than the fixed designed two versions of this process, a
half. The two moving quadrants moved past curved pull forming and a straight pull form-
the fixed part of the die at the processing speed ing. These two versions of the process are
of the pultrusion. When each moving quadrant briefly described in the following paragraphs
had exited the plane of the fixed die, it moved but it should be noted that a major difference
rapidly in a circular fashion to contact the end between pull forming and pultrusion is that
of the following quadrant as it too passed pultrusion is a generic process which can be
across the face of the fixed die. used to make many different cross-sectional
shapes and products by changing the die in
23.3 PULL FORMING
the machine (which creates the cross-sectional
shape) and the materials of fabrication. Pull
The pull forming process is a highly sophisti- forming however, is essentially a custom
cated variation of the pultrusion process in process which must be tailored to a particular
which both curved and straight product sec- product design.
tions are fabricated with the ability to change
cross-sectional dimensions of the product. It
can be thought of as a combination of pultru- 23.3.1 CURVED PULL FORMING
sion and compression molding. The pull In the curved version of the pull forming
forming process was developed by process, a curved structure is manufactured
Goldsworthy Associates and was created in using a selected combination of roving and

mat/fabric to satisfy the performance require-
ments of the produ~t'~J~. The die is a multi-
cavity die. Several of these dies are mounted on
the face of a wheel and are curved with the
radius of curvature of the die matching the
radius of its position on the wheel. The die is
open faced and is also open on the two ends for
entry of the fiber preform. The preform is
impregnated with resin in the same manner as
for pultrusion and the fiber and mat/fabric
combination is pulled into the curved mold or
die by the rotation of the wheel. As the preform
is pulled into the die, a stainless steel band
moves against the open face of the die and com-
presses the impregnated preform into the
contour which is in essence a compression
molding cavity. After the die is closed, it is
heated to cure the resin and following cure, the
stainless steel band peels away from the face of
the die/mold. A fixed pin which is mounted
adjacent to the wheel strips the product out of
the mold and into a storage bin. When the stain-
less steel band is moved against the mold it is
held in place by an automated clamping system
until the product is fully cured at which point
the clamping system releases the band which
then retracts into a 'parking' position. The
Fig. 23.3 Curved pull forming process. (Courtesy of W. Brandt Goldsworthy and Associates Inc.)
Pull forming 491
machine is shown in Fig. 23.3.
It should be noted that the process does dif-
fer from pultrusion in that the fiber preform is
placed into the mold rather than being pulled
through it. Also, while the cross section of the
mold can change, the resulting part is a con-
stant volume design, equivalent to the volume
of the preform which is initially compressed
into the mold.
23.3.2 STRAIGHT PULL FORMING
Straight pull forming was also invented by
Goldsworthy Associates in response to a spe-
cific customer requirement for the automated
manufacture of hammer handles. In this
process, the fiber is pulled as a preform through
the automated machine. Many single cavity
dies are mounted on a belt. As the fiberglass
roving moves through the system, a section
of bulk molding compound (BMC) is cut
from a rope of this material, is opened up
longitudinally and placed around the roving
and clamped onto it. The BMC is then com-
pressed in a small briquetting press which
travels with the fiber preform as it moves
through the system. Following the compression
492 Pultrusion

molding of the BMC, the press releases and the process variation has not been successful to
balance of the fiberglass roving is fed in and date and further development will be required.
encapsulates the BMC material. Following the
encapsulation, a shrink film is placed around
23.4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT
the wet package and the process goes through a
heated tunnel which shrinks the film around The pultrusion fabrication machine consists of
the product. Finally, the product is run through six different parts (Fig. 23.4): the creel; the
the frame of a C-shaped die in a press which resin bath; the forming die; the heated curing
provides the final compression molding and die; the pullers; the cut-off saw.
curing of the hammer handle. The product is
pulled from the die and cut off and the dies con-
23.4.1 CREEL
tinuously exit the belt and are recycled back to
the front end of the process. The creel is the beginning of the pultrusion
This type of pull forming is a highly auto- process and is the material storage system from
mated, sophisticated process which requires which the fibers and mat, veil or fabric are
considerable capital investment for the design, drawn in the correct sequence to match the
manufacture and set up. Each potential prod- design requirements of the structural shape.
uct, which would be a candidate for the pull Since pultrusion is a long run continuous
forming process, must have its design analyzed process, fiber rovings are provided in the max-
and the process modified to respond to the cus- imum size configuration possible. Continuous
tom requirements of the particular product. glass rovings are normally provided in 'center
With the increasing popularity and explo- pull' packages between 14 and 23 kg (30 and 50
ration of the resin transfer molding process in lb) in size. These center pull packages are typi-
recent years, the pultrusion process has been cally stored on a bookshelf style creel. These
reviewed for the potential of developing a creels have from three to six shelves and are
repeatable, precise cross-section of a preform capable of storing anywhere from 45 to 120
using a loose fiber bundle and an adhesive packages of this type of fiberglass. These creels
binder in place of the resin system. This are normally mounted on casters to create a

Mat
Roving racks
racks A Material

Pulling
mechanism Cutoff saw

V Resin tank Finished

Preforming product
guides

Fig. 23.4 Schematic of pultrusion process. (Courtesy of W. Brandt Goldsworthy and Associates Inc.)

mobile system. The casters are provided with a
foot locking device to enable them to be locked
in place when this is required. The glass roving
is pulled vertically from the package through
ceramic-lined holes in the shelves above. The
roving is collected above the creel and turned
90" by means of a ceramic textile type thread
guide and then moved forward to the material
accumulating section just prior to the resin
bath and forming die. A series of ceramic
guides or rollers can be provided in the fiber
path in order to tailor the tension in the fibers
to the required level. The pulling of fiber from
the center of the package will automatically
insert a twist in the fiber as it is led into the pul-
trusion machine. To eliminate this, some
fiberglass rovings are provided in a center pull
twistless condition where the natural twist has
been off-set by a 'built-in' reverse twist.
Continuous fibers of fiberglass, carbon,
aramid and polyethylene are normally sup-
Fig. 23.5 Carbon fibre spool on package holder with quick braking action. (Courtesy of Texkimp Ltd.)
Process equipment 493
plied on 'way wound' packages on standard
diameter cardboard cores. A typical carbon
fiber package mounted in a payoff creel is
shown in Fig. 23.5. These fiber packages are
designed to provide fiber payoff from the exte-
rior of the fiber package and hence avoid
twist. While fiberglass is normally supplied in
the heavy center pull spools, it can also be
obtained in the outside payoff type package.
All of the cardboard cores are a standard three
inch diameter with the exception of the aramid
which is 90 mm (3.5 in) inside diameter.
This style of package requires the use of a
multiple spindle creel design in which the
packages are oriented normally horizontal but
usually with a slight upward camber. Creels
are available with package positions up to
1500 or 2000 on a single creel or combination
of creel frames. A loaded multiple spindle
creel is shown in Fig. 23.6. Ceramic guides are
used to move the fibers to the front of the creel
494 Pulfrusion

(12-24 in) on cores of 75-100 mm (3-4 in) in

inside diameter. This special mat/fabric creel
must be able to accommodate rolls of these
dimensions and resulting weight and permit
the rolls of material to be installed in a varying
sequence of locations to match the design of the
final structure. This type of material creel will
normally provide horizontal feed. However, if
vertical mat or fabric is required, then an inde-
pendent custom unit must be provided. These
units are usually of a carousel-type configura-
tion. Figure 23.7 shows a typical mounting for
feeding veil rolls into the system.

Fig. 23.6 Loaded multiple spindle creel. (Courtesy

of Texkimp Ltd.)

and into the pultrusion system. Tension

requirements in this type of system are usually
provided by spring attached tension straps
which rub on a pulley attached to the package
holder. This provides a braking action. The
straps can be either independently loaded
with weight or can be connected to a central I
mechanical system, such that tension for all of
the spools can be varied by a single adjust- Fig. 23.7 Feeding external veil material into pultru-
ment handle. Fiber packages for this type of sion system. (Courtesyof Creative Pultrusions Inc.)
system are normally 5 kg (11 lb). With this
small size of package, it is normal for a large Clearly, the overall creel system for materials
number of packages to be located on this type supply must be able to provide any combina-
of creel assembly. In addition, package simula- tion or arrangement. It should be noted that in
tion bars are normally provided with these every fiber and fabric system used for pultru-
types of creels to give a uniform tension and to sion, there should be sufficient continuous
eliminate the possibility of a fiber from a small roving in the system to sustain the required
or 'almost used' package touching and abrad- pulling force. As the various materials travel
ing a near-by forward mounted, full package. forward towards the resin application area it is
Stationed immediately after the fiber creel is important to control the alignment of the vari-
the specialized type of creel which is designed ous fibers and fabric/mat strips which are
to accommodate rolls of mat, veil or fabric. going into the configuration. This will prevent
These materials are usually supplied in roll knotting and twisting of the fiber reinforce-
form with diameters between 305-610 mm ment and also will ensure that the various fiber

