COMPOSITES IN THE SPORTING GOODS 49

INDUSTRY
Brian E. Spencer

49.1 INTRODUCTION went into sport and recreation applications.

Worldwide sport and recreation applications
In 1990 Frost & Sullivan reported that over $800
are the third largest user of advanced compos-
million dollars were spent by domestic
ites behind defense/aerospace and elastomer
defense/aerospace contractors for advanced
reinforcement (tires, hose and belts)'. In the
composites. In the same period, $70 million
USA as well, sport and recreation applications
worth of advanced composites were purchased
are the third largest users of advanced compos-
from domestic producers for sporting goods.
ites. One of the major growth markets for
Advanced composites are usually defined as
advanced composites over the past several
those composites that use either carbon,
years has been the sporting goods industry.
aramid, Sglass, ceramic, polyethylene, boron,
Although there was a total decline in USA
or other high strength or high stiffness fiber. In
defense spending of only 14% from 1990 to
1991, the total worldwide consumption of
1994, the procurement decline was 45%' (Fig.
advanced fibers was estimated to be 27200
49.1). The defense procurement decline was
metric tons1. Approximately 10% of this fiber

300

",250 Manpower, R&D

ln
c logistics, other
=E0 200
c

7
(I)

m
150 Procurement

100

50

Fiscal year
Fig. 49.1 Defense budget declines. (Courtesy of
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published Westinghouse ESG news and department of
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 defense budget.)

disastrous for the composites industry and
resulted in severe upheavals. Although no seg-
ment of the composites market could offset the
defense-induced decline, the sporting
goods/recreation composite segment along
with most other segments is predicted to show
positive growth in the near future3(Table 49.1).
This growth trend is expected to continue into
the 21st century. Advances in materials and
processes have reduced consumer prices for the
recreational composite while providing
improved performance for the athlete.
Some of the first applications for compos-
ites in sport and recreation were fiberglass
boat hulls and fishing poles. Now the list of
products using composites includes almost
every sporting and recreation activity.
Products in golf, tennis, and bicycle racing
have brought attention to the superior perfor-
mance of composites in sports and recreation.
Hand lay-up and roll-wrapping have been
the processes generally used for most sporting
goods applications. There has been an
increased interest in filament winding as a pre-
ferred process for tubular products such as
golf shafts, sail masts, ski poles, softball bats
and bicycle frame tubing, because filament
winding can lower labor costs and add a new
level of design flexibility, product consistency,
and quality for these products.
Table 49.1 Annual growth rate of selected materials by region, 1993-2003
_ _ _ _ ~
Productlend use US average
annual
growth %
Advanced polymer composites
Aircraft 6.5
Missiles/ space 1.0
Recreation 6.0
Armor 6.0
Automotive 50.0
Industrial/other 4.0
Total 7.1
Introduction 1045
49.2 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
Composite products may be manufactured by
several processes, depending on the shape and
physical properties required. Common
processes are hand lay-up, machine lay-up,
roll wrapping, filament winding, pultrusion,
compression molding, platen molding,
chopped fiber spray-up, resin transfer mold-
ing and braiding. Not all of these processes are
efficient for manufacturing sport and recre-
ation products.
Virtually all fishing poles and most golf
shafts are fabricated by the roll wrap process,
which consists of placing pre-cut sheets of
prepreg unidirectional tape or cloth on a man-
drel, then rolling the mandrel between platens
to consolidate the composite. Fly fishing rod
lay-ups have in the past had all unidirectional
0" plies of one material but golf shafts may
have two fibers, such as carbon and boron,
and some angle plies. A release cloth or tape is
usually wrapped around the composite to
apply pressure during the required heat cure
process and hold the composite in place. After
curing, the composite part is pulled from the
mandrel and can be machined as necessary to
the final shape. The part is then painted and
graphics are added.
Braiding and pultrusion have been used
successfully for some applications. Tennis
Rest of world World average
average annual annual growth
growth YO %
8.5 7.45
4.0 2.2
3.5 5.0
4.5 5.4
2.0 26.