materials remain in the correct relationship to
each other and are placed in the correct zone of
the pultruded product according to the prod-
uct design requirements. This can be best
accomplished by the use of orifice plates, creel
cards combs and rollers (grooved and flat) to
precisely and accurately place all the materials.
The materials commonly used for these guides
and rollers are primarily titanium oxide
ceramic, stainless steel, tool steel alloys and
chrome plated steel. These materials are also
used for the various rollers associated not only
with guiding the sheet materials but also with
controlling them during their passage through
the resin impregnation zone.
23.4.2 RESIN IMPREGNATION
Virtually all pultrusion processes utilize a
resin impregnation bath to facilitate the
impregnation of the resin into the fiber struc-
ture. The position of the resin impregnation
bath in the production line can be varied and
the manner in which the resin is applied to the
fiber can have many different versions. A resin
dip bath is most commonly used. During this
process the fibers are passed over and under a
series of rollers or bars which both spread the
fiber to more easily accept the resin and also
provide a massaging effect which 'kneads' the
resin into the fiber bundles and structure.
The wetting speed of the fibers depends
upon their pretreatment and on the resin for-
mulation. Wetting is also affected by the type
of sizing agent on the fiber, the possible pres-
ence of remaining lubricant on woven fabric
and finally the type of binder which is used in
mat and veil products. The resin bath is uni-
formly used for products that utilize all roving
in their construction or for products that are
easily formed from the flat fiber ply which
emerges from the resin bath. However, in
many of the more sophisticated products
which are now made from pultrusion, it is
impractical to dip all of the materials in the
resin bath. When vertical mats are required or
hollow profiles are produced, a tailored resin
Process equipment 495
bath is frequently used which matches the pre-
form shape or orientation of materials which
pass through it. These types of tailored chan-
nels or baths can also be used to orient the flat
materials properly. This method permits the
resin impregnation to take place without mov-
ing the reinforcements away from their
optimum path or shape.
23.4.3 VERTICAL PULTRUSION
The vertical pultrusion process should be men-
tioned at this point since the primary difficulty
in creating a vertical pultrusion is the place-
ment and use of a resin bath. In the
arrangement for vertical pultrusion the equip-
ment used is essentially similar to that for the
horizontal methodI8.Most equipment operates
in the vertical position with the exception of the
resin bath and roving creels which are generally
positioned horizontally and the roving is fed in
the regular manner, horizontally through the
resin impregnation bath. This bath is located
above the entrance to the forming die and the
fibers exiting from the bath are turned 90"
across a roller and then proceed vertically into
the forming die. The advantage of using this
vertical procedure is that a uniform arrange-
ment of impregnated fibers can be achieved
across the section being formed. The effects of
gravity are removed from the fiber arrange-
ment. During the horizontal process, gravity
plus any nonuniform tensioning across the
fiber group will result in some fibers sagging
under their weight with resin and hence not be
properly located as they enter the forming and
curing dies. An additional advantage of the ver-
tical process is that it is possible accurately to
locate the internal mandrels whch are neces-
sary for hollow shapes and tubes. This is
particularly important in the fabrication of
heavy, thick wall tubes. In the horizontal
process, these internal mandrels will frequently
deflect under their own weight and cause a
nonuniformity of wall thickness around the
hollow profile or tube. In addition, the vertical
process allows the use of several different fiber
496 Pul trusion
entry points to the forming process with multi-
ple resin baths. In the horizontal procedure, the
multiple entry points have to come from the side
of the main fiber path and it is not as easy to coa-
lesce the fibers into a single merged preform.
23.4.4 USE OF THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX
RESINS
Thermoplastics cannot be applied to roving
easily using the standard resin bath, even with
heating. Thermoplastic resins impregnated on
roving are generally available as preimpreg-
nated (prepreg) materials and are supplied by
specialty companies who are experts in the
prepreg process. Thermoplastic matrices
improve the toughness of the composite and
this is their major end use advantage. In gen-
eral they have high softening temperatures
and high physical properties coupled with a
low fluid viscosity in their melted form. The
prepregs are normally prepared using solvents
and this provides some difficulty against envi-
ronmental regulations in order to remove and
dissipate the majority of the solvent. Some sol-
vent has to be retained in the process in order
to have the material be sufficiently pliable for
machine and manual handling. In addition to
the improved toughness of the thermoplastic
composite, an important advantage of thermo-
plastic pultrusions is the ability to heat and
reshape the product after f ~ r m i n g ' ~ - ~ ~ .
23.4.5 RESIN BATH LIFE
In a continuous pultrusion process, the pot life
of the resin should be several days. However,
if the volume of the resin bath can be kept
small in relation to the resin being withdrawn,
shorter pot-life resin, i.e. 3 4 h can be used.
Shorter pot-life resins result in smaller batches
and mixing becomes time consuming.
23.4.6 THE PULL WINDING TECHNIQUE
The pull winding process was developed in
Europe and was used frequently by European
fabricators to provide pultruded tubular struc-
tures both round and square23,24. The process
combines the standard continuous unidirec-
tional fibers of the pultrusion process with
hoop wound continuous fibers. The longitudi-
nal fibers are used for axial and bending
resistance while the hoop fibers are used for
hoop tension and compression resistance. The
combination of the two processes of pultru-
sion and winding provides virtually unlimited
possibilities. However, the increasing com-
plexity of the process limits these
combinations. Normally, longitudinal fibers
are positioned at the inside and outside sur-
faces of the tube with one or two hoop wound
layers positioned internally in the tube wall.
These hoop wound layers are not truly 90"
hoop wound layers because of the slightly
helical nature of the winding and the lateral
movement of a wound roving, one band width
of advance with each circumferential pass.
Depending on the diameter of the tube, the
winding angle is typically anywhere from
80-87". The winding can be performed in
both clockwise and counterclockwise direc-
tion and in addition to the hoop tension and
compression resistance can also provide a
degree of torque strength to the tubing.
Single and double head pull winders are used
with these techniques. The pull winding
process is shown in Fig. 23.2 and the proce-
dure for the use of these systems is self
explanatory. The important control feature of
the pull winding process is the control of the
winding speed and position with respect to
the linear motion of the pultruded form
through the machine. This is achieved by
sensing the speed of the longitudinal motion
accurately and using a microprocessor con-
trol to coordinate the speed of the rotating
head motor. This relationship defines the
pitch of the winding which is defined as the
linear distance moved during one revolution
of the head. With the microprocessor control
the pitch can be varied, thus providing varia-
tions in fiber content and angular position, as
required. A paper by D.E. Shaw Stuartz5
 Process equipment 497

defines the primary advantages of pull wind- used for forming dies include Teflon@,high
ing over other methods of tube manufacture as: molecular weight polyethylene, chrome plated
0 it is a fully automatic continuous process; steel and a variety of tool steel alloys. The fabri-
it is dimensionally accurate and repeatable; cation of the forming die is a custom process
which is best performed at the pultrusion fabri-
0 it produces tubes with a good external
appearance and finish; cator by a skilled tool maker/machinist.
0 it can have built-in color;
it can be made with thinner wall sections
23.4.8 INJECTION PULTRUSION
than conventional pultrusion or filament
winding. In this modification of the resin impregnation
process, the resin is directly injected into either
the forming die or into the initial segment of
23.4.7 PULTRUSION DIES the pultrusion die. The resin is injected into the
die under pressure and is forced into the inter-
Two types of dies are used in the pultrusion
stices of the fiber system. The principal
process: the forming die and the heating or cur-
advantage of this system is that it limits the
ing die. Forming is normally accomplished
release of volatile resin components and reac-
immediately after the impregnation process
tion products.
although some shaping with the roving and
An additional advantage of this process for
mat/fabric inserts in a dry condition can take
laboratory or research and development pul-
place prior to entering the resin impregnation
truders is that it enables a rapid resin change
processing step. Forming dies or guides are
without removal and cleaning of all of the
normally attached to the heating or curing die
resin bath components. In addition, dry fibers
in order to provide the correct relationship
are not impregnated with resin before entering
between the forming and the heated curing
the die and therefore they can be positioned
step. For tubular or hollow profile pultruded
accurately, even with complex profile cross
products, a central mandrel support is neces-
sections and multiple mat and fabric entries.
sary internal to the fiber form and it is
The schematic of the injection pultrusion sys-
necessary to extend this mandrel as a cantilever
tem is shown in Fig. 23.8. A typical resin
through the pultrusion die. It is also important
injection pultrusion die is shown in Fig. 23.9.
to resist the forward drag on this central man-
In addition to the advantages listed above,
drel which will occur from the surface tension
there are several disadvantages which must be
and adhesive forces of the resin on the roving or
weighed in a process trade off, before resorting
mat. Materials must form in sequence around
to the injection pultrusion method. These dis-
this mandrel and must alternate from one mate-
advantages are:
rial to another to prevent any weak areas at
overlapping joints. The sizing of the slots, holes 0 a more complicated die design;
and clearances in the forming die must be care- 0 more parameters to control;
fully designed so that excess tension on the dry 0 analytical support is required to predict wet
or impregnated fiber is avoided. The fiber is out behavior and design of the resulting
weaker in this condition than in the cured con- dies;
dition and filaments may be independently 0 fibers in the die are very tightly compressed
broken and distortion of the mat and fabric can and resin penetration is difficult, particu-
take place. The forming die can also be larly with large wall thicknesses;
designed to permit excess resin removal. This 0 the tightly packed fibers can act as a filter
prevents an abnormally high hydrostatic force and partially remove resin additives, partic-
at the curing die entrance. Materials commonly ularly those in suspension.
498 Pultrusion

Fiber
rack
doth
J racks

I
S - moving

-
pulling mechanisms cutoff saw
disengaged
\
Lc t
I
\ /
preforming
I hydraulic rams
finished
pressurized product
guides
resin tank

Fig. 23.8 Injection pultrusion process. (Courtesyof American Composite Technology Inc.)

injection port thermostats

23.4.10 POSITIONING OF THE HEATED DIE
The heating/curing die must be firmly
mounted to the frame of the pultrusion
machine in order to react the pulling forces,
which are created in pulling the product
through the process. These forces are typically
in the range of 5440-7250kg (6-8tons).
‘1 6% thermostats
However, some of the larger machines which
are capable of producing parts up to 1.52 m
matrix
injection i (60 in) wide and heights of 0.60 m (24 in) (with
fiber +
I zone
1 cure
zone
narrower parts) can require pulling forces up
COmprBsEmn
zcne to 16 320-18 000 kg (8-20 tons). The mounting
method must not only permit these types of
Fig. 23.9 Resin injection pultrusion die. (Courtesy loading but must also be capable of mounting
of American Composite Technology Inc.) height adjustment in order to accurately align
the axis of the die with the pullers which move
the product out of the die. Following align-
23.4.9 HEATING AND CURING DIES
ment and clamping, the mounting system
There are three considerations in the design must also not allow any deflection which
and use of a heated die for the curing of a pul- might provide an angular or dimensional mis-
truded composite section. The first of these is match of the machine.
the positioning of the die relative to the
machine access, the second is the actual
23.4.11 DIE HEATING
method of heating to induce the necessary
energy into the composite material to fully cure Die heating is probably the most critical con-
the resin system. The third includes the design trol parameter of the whole pultrusion
features and construction materials for the die. process. The die heating profile will control

the rate of polymerization of the resin system
and the position of the resin gel point front
w i t h the die. It also influences the degree of
resin exotherm profile throughout the various
wall thicknesses of the pultruded structure.
The curing dies are typically heated with elec-
tric strip heaters or hot oil jackets. The thermal
curing using these two methods of heating is
slow, owing to the fact that the tool steel of the
die is a poor conductor and limits the rate of
heat injection to provide a uniform cure. The
thermal energy which is required to cure the
composite material must all be applied
through the outer surface of the composite
shape. The heat input is required to produce
gelation of the resin throughout the composite
part. When the composite structure being pul-
truded has thick sections, this necessarily
requires a longer heat input which slows
down the pultrusion rate. Increasing the rate
of heating to permit a faster pulling speed will
not necessarily solve this problem and may
result in premature curing of the outside skin
of the profile with early onset of the exotherm
in the resin system and potential overheating
and cracking of the exterior surface of the part.
Temperature conditions of the die are con-
trolled by the internal placement of
thermocouples and this can result in individ-
ual control of heating rates in various
segments of the die.
Instead of using strip heaters or hot oil jack-
ets, it is possible to heat the curing die by
means of heated platens and a press. These
heated platens will usually have several zones
of heating control with imbedded thermocou-
ples to sense the platen temperature. T h s
method provides a uniform heating condition
to the die. However, since the thermocouples
are sensing the platen heating temperature
rather than the die or product temperatures,
the temperature differential between these
zones must be well documented. This permits
the platen heating temperature to be set to pro-
vide an adequate heating level in the
composite product and absorb all of the con-
duction and radiation losses from the system.
Process equipment 499
Use of the platen system will allow change out
of dies with very little system down time.
During start up and also during shut down
periods it is necessary to provide a cooling
method at the front of the die to prevent early
gelation of the resin system. During these
phases, the entire die will heat up rapidly
without the composite being pulled through it
and acting as a heat sink. The cooling can be
done dynamically through cold air impinge-
ment or by using a water jacket or tubes
through which cold water will be pumped.
Instead of these dynamic methods, a simple
static method would be to provide an
unheated zone at the beginning of the die to
act as a heat sink and conduct away the excess
heat during start up or shut down actions.
These same unheated or cooled sections may
also be useful at the exit of the die to remove
contained heat from the product prior to its
exit.
It has been mentioned that the heating pro-
file within the die is the primary factor which
controls the speed of throughput of material in
the process. This was recognized early in the
development of the pultrusion process by W.
Brandt Goldsworthy and he added a radio fre-
quency preheated system to his pultrusion
machine designZ6rz7. The use of radio frequency
heating in conjunction with the traditional die
heating methods can significantly increase
running speeds. This technique is basically
limited to unidirectional reinforced rods, bars
and shapes and cannot be used if carbon fibers
comprise the reinforcement. Data from
Goldsworthy Engineering Inc. shows speed
increases of up to 400% based on a 2.54mm
(0.1 in) wall thickness pultrusion. Speed
increases of 100% (i.e. doubling the speed) are
accomplished at wall thicknesses of 2.54 mm
(0.1 in).
During recent years it has become possible
to evaluate the internal die profile with regard
to both temperature and pressurez8.The sen-
sors which are used to provide that data are
essentially similar to strain gages with output
leads attached to them. The pressure sensor is
500 Pultrusion

a unique development resulting from the heating zones in order to maintain control
music industry. These sensors were originally over the resin gel, curing and cooling of the
used as striking pads in electronic keyboards pultruded section within the die. In addition,
and the manufacturer has now developed if one of the cavities in the multi-cavity tool is
them to measure pressure forces transverse to damaged, the complete tool is not out of pro-
the plane of the sensor. The output from the duction since the remaining useable heating
sensor is transmitted via a pair of thin strain zones can be modified to continue to provide
gage type wires. It is thus possible to insert an acceptable product.
both of these sensors (temperature and pres- The dies are usually made from steel, which
sure) into the fiber resin system prior to can be hardened tool steel, or steel alloy which
entering the curing die. The sensors will then is treated, hardened and plated before use. The
travel through the die internal to the product die must be relatively thick walled so that it
and will record both the temperature and the can be heated uniformly and retain the heat
internal pressure in the die from the entrance input. Thick wall design also reduces distor-
to the exit. Once the sensors have traveled tion under temperature and pressure. It has
beyond the exit from the die, the connecting been suggested that the cross-sectional area of
wires can be cut. The section of product which the steel should be at least ten times that of the
contains the two sensors and the lead wires is pultruded part. The steel used should be hard
then cut out and discarded. The resulting data since it has to withstand the abrasive action of
provides a complete process description from the composite being drawn through it. A typi-
the entrance to the exit of the die. cal hardness is a Rockwell C rating of 30,
which can be obtained with a prehardened
tool steel. Dies are manufactured from multi-
23.5 DESIGN FEATURES AND MATERIALS
ple pieces that are machined and joined
In considering the design of the heated curing together to create a design profile cavity. As
die for a pultrusion system, it is possible to use the various sections of the die are connected
a single cavity tool, a multi-cavity tool or sev- together they must be properly aligned. This
eral single cavity tools mounted in parallel. can be done using dowels for permanent
The choice between these three will depend alignment or by machining an alignment
upon the size, complexity, dimensional toler- groove on the outside part of the die which
ance and surface quality of the pultruded can then be used for a hard metal key which
product. Individual or single cavity dies are a can be driven into the groove to provide a pos-
frequent choice of pultruders, particularly for itive alignment for the entire tool. The die
medium to large or sophisticated shaped assembly is then match drilled and tapped for
products. Use of the multi-cavity tool or sev- the assembly bolts which hold the parts of the
eral single cavity tools mounted in parallel is die in position against the high internal pres-
generally restricted to very competitive and sure developed during the process. Following
low cost shapes such as round and square alignment and assembly, the exterior surface
cross section rod. The choice between an indi- of the assembled die is ground flat. The inter-
vidual die and a multi-cavity die is frequently nal cavity surfaces are polished using
dependent upon the experience and prefer- polishing wheels and buffing compounds to a
ence of the manufacturing engineer in the high surface finish 0.254-0.762 wm (10-20 kin).
pultrusion company. The multi-cavity tool can At this point a bell mouth is machined
be an efficient arrangement for production around the entrance of the die to provide a
conditions. In this case the die is two to three smooth entrance for the resin impregnated
times the length of a single cavity tool. The fiber form. The radius will vary in size from
longer die makes it possible to use different a small radius for small simple structural

profiles to a relatively large radius for a large
and complex composite profile particularly
where the fiber content is high. The bell mouth
is polished and the finished die is hard chrome
plated to a thickness of 0.025-0.050 mm
(0.0014.002 in) with a Rockwell C hardness of
approximately 70. The dimensions and surface
quality of the pultruded product are a direct
reflection of the condition of the die. Dies will
thus not be removed from production to be
inspected unless the shape or quality of the
product begins to change. Chrome plated dies
will normally have a life of 61 000-150 000 m
(200 000-500 000 ft) of product run with their
initial chrome plate application. Up to 305 000 m
(1x lo6ft) of product have been produced from
some hard chrome plated dies. Chrome plated
dies require frequent inspection to insure that
their internal shape and dimension is main-
tained. They should also be inspected for wear
of the chrome plated surface since the wear
process will proceed much more rapidly if the
tool steel surface is exposed from under the
chrome. Once the die has worn and produces
product beyond allowable dimensional toler-
ances, the die may be replated and repolished
back to original dimensions. This process may
be repeated several times.
23.5.1 CLAMPING AND PULLING
Three different types of clamping and pulling
systems have been used in the pultrusion
industry. Of these three, only two are now
encountered. The original system used on the
earliest machines in the 1950s and early 1960s
employed a single clamp. This clamp was
hydraulically controlled and contoured pads
were used for gripping the part. The unit con-
taining this single clamp was pulled by a
continuous chain for a distance of 3.2-3.7 m
(10-12 ft). Areversible motor was used to drive
the chain and following the pull stroke, the
puller/clamp released the product and
returned to the beginning of the pulling stroke,
clamped the product and pulled againz9.The
obvious disadvantage of this system is that the
Design features and materials 501
pultruded profile remains stationery until the
puller returned to the beginning of its stroke.
Because of the alternating pull and pause
mechanism this system was known as the
'intermittent puller'. This system is still used
on some very early machines, however, it is
certainly not in widespread use.
A modificationof the clamping/pulling sys-
tem has become popular which provides a
continuous pull. The clamping, pulling and
unlocking cycles of this system are coordinated
by the control system of the machine. The drive
system used can be either a hydraulic cylinder,
a threaded ball screw such as is used on lathes,
or a chain drive mechanism. The clamping
pads are still formed to match the contour of
the profile being pulled. The two puller heads
must operate in the space originally designed
for the single puller. Consequently, limited lat-
eral movements of approximately two feet
each are sustained by the two pullers. The two
puller system is shown in Fig. 23.10.
Fig. 23.10 Conventional two puller system.
(Courtesy of Pultrex Ltd.)
Continuous belt pullers are used on basic com-
mercial machines. These pullers can be used
with single or multiple cavity molds. The
cleated chain or caterpillar version of the con-
tinuous belt machine has many individually
contoured puller pads attached along the
chain length. The number of these contoured
502 Pultrusion

puller pads depends on the complexity of the aramid fiber to date has been the high pressure
part but generally varies between 12 and 60 water jet and presumablythis could be adapted
pads. This large number of pads permits a for use on a pultrusion machine. The inherent
lower unit pressure between the clamping pad disadvantage of the high pressure water jet is
and the pultrusion. The caterpillar type its cost which is from $50 000-100 000. A com-
machine was designed and built in 1958 by promise solution to this problem would be to
Brandt Goldsworthy, Dennis Franks and Tom cut off the sections as smoothly as possible,
Bailey. Caterpillar type machines are preferred using the diamond saw, to a slightly over
and still widely used in the industry. length condition with very rough ends. The
product length can then be subcontracted to a
waterjet cutting source for final trimming. This
23.5.2 CUT-OFF STATION
will result in some wastage.
Every pultrusion machine utilizes a cut-off saw
to cut the pultruded profiles to the required 23.6 MATERIALS
length for shipment and use. This saw is fre-
quently of a radial arm type as shown in Fig. Fiber properties to aid the designer are shown
23.11, but can be also a chop saw, orbital or elsewhere in this text. Following the selection of
band saw. It is mounted on a platform which the fiber type to suit the required design factors,
moves down the pultrusion exit table at the the fiber must be oriented in the correct direc-
same speed as the pultruded product. Carbide tion. It is understood that all of the fiber types
and diamond tipped saw blades are used for must be available in continuous form in order
the cutting of glass and carbon pultrusions. to be useable in the pultrusion process. The
However, these saw blades are not effective for most commonly used form of continuous rein-
cutting aramid fiber pultrusions. This fiber is forcement is roving. This is available in single
known for its properties of toughness and and multiple strand configurationsm.Glass rov-
resistance to abuse. These properties lead to ings are designated by their yield which is the
difficulty in machining, grinding and cutting. number of yards per pound of material. The
The most successful method of cutting two most commonly used versions are at
112yd/lb or 224 in/kg or 112 or 124 m/kg (56
1 or 62 yd/lb). The glass rovings are typically
supplied in 18.1 kg (40 lb) hollow cylindrical
packages with a center pull payout. A similar
center pull spool is also available for both
aramid and polyethylene fibers. Carbon fiber is
typically available in either a 3K, a 6K or a 12K
!!- filament. It should be noted that the tow sizes of
- the
1 carbon are much smaller than the glass rov-

\ ing and package weights are 1-2 kg (2-5 lb)

with an outside payoff designed for a package
holder style creel system. New versions of the
- carbon fiber roving are available now in 40K,
160K and 320K tows. Use of these tows allows
the fiber to be laid down very rapidly and con-
sequently these versions of carbon fiber are
attractive to pultruders. Typical properties of
Fig. 23.11 Conventional cut-off saw. (Courtesy of fibers used in PultruSiOn are shown in Table
Creative Pultrusions Inc.) 23.13', 32.

Table 23.1 Typical properties of the major fibers used in the pultrusion process
Property E-glass S-glass
(Aramid)
Density, 2600 2491
kg/m3
Tensile strength, 3447.5 4585.2
MPa
Tensile modulus, 72.4 86.9
GPa
Elongation at 4.8 5.4
break, %
All the rovings discussed will yield the highest
possible longitudinal properties. Fibers as rov-
ings result in the maximum fiber content to be
achieved in pultrusion. If the longitudinal rov-
ings are used under near perfect conditions, a
65% fiber volume percent level should be
achieved. In a product which utilizes 100%
roving this material is normally in the longitu-
dinal direction or axis of the pultruded
product. Properties in the other two directions
are dependent upon the resin system and the
mechanical properties of the matrix resins are
much lower than fiber properties. Transverse
strength problems are overcome by inserting
transverse fiber materials into the pultrusion.
This is done either by using fabric or continu-
ous strand mat. The latter is most commonly
used. While the fabric is a standard woven tex-
tile form, the continuous strand mat has fibers
oriented in a random mode, bonded with a
thermoset resin binder which holds the mat
together adequately for processing in the pul-
truded section. While mat is available in any of
the fibers which have been previously dis-
cussed, the most common available mat is an
E-glass version that has coarse fibers in an
open or porous construction. This mat can be
used either as a center ply in a pultruded
structure or on the outer surface of the struc-
ture. Use of the mat greatly improves the
transverse physical and mechanical proper-
ties. It should be noted, however, that the mat
Materials 503
Keular Spectra Carbon Carbon
(Type T300) Inter. modulus
~~
1470 968 1720 1770
2964.9 1170.0 1896.1 2560.9
131.0 26.0 379.2 473.6
2.3 3.7 0.5 1.81
is porous and its use on the exterior surface of
a pultrusion might well leave porosities or
voids in the surface. To counter this problem, a
very fine filament, E-glass mat, commonly
known as veil, can be used as the surface ply.
Its presence during the pultrusion process will
tend to bring more resin to the surface of the
pultrusion and this will achieve a smooth, uni-
form surface, devoid of porosity or voids. The
veil mats can also be placed internally in the
composite and recent improvements in their
structural properties have made this possible.
The random fiber mats in E-glass are used
in weights of 0.15-0.6 kg/m2 (0.5-2 oz/ft2).
The inclusion of these mats in the pultruded
structure means that some of the longitudinal
fibers will have to be removed to allow for the
volume of the mat, veil or fabric. With the use
of fabric or mats in the structure, the resin con-
tent by volume will increase in order to fill the
openings in the mat or fabric. Thus while the
transverse strengths increase, the longitudinal
strengths usually decrease. Mats are also avail-
able in carbon fiber.
The random fiber structure of strand mat
provides fibers in all directions. However, this
random orientation does provide some prob-
lems in that the fibers may not provide a
symmetrical balance within the structure. The
initial solution to this problem was the use of
woven fabric. However, the lack of tension in
the fabric results in a lower strength capability
504 Pultrusion
of the pultrusion since under load, the fibers
in the fabric will have to straighten and
become tensioned prior to being able to
accept load. One way of solving this diffi-
culty is to use non-woven biaxial fabrics
which are stitched or knitted together at the
crossover points. Because of the nature of fab-
rication of these nonwoven materials, any
ratio of fibers in the two directions can be
provided. It is also feasible to utilize k45"
fibers in conjunction with the 0 and 90" fibers.
The biaxial fabrics are normally used as inter-
nal plies and not on the external surface. This
is due to the nature of the nonwovens in that
their transverse fibers will tend to be dis-
placed by friction with the walls of the die
during pulling. Fabrics using a +45" orienta-
tion without any longitudinal fibers are
usually impractical for the pultrusion
process. It should be noted that hybrid com-
posites with tailored properties are possible
using combinations of the fiberglass, carbon
and aramid materials. The designer will read-
ily determine the mechanical properties
which are required from the nonwoven or
woven fabrics. The rule of mixtures will
apply for combination proper tie^^^.
When pultruded composites are used in
outdoor weather conditions, the surface of
the composite may be degraded with time by
sun, wind, rain and ultraviolet exposure. In
order to solve this problem, additional resin
needs to be provided at the exterior surface of
the pultrusion. This is done by incorporating
the very fine filament veil mats which are
typically fabricated from polyester or nylon34.
These veil fabrics are available in a variety of
weights and weaving patterns. They help the
pultruder by providing a tough surface mate-
rial which will protect the die wall from the
abrasive nature of the fiberglass or aramid. In
addition, the resin rich surface is created
without any obvious fiber weaving patterns,
plus the veil materials can be screen printed
with company identification or decorative
effects35.
23.6.1 MATRIX RESINS
Of all of the technology considerations in the
pultrusion process, the most critical material is
the resin system and its f~rmulation~"~~. Resin
selection controls mechanical characteristics,
electrical insulation, corrosion resistance,
operating temperature and flame and smoke
properties. It also has a significant effect on the
process speed because of the required cure
cycle for any particular resin. The selection of
a resin system will also affect the production
cost of the process. The two most commonly
used resin types in pultrusion are the isoph-
thalic polyester and the vinylester. These two
comprise over 90% of all resins used in pultru-
sion. Epoxy resins and phenolic resins are also
being increasingly used. Phenolic resins were
traditionally avoided by pultruders because of
their condensation reaction during cure.
Condensation reactions produce large vol-
umes of water vapor and this typically causes
voids, channels, delaminations and porosity
when there is no provision to remove it. While
the pultrusion die does have an entrance and
an exit, nonetheless the system is essentially a
closed, pressurized volume. Table 23.2 pro-
vides typical mechanical properties for resin
systems most generally used in pultrusion and
several other chapters discuss the broad range
of matrix materials39.
23.6.2 PHENOLICS
In consideration of the use of phenolic resin
systems, the disadvantage of the condensation
type reaction was certainly sufficient to cause
delays in the potential use of phenolic resin in
the pultrusion process. The amount of water
vapor which is generated in the condensation
process is very large and it has always been
assumed that a phenolic pultruded structure
would look somewhat like a sponge. However,
phenolic systems have been pultruded in
recent years and a phenomenon has occurred
which is not well understood. During pulling
of a phenolic/fiberglass structure through the
 Materials 505

Table 23.2 Typical mechanical properties for resins Federal Department of Transport and the var-
used in the pultrusion process ious state departments of transportation have
imposed fire controls on composite materials. It
Property Polyester Vinylester Epoxy is required that they will not bum or stimulate
Density, 1100 1100 1300 combustion, have minimum required smoke
kg/m3 levels and also will not produce toxic fumes
Tensile strength, 77.2 81.2 75.4
under flame impingement and high environ-
MPa mental temperature conditions. Considering all
of the resins in the composite industry, pheno-
Tensile modulus, 3.3 3.4 3.3 lic resins will come closest to matching these
GPa
flammability specifications. Because of these
Elongation at 4.2 4.5 6.3 factors, it is anticipated that the use of phenolic
break, YO resin systems in pultruded products in the
Flexural strength, 122 134 115 future will increase dramatically.
MPa
Flexural modulus, 3.2 3.1 3.3 23.6.3 COMPARISON OF RESIN SYSTEMS
GPa
In recent years, there has been use of epoxy
Heat distortion, 77 99 166 and phenolic resins in pultrusion. G.A. Hunter
"C
of Shell Development Company compared the
properties of resin systems42.He provided a
three zone model of the pultrusion process
pultrusion die, a high pressure jet of steam is within the curing die (Fig. 23.12). The sketch
noted at the exit from the die. How and why provides an excellent background for compar-
the steam is caused to come off in this manner ison of resin proper tie^^^.
is not known. However, in the experiments Of the four primary resin systems used in
which have been run, the resulting pultrusion the pultrusion process, the polyester and
has not had any porosity problems and the vinylester resins account for more than 90% of
processing tests are noted as being successful. the marketplace. Phenolic and epoxy resins
Specific pultrusion grades of phenolic resin make up the balance of the market. In com-
systems are now available from plywood paring resin systems, one should review the
manufacturing corporations such as internal contours and the heating profile of the
Weyerhauser and Georgia Pacific. The avail- heated resin die and examine the change in
ability of these resins would certainly indicate resin morphology as it proceeds through the
that the anticipated processing problems have die. The model of the pultrusion process given
not occurred40, 41. The importance of phenolic in Fig. 23.12 which shows the three zones of
resins is in their resistance to fire and their low the heated die and the transition of the resin
smoke and toxicity production under fire con- phase from liquid through the gel zone into
ditions. All forms of composite materials, the solid phase. The first zone shown in Fig.
including pultrusions, are being used increas- 23.12 is where the material enters the die at
ingly in mass transit, aircraft and civil room temperature and expands as it absorbs
engineering applications. In all of these areas heat which causes the hydraulic pressure in
of application, increasing contact of the com- this zone of the die to rise. As the material pro-
posite material systems with the general gresses into zone 2, or the gel zone, it has
public is occurring. Because of this, the fire absorbed more heat, is beginning to cross link
smoke and toxicity requirements of specifica- and changes from a viscous liquid into a non-
tion control groups such as the FAA, the flowing jelly type of material, then into a
506 Pultrusion
~~

"THE GEL ZONE"

STRIP HEATER

&&( LIQUID PHASE

ZONE 1
..
i.
..
.
SOLID P H A S E

ZONE 3
iVlSCOUS SHEAR i i SLIDING FRICTION FORCES i
iFORCES *........ .*......-.I
**a..............
ZONE 2 I..

: COHESIVE FORCES :

Fig. 23.12 Three zone model of the pultrusion process. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)

rubber-like texture. As the material cures to a gel zone will expand or contract.
hard solid, shrinkage occurs which releases Joseph Sumerak in 1985 quantitatively
the hydraulic pressure forces and the product described the internal dynamics of the pultru-
shape retracts from the internal surface of the sion process. Taking test results from
die. This is zone 3. In this zone, because of the Sumerak's earlier work, Hunter showed the
release of the product from the surface of the relationship of pull loads to processing speed
die, the sliding frictional forces are very slight. for catalyzed and uncatalyzed resin systems
Depending upon the thickness of the part and (Fig. 23.13)w7. For the uncatalyzed resin case,
the process speed, the bullet-nose shape of the the rising pulling load associated with

looot7
1
P W I T H 20 P H R C L A Y

t 800 -
D - PULL LOADS ATTRIBUTED TO
VISCOUS SHEAR AND FRICTION O F
CATALVZED RESIN
0 - P U L L L O A D S A T T R I B U T E D TO
* 700- PURE VISCOUS SHEAR OF THE
U N C ATALYZ E D R E S I N
A
I 600 -A CALCULATED PULL LOADS
ATTRIBUTED TO VISCOUS
u)
S H E A R O F T H E CATALVZED

0
400-
J
J
3 300-
n
200 -

0 12 24 36
LINE SPEED, INIMIN.

Fig. 23.13 Pull loads compared with line speed for different types of resin systems. (Courtesy of Shell
Development Company.)

increased processing rate, or line speed, is the
result of increasing shear forces over the
length of the die. In the case of the catalyzed
resin and referring back to Fig. 23.12, viscous
shear forces are generated only in the front
portion of the die, i.e. zone 1. Within the gel
zone, cohesive forces come into play for a
small length of the die which is followed by
the transition to the rubbery cured material
which provides substantial friction forces. As
the resin hardens and shrinks away from the
surface of the die, the frictional forces are
reduced significantly. It is obvious that the
pull load is significantly higher for the cat-
alyzed resin system, particularly as the line
speed increases. This proves that the major
portion of the pultrusion loads are generated
in the gel zone and are cohesive forces and
frictional forces resulting from the interface of
the resin and the die.
Sumerak showed that a significant part of
the internal pressure does develop inside the
B
4
-1- -
---
INITIAL CURE CYCLE
SECOND HEAT CYCLE
0
>
-2-
STARTING VOLUME - 9.098 ML
NET VOLUME LOSS - 0.<5
VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE
-3-
1 . r l r . l :
Fig. 23.14 Volume change of polyester resin during cure. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)
Materials 507
die and is proportional to the speed of pro-
cessing. Hunter provided evidence that the
pressure loss in zone 3 of the die occurs well
before the material cools. Thus it is not thermal
contraction but volumetric shrinkage due to
the cure of the resin. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of the steel material of the die also
enters into this equation. For a differential
temperature of 121°C (250"F),the hottest tem-
perature section of the die for a 12.7 mm
(0.5 in) diameter pultrusion will be 0.3% larger
than the entrance. Thus pressure and volumet-
ric shrinkage together play a major role in
pultrusion dynamics. Insufficient pressure
causes sloughing problems and insufficient
shrinkage can cause excessive pull loads. The
resin rate of shrinkage affects the rate of pres-
sure decay and is controlled linearly by the
cure rate of the resin. Thus a delicate balance
between pressure, cure rate and shrinkage
must be obtained for a clean pultrusion
process to take place.
ML
- 6.04 %
1 1 1 . 1 I ,
508 Pultrusion
23.6.4 SHRINKAGE
Hunter ran shrinkage tests on a typical poly-
ester resin and a standard Shell epoxy resin
system42.The volume change of the polyester
and the epoxy resin are during cure are shown
in Figs. 23.14 and 23.15. The data shows that
the polyester shrinks almost twice the degree
of epoxy. However, Hunter reports that the net
shrinkage is not nearly as important as the
profile of that shrinkage. The polyester contin-
ues to expand after the gel point which is
followed by a high shrink rate that gradually
tapers off. In comparison, the epoxy resin
shrinks before it gels and continues to shrink
at a steady rate until it is fully cured. This
information sheds new light on the under-
standing of the pultrusion characteristics of
epoxy resins compared to polyesters. In most
composite manufacturing processes, the appli-
cation of pressure during the curing phase of
the resin is always beneficial to the resulting
product. Pultrusion is no exception to this rule
and it is beneficial to generate pressure in the
pultrusion die up to the point where the resin
3t. A GEL POINT
-2-
NET VOLUME LOSS - .32 MLS.
VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE
-3-
Fig. 23.15 Volume change of epoxy resin during cure. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)
is fully cured. Similarly, the pressure during
the gelation phase ensures that the product is
tightly held against the surface of the die and
consequently a smooth surface will be gener-
ated with the pressure preventing sloughing.
Thus, from a comparison of the test results, it
is obvious that the polyester shrinkage profile
is superior to the epoxy in terms of providing
gelation and cure under pressure. In addition,
the sudden high initial rate of shrinkage fol-
lowing gelation for the polyester resin is also
beneficial in that it results in a fast pressure
drop and hence frictional force reduction.
In comparison, the epoxy resin begins to
shrink well in advance of gelation and gels
under a condition of declining hydraulic pres-
sure. Thus much of the hydraulic pressure is
lost by the time that gelation occurs due to the
effect of volumetric shrinkage. Following gela-
tion, the rate of shrinkage is very slow such
that it causes the friction forces to only reduce
gradually. Thus in the gel zone for epoxy
resins there is insufficient hydraulic pressure
to prevent sloughing. This explains why a
i 22.8" C QUENCH
- 3.57 %

problem is frequently encountered when
epoxy resin is substituted directly for a poly-
ester without consideration of the curing and
shrinkage properties. Hunter postulates that a
simple solution has been found to compensate
for these shrinkage characteristics in epoxy
resin systems. The presence of fillers, whether
fiber or powdered, in the resin system, reduces
the amount of total volumetric shrinkage. Also
the pressure from thermal expansion is
directly proportional to the amount of filler or
fiber reinforcement volume. Thus the increase
in reinforcement to resin volume ratio, either
by fiber or powder fillers, will reduce the
shrinkage tendency and the hydraulic pres-
sure will be increased at the same time. Even
though the epoxy resin shrinks prior to gela-
tion, sufficient pressure will remain to prevent
sloughing. This explains why it is always ben-
eficial to have a higher fiber to resin ratio for
epoxies in the pultrusion process than for
polyester resins.
00
50
00
50
I I
75 100 125
GEL TIME TEMPERATURE, DEG. C
Fig. 23.16 Gel time compared with temperature of epoxy and polyester resin. (Courtesy of Shell
Development Company.)
Materials 509
23.6.5 CURE RATE
As previously mentioned, shrinkage rate is a
direct result of the known cure rate of the resin.
It is beneficial in the pultrusion process to have
a high shrinkage rate to initiate a quick pressure
drop to reduce frictional pull loads. From this
point of view, it is important for the epoxy to
have a fast cure rate. This will also provide a
shorter gel zone which will result in a faster
processing rate. Cure rates of polyesters may
be varied chemically by changing the amounts
and types of peroxide catalysts which are used
to initiate them. It is not simple to change the
cure rate of an epoxy resin chemically.
Curing agents for epoxy resins are selected
based on the desired performance parameters
for the epoxy in the final product or structure.
Some considerations of pot life and manufac-
turing process also influence this selection.
Thermal accelerators can be used. However,
the effect of increasing cure rate accelerator
I I
150 175 200
510 Pultrusion
content may be to reduce the pot life. Hunter
ran experiments to provide data on gel times
of epoxy resin at different accelerator levels.
In addition, he checked on the gel times of
polyester resin using two different curing
agents. Figure 23.16 shows the data which
resulted from these two evaluations. The data
on the epoxy resin system shows that signifi-
cantly more heat is required to generate the
same gel times even though the accelerator
content is doubled. Figure 23.17 shows the
viscosity versus time of the epoxy resin at two
accelerator levels and two temperatures. This
graph clearly indicates that pot life is sacri-
ficed by increasing the accelerator level. Pot
life is also affected by temperature and Fig.
23.17 illustrates that a small increase in tem-
perature will reduce the time to double the
initial viscosity by almost half. Heat can be
generated during the mixing process of the
epoxy formulations and because of this it is
important to minimize the mixing times when
using high shear mixers that generate heat
within the body of the resin system. The
implication of the experimental data pre-
sented in these figures is that the most
efficient method of increasing cure rate in the
epoxy resin is to increase the die temperature.
4 0 0 0 ~0- P T D . A C C E L E R A T O R
3500 -
W
u)
0 3000-
n
2500-
2
w
0 2000-
>.
1500-
u)
2 1000-
-
u)
5 500-
01 I I I I
0 1 2 3
Fig. 23.17 Epoxy resin viscosity compared with time and temperature. (Courtesy of Shell Development
Company.)
23.6.6 REINFORCEMENT VOLUME
The general relationship of glass fiber content
to pull loads in epoxy resin system is shown in
Fig. 23.18. These data were derived from an
experiment in the Shell laboratories where the
reinforcement volume was decreased and the
pull loads were recorded until sloughing
The fiber volume was then
increased until the sloughing was eliminated
and was increased further until pull loads
became too large. The data shows that there is a
plateau in the pull load curve spanning approx-
imately 2% of the glass fiber content range. This
is the optimum level for pultruding the
12.7mm (0.5in) diameter epoxy rod used in the
test program. Below the optimum range,
sloughing occurs owing to the insufficient
hydraulic pressure at the gel point. Above the
optimum level, the pull loads rise owing to the
high pressure both during and after the gel
zone (referring back to Fig. 23.12). Both poly-
ester and epoxy systems respond similarly to
the different types of reinforcement materials
which are contained within the pultruded
structure. For both of these resin systems, the
minimum reinforcement level to prevent
sloughing when using a continuous mat and
roving is somewhat less than that for an all rov-
LEVEL AT 2 l . C
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I J
4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3
TIME, H
 Materials 511

1000
112" DIAMETER ROUND
P R O C E S S E D AT 1 2 " I M I N
112 VLO. SINGLE END ROVING

-
47-64 ENDS
000 16 x CLAY

0
2 600 - TOO LOW, TOO HIGH,
4 LOADS ARE
A
OCCURS EXCESSIVE
2
3
n
400 -

78 79 00 01 02 03 04 05 86 07

GLASS CONTENT (NON-COMBUSTIBLES), % B Y WT.'

'OF W H I C H A P P R O X I M A T E L Y 2 X IS R E S I D U A L C L A Y

Fig. 23.18 Epoxy resin pull loads compared with glass content. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)

ing part. Table 23.3 lists the target reinforcement
volumes for the epoxy system for a variety of
reinforcement systems. These values were gen-
erated by following the same procedure as for
the data in Fig. 23.18. The data shown in Table
23.3 are qualitative rather than quantitative val-
ues. They may be used to estimate the required
reinforcement volume.
Table 23.3 Target fiber volume ranges for epoxy
pultrusion
All glass roving reinforced composites
Multi-end type rovings
Single end type rovings
Glass roving and continuous mat
reinforced composites
3.175 nun (1/8in) thick cross sections
6.35 nun (1/4 in) thick cross sections
Carbon fiber reinforced composites
All unidirectional tows
(57-65VOlYO)
23.6.7 DIE TEMPERATURE CONTROL
In polyester pultrusion, there is a wealth of
prior experience7 which can be used to pro-
vide a temperature set point to produce the
desired surface and internal quality of the part
with the controller being a thermocouple
located some short distance from the entrance
to the die. This creates a situation which is
independent of the actual exotherm tempera-
ture in the curing process.
For epoxy pultrusion it is vital that the peak
wt.% exotherm be understood and controlled. It
should not exceed 225°C (437°F) in the hottest
region of the part and die. At this temperature
78 homopolymerization will take place within
77-81 the epoxy resin system and the resin does not
need the curing agent to stimulate the cure.
The mechanical and physical properties of the
6447 structure are degraded under these conditions
71-74 by the presence of the unused curing agent.
For most thin profiles (up to 12.7 mm (0.5 in)
thick), a single heating zone is sufficient. The
67-74 thermocouple should be located in the center
512 Pultrusion

CIT

1 2 ' /MINUTE

1 8 ' S T R I P HEATERS

1'- -
----
TEYPERATURE ON THE SURFACE OF THE ROD
TEYPERATURE I N THE CENTER OF T H E R O D

I 1 I I 1 I I I
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
DIE LENGTH, IN

Fig. 23.19 Die temperature profile of single zone heating. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)
of the strip heater to minimize the overshoot in the epoxy resin system. If the temperature
and lag time for the temperature controller. set point is too low, the resin cure rate will
For a 12.7 mm (0.5 in) thick cross section the decrease which increases the size of the gel
temperature set point of 200°C (392°F) on the zone. At the same time, the rate of shrinkage
surface of the die will yield an internal peak and the rate of hydraulic pressure decay is
exotherm temperature of 225°C (437°F).Figure reduced and this results in more pressure
23.19 is a graphic example of this single strip within the larger gel zone which increases pull
heater profile. Figure 23.20 depicts the graph loads. As the die temperature increases, the
of the temperature set point versus pull loads conditions begin to favor reduced pull loads.

700 -
m
A

600 -
0
A
A
4
3
n 500 -

400
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
DIE CONTROL TEMPERATURE, "C

Fig. 23.20 Pull load compared with die control temperature. (Courtesy of Shell Development Company.)
 Materials 513

With section thicknesses up to 12.7 mm (0.5 23.6.8 RESIN MIXING

in) a two zone heating profile can be used and
this will probably eliminate the need for radio
frequency (RF preheating) to prevent internal
cracking. The pull loads are much lower and
the temperature decay rate is less than the sin-
gle zone heating profile. Thus the two zone
version will result in a higher degree of cure
than the single zone.
For thick pultrusions with sections beyond
12.7 mm (0.5 in), the RF preheating method
results in faster processing rates without crack-
ing. Figure 23.21 illustrates the die temperature
conditions for the same 12.7 mm (0.5 in) diam-
eter rod pultruded with RF preheating.
Preheating serves to reduce the temperature
differential between the die entrance and the
gel zone which results in less volumetric expan-
sion due to temperature and hence less
pressure. The temperature lag between the sur-
face and the center of the part is also reduced by
RF heating, thus the gel zone is smaller which
reduces pulling loads. Increase of the process-
ing rate through the machine will bring the
pressure, the gel zone size and the pull loads
back to normal conditions. This is how RF heat-
ing permits faster processing rates without
increasing the pull loads beyond the standard
levels.
The best approach to mixing resin system com-
ponents is to precisely follow the stated recipe
for the amount of material to be added and the
degree of mixing following the addition. As the
ingredients such as catalyst accelerator, pig-
ments, viscosity and extenders, internal mold
release and fillers are added, the resin is mixed
for a very short time of up to one minute (Table
23.4). The curing agent is left out of the mix
until the mix is ready to be added to the pultru-
sion resin bath. The addition of filler materials
requires a high shear mixing and this should be
minimized since it generates significant quanti-
ties of heat. Just prior to start up, the curing
agent should be added and blended at a
reduced mixer speed (high shear mixing is only
needed for filler addition.)Following start up of
the system, make-up replenishment resin
batches should be scaled to the depletion rate
for the run.If the resin consumption is 7.5 1 (two
gallons) per hour, add 7.5 1 (two gallons) per
hour. This addition will assist the pot life of the
epoxy resin and will dilute it with fresh resin on
a frequent basis. If a small bath size can be used,
this will increase the dilution effect of the
replenishment material. Depending on the size
of the bath, this technique can enhance the pot

CIT
200c
Q
18' /MINUTE
r

18' STRIP HEATERS

250k

W
I- 50- ----
-TEMPERATURE ON THE SURFACE O F THE ROD
TEMPERATURE I N THE CENTER OF THE R O D

01 I 1 I 1 I I I I I
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
DIE LENGTH, I N

Fig. 23.21 Die temperature profile with FF heating. (Courtesyof Shell Development Company.)
514 Pultrusion
life of the resin by 800% or more. A large master
batch of the resin can be mixed and set aside in
advance of the production run.This batch with-
out the curing agent will be stable for up to
three days. The curing agent can then be added
to a small make-up batch and mixed in just
prior to the addition to the system resin bath. A
typical formulation used in batch mixing is
shown in Table 23.4.
Even with the best of conditions in terms of
a small resin bath and frequent addition of
new batches, the resin mix will ultimately
become too viscous for good fiber wetting. A
good tip is to provide a large hole in the resin
bath with an appropriate plug. This allows a
quick drain and a clean and refill with only a
momentary pause in the process. With this
step, the pot life of the resin bath will be reset
to zero. It should also be noted that the plug in
the drain hole should not be threaded since a
very small amount of resin can cure and lock
up the threads. A preferred plug would be
hard rubber with a rim, similar to the knock
out drain plugs in the floor of an automobile.
23.7 START-UP PROCEDURE
A key factor in trouble free start up is to use
the minimum required amount of reinforce-
ment. However, if too much reinforcement is
eliminated in start up, sloughing will take
place in the die because of insufficient total
pressure in the gel zone. Once the sloughing is
Table 23.4 Two part batching for long production runs
Part 'A'
(in order of addition) [PHR, (wt.%)]
1. Epon@resin 9310 100.00
2. Epon Curing Agent@9360 0.67
3. Mold Accelerator 837 Wiz Int. 1846 0.70
4. Zylac 907 0.40
Blend the above for 30 s then add clay
5 . ASP400P 20.00
Blend clay for no more than 5-10 min
Courtesy: Shell Chemical Co.
initiated there may be potential for significant
build up on the surface of the die and this may
be difficult to remove. The most troublesome
spots in the die are the low pressure, remote
areas such as a comer or a small radius. There
is a standard process used in pultrusion of
purging the die with pure mold release just
prior to entry of the resin. Experience and
recent tests have shown that the pure mold
release is not necessary and may lead to
related problems. The normal types and quan-
tities of mold release recommended for use
with epoxy were determined by tests at resin
suppliers. Any levels of mold release in excess
of those recommended will not provide addi-
tional benefit to the process. A high
concentration of mold release may result in a
'squeeze off' at the die entrance which could
work its way back into the resin bath. If a pre-
lubrication step is used, this squeeze off resin
quantity must not be allowed to get back into
the resin bath.
Prior to the resin entering the bath, the die
temperature must be stabilized at the set point.
For most parts an initial throughput speed of
25.4-30.4 cm (10-12 in) per min is recom-
mended until the cured stock is in the pullers,
to minimize loads imposed on the dry fiber.
Process rate increase can then be made gradu-
ally and for epoxy resins the processing speeds
normally will not exceed 45.7 cm (18 in) per
min. It would appear that 30.4-35.5 cm
(12-14 in) per min provides the best combina-
Part 'B'
Epon Curing AgenP
9360
33 PHR based on resin weight
OR
Recompute based on the total weight of Part 'A'
(33/121.77) 100 = 27.1
and use
27.1 PHR to Part 'A'

tion of processing parameters, pull loads and
surface gloss. If RF preheating is used, perform
the start up without it at a reduced speed
15.2-20.3 cm (6-8 in) per min to minimize pull
loads. When cured stock is through the die and
in the pullers, the RF preheater can gradually
be started up. The resin temperature entering
the die should be monitored and as it reaches
about 71°C (160°F)gradually increase the pro-
cessing speed. Do not recycle the resin which is
squeezed off at the die entrance.
23.7.1 TROUBLESHOOTING
The standard problem encountered with
epoxy resin pultrusions is poor surface finish
or sloughing. The reasons for this have been
discussed earlier in this chapter. If the rein-
forcement level is low then the cure for this is
to obviously add some reinforcement.
However, if the redorcement level is in accor-
dance with the specifications, then additional
reinforcement will increase the pull loads
beyond standard. In this case the die tempera-
ture profile is probably too low. There is an
instrument on the market known as the
Gelstar Thermal Analyzer. The thermal ana-
lyzer can be used to obtain a temperature
profile within the die. From this, the size of the
gel zone can be estimated. This is proportional
to the lag time between the die and internal
temperature profiles. If the temperatures
appear to be within limits but the lag time is
too large then the processing rate is too fast for
the particular cross section within the die. At
this point either reduce the process rate or use
RF preheating to minimize the problem. These
steps will reduce the size of the gel zone.
If sloughing is encountered, the part should
automatically clean itself up. The typical
purge techniques that are common in the
industry can be used with epoxy resins. If a
portion of the die refuses to clean up, a trick is
to insert a copper kitchen ‘Chore Boy’ in the
area of the part which has the problem. This
will often push the offending plug out or catch
onto it and pull it out. The copper gauze will
Additives 515
provide a mild scrubbing action that will clean
the surface of the die.
23.7.2 SHUT DOWN
Standard shut down procedures have been
developed for polyester resins. The key step is
to remove the resin bath or bypass the rein-
forcement around it. The dry reinforcement
should be completely pulled through the die.
None of it should be cut out or removed. At
this point the die will be free from build up
and ready for a restart.
The resin drain from the bath should be
placed in a container in an area with good ven-
tilation and spill protection. A metal or plastic
tray with a surrounding high lip will be satis-
factory for spill protection. The resin containers
should only be half full. Eventually when it
does exotherm, it will become hot, expand and
may overflow the container if it is too full.
23.8 ADDITIVES
Inorganic fillers are used to reduce shrinkage at
polymerization. They also extend the volume of
the resin phase to provide a low cost formula-
tion. These are primary additives. Fillers can
frequently constitute the largest proportion of a
formulation, second only to the base resin.
Fillers are classified according to their particle
size, as either coarse fillers or fine. Coarse fillers
have an average particle size in excess of 8 pm
and are generally the nonfibrous type with low
surface area and low oil absorptions. They can
be highly loaded into the resin and are easily
wetted out by the resin system. Their disadvan-
tage is that they tend to provide poor
compound cohesiveness and to introduce local-
ized resin rich pockets and possibly to increase
fiber agglomeration during secondary molding
processes (as in pull forming).The large particle
size filler can be filtered out by a high density
roving preform which can lead to large voids in
the interior of the pultruded structure.
The most common of these fillers are cal-
cium carbonate, aluminum silicate and
516 Pultrusion
alumina trihydrate. Silica and coarse talcs are
also examples of coarse fillers. Calcium car-
bonate is primarily used as a volume extender
to provide the lowest cost resin formulation
where performance is not critical4s.
Fine fillers have an average particle size of
5 pm or less and have high surface areas which
can produce high viscosities in the formula-
tions. These fillers provide a high order of
cohesiveness and will tend to lubricate the
pultrusion system. They also help to reduce
localized shrinkage owing to their more com-
plete distribution within the polymer. Kaolin
clays, hydrous alumina silicate, fine talc, col-
loidal silica and precipitated calcium
carbonate are examples of fine fillers. Clay
fillers are used to improve corrosion resistance
and where electrical properties are required.
They also impart a superior surface finish to
the pultruded product. Alumina trihydrate
improves flame and smoke generation proper-
ties and occurs in applications where
consumer or governmental codes are imposed
to decrease flammability.
Fillers used in the pultrusion process
should contain less than 0-5% free water con-
tent and should be uniform and free from
contamination. Foreign material in the filler
may cause localized reaction with off gassing
of volatile byproducts and voids or could
affect the uniformity of coloring within the
pultrusion. Fillers are mixed into the resins in
quantities up to 50% of the total resin formula-
tion by weight (100 parts filler per 100 parts
resin). Limits of filler addition are based on the
viscosity of the system which results from the
particle size of the filler and the characteristics
of the resin. Wetting agents are sometimes
used to add a volume of filler material without
increasing formula viscosity. Wetting agents
can be added to the filler by the supplier or as
an additive during the formulation process for
the resin. Air release agents are added in the
same manner and will result in more efficient
packing by reducing entrapped air in the liq-
uid resin. They also tend to reduce void
content in the finished product.
23.8.1 PIGMENTS
Pultruded products are normally associated
with bright colors and these colors are nor-
mally created by adding suitable colored
pigments to the resin system which are then
cured into the matrix material. Pigments are
generally of three types: (a) dyes; (b) organic
pigments; (c) inorganic pigments. These three
pigments are characterized by their own indi-
vidual proper tie^^^. Dyes have good
transparency and acceptable brightness.
However, they have poor heat resistance and
tend to migrate in solution. Organic pigments
also have acceptable brightness and brilliance
but are not normally as good as the dyes.
Weather resistance and W absorption tends
to be a problem and the colors may deteriorate
and fade after long periods of W exposure.
Inorganic pigments are generally the materi-
als of choice. These are usually natural or
synthetic metallic oxides, sulfides, or other
salts which are heat treated and converted to a
dry powder at 600-1100°C (1112-2012°F).
Inorganic pigments have superior properties of
brightness to those of organic pigments or dyes
and are very resistant to weather and migra-
tion and have a very high stability under light
exposure. The major problem, however, in
incorporating these pigment additives into
resin formulations are the effects which they
have on the cure cycle of the resins. It is possi-
ble for them to be involved in the
polymerization reaction during the curing of
the resins and to become chemically attached
into some of the reactive sites. This has a strong
effect on the properties of the resulting com-
posite material and will require a change in the
temperature/time curing cycle. A large per-
centage of pultruded composite components
are used outdoors and W exposure is a prob-
lem. Under these circumstances, titanium
dioxide, an excellent UV absorber and
whitener, is used as a part of the formulation.
Its presence would also naturally create a paler
color in the pultruded composite and hence
additional quantities of inorganic pigment are

normally required to make the color bright.
Zinc sulfide is also a UV absorber which is fre-
quently used in pigment systems. Both
titanium dioxide and zinc sulfide seem to have
little effect on the ultimate mechanical and
physical properties of the pultrusions such as
the strength, moduli and impact resistance.
23.8.2 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS
Pultruded FRP composites can be joined using
various methods of assembly including
mechanical fastening (with plastic or metallic
bolts or screws or by doweling with dowels or
rivets), mechanically interlocking connections
(where molded or laminated inserts lock into
the sections being fastened), adhesive bond-
ing, or a combination of these methods50.
When structural components are assembled
special attention must be given to the rigidity,
geometry, fabrication and assembly require-
ments involved. It has been determined that
mechanical fastening and/or mechanically
interlocking connections are most suitable for
structural connections. Some connections
depending upon the geometry and the stresses
developed in connection can be strengthened
by also adhesive bonding in addition to
mechanical fasteners. Each of these systems
have their own advantages and disadvantages
which are discussed in the following para-
graphs.
23.8.3 MECHANICAL FASTENERS
If properly designed and fabricated, mechani-
cally fastened connections are the most
reliable method of joining pultruded struc-
tural sections. In recent years a significant
amount of information through empirical test-
ing and prototyping of connections has
become available on the bolting and riveting
of composites. There are many standard refer-
ences in this field51-53.
The advantages of a mechanically fastened
joint are:
Additives 517
0 surface preparation of the composites is
not required;
0 inspection of the joint is relatively easy;
0 the joint can be assembled and connected
up to full strength rapidly;
0 ability to disassemble and reassemble.
The disadvantages of a mechanically fastened
joint are:
in preparing the joints, holes must be
drilled and sealed, structural members
must be trimmed and any required gusset
plates must be fabricated;
drilling of holes cuts the longitudinal
strength fibers in the area of the hole. This
can cause high stress levels and stress con-
centrations;
strength of the joint is dependent upon the
bearing strength of the composite material;
the strength of mechanically fastened
joints is also dependent upon the strength
of the fastener.
Fastener parameters include:
0 clamping force/installation torque limits;
0 washer size for transmission of load;
0 fastener size;
0 hole size and tolerance;
0 joint type;
0 geometry of the fastener layout;
0 composite thickness;
0 rate of loading and the direction;
0 static or dynamic loading;
0 failure criteria;
0 high stress concentrations around fas-
tener.
23.8.4 ADHESIVE JOINTS
Adhesive joints have become popular for the
connection of the composite materials since
there is not degradation of the composite itself
by the bonding process. Adhesives are usually
available in solid, paste or liquid form and are
classified as either inorganic or organic materi-
als. The majority of the structural adhesives are
derived from the organic group and can be
518 Pultrusion
thermosetting resins, thermoplastics, or elas-
tomers. These adhesives are known for their
properties of being strong, tough, insoluble and
useable over a wide temperature rangeM.The
primary advantages of an adhesive joint are:
0 the properties of the composite material
remain intact and are not degraded;
0 adhesives are generally stronger than the
composite material being bonded, conse-
quently any failure mode is usually forced
into the surrounding primary structural
material;
0 good distribution of joint stresses;
0 adhesive bonding can be used to bond dis-
similar materials;
0 adhesive joints can be particularly forgiv-
ing. Flaws in the joints do not generally
degrade the strength of the joint. The main
reason for this is that the critical stress
location in a bonded joint is usually at the
end of the overlap and flaws tend to occur
in the center of the joint where the stress
level is low;
0 good fatigue and impact loading charac-
teristics.
Disadvantages of the adhesive bonded joints
are:
0 surface pretreatment such as cleaning and
etching must be carefully performed;
0 the preparation and mixing of the adhe-
sive in the correct proportions is critical.
Manufacturers instructions must be fol-
lowed precisely;
0 there is a time limit or shelf life of the
adhesive following its preparation;
0 the component parts must be carefully
located ;sing holding tools and fixtures
and maintained in position with pressure
across the joint during the curing of the
adhesive;
0 while adhesive joints are normally
designed and stressed in shear, there is an
additional failure mode owing to peel
stress. This is a tensile stress which devel-
ops a maximum value at the free end of a
double or single lap joint. The stress can be
particularly severe in thick, double lapped
joints;
0 adhesive bonded joints take time to cure
while the resin is setting up and hardening.
During the cure cycle, the component parts
must be restrained in a fixed position.
23.8.5 MECHANICAL ADHESIVE
COMBINATION
Some connections are stronger using a
mechanically fastened/adhesive bonded joint.
Advantages of mechanically fastened/adhe-
sive bonded joints are:
0 higher overall capacities;
0 greater resistance to environmental and
thermal deteriorations;
0 less subject to peel stress failure than
‘bonded only’ joint;
0 improved fatigue and impact characteris-
tics;
0 increased joint rigidity.
The disadvantage of mechanically fas-
tened/adhesive bonded joints is that they are
labor intensive.
23.9 APPLICATIONS FOR PULTRUDED
PRODUCTS
Applications for pultruded products are many
and varied but generally are commercially ori-
ented. The process shows up in the consumer
and recreation market, electrical equipment
products, corrosion resistance, civil engineer-
ing and construction and transportation
(automotive, truck, bus and rail).
23.9.1 CONSUMER/RECREATION
The combination of strength, stiffness, fatigue
resistance and aesthetic design and coloring
makes pultruded products ideal for the con-
sumer recreation market. Applications are:
fishing rods, archery bows and arrows, hockey
sticks, tent poles, ski poles, playground equip-
ment, fence posts and baseball bats.
 Applications for pultruded products 519

23.9.2 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

In this marketplace, strength, electrical insula-
tion and safety are primary attributes of
pultruded The following are the
most significant applications:fuse holders, lad-
ders, tool handles, electrical conduits5(', cable
traysy and power rail covers for subway trains.
Figure 23.22 shows a set of pultruded ladders
and Fig. 23.23 shows the installation of a
power rail cover for a subway train.

Fig.23.23 Third rail cover for rapid transit rail sys-

tem. (Courtesy of Creative Pultrusions Inc.)

23.9.3 C M L ENGINEERING/CONSTRUCTION
MARKET
In this market the properties which are
required are strength, modulus, corrosion
resistance and nonslip surfaces. Applications
are: gratings, stairs, guard rails, bridges and
platform^^^, crash barriers, ladder cages,
structural supports614, sign posts and signs,
light and pedestrian bridges.
Figure 23.24 shows an installationof gratings
and hand rails in a chemical plant. Figure 23.25
shows a pedestrian bridge and Fig. 23.26 shows
the Aberfeldy foot bridge in the UK. This latter
applicationis one of the most interesting devel-
opments in the application of pultruded
sections. This bridge was designed and erected
by Maunsell Structural Plastics Division of
Fig. 23.22 Pultruded ladders. (Courtesy of Creative Maunsell Engineering in London. The bridge
Pultrusions Inc.) spans the River Tay in Scotland and C O M & S
520 Pultrusion
,,
Fig. 23.24 Grating and handrail installation.
(Courtesy of North West Fibre Mechanics Ltd.)
Fig. 23.25 Pedestrian bridge in Pennsylvania.
(Courtesy of Creative Pultrusions Inc.)
Fig. 23.26 Aberfeldy footbridge. (Courtesy of
Maunsell Structural Plastics Ltd.)
two sections of a golf course. The bridge is a
double cable stay design and all of the compo-
nents are made of composite materials with the
bridge decking and guard rails being pultruded
products. Maunsell has also installed a com-
posite vehicular bridge at Bonds Mill in
England which was opened in 1994.
23.9.4 TRANSPORTATION MARKET
This market is potentially very large. It
includes automotive, trucks, busses, light rail,
subway trains and passenger trains. The prod-
ucts which are being pultruded for this large
array of industries are as follows: drive shafts
for trucks66,leaf springs67,68, bumpers, frames
and cross members, transportation container
bodies, roll up doors, refrigerated truck com-
ponents, frames for light rail cars, interior
structure for passenger trains and subway
load carrying beds for small trucks
and frangible airport approach masts.
 References 521

Figure 23.27 shows a bus interior, fabricated

from pultruded sections and Fig. 23.28 dis-
plays a frangible airport approach mast.

23.9.5 MISCELLANEOUS
Another market which is using pultruded
products is the oil and gas industry for off
shore oil well platforms. Application here is
for floor gratings, hand rails, stairs and storage
buildings and living quarters on the platforms.
Another emerging application is in the con-
stant cross section blade for the Darius design
of windmills for alternate power.
This is just a brief review Of the current aPP1i- Fig. 23.27 Bus interior showing pultruded compos-
cations. The future of the pultrusion process and ites. (Courtesy of Creative Pultrusions Inc.)
its applications is only limited by the scope of
human imagination. The market will continu-
ously increase and it is predicted that by the
year 2000 the total volume of pultruded prod- ..” .- -----c?9.

ucts will have tripled over the 1995 levels.

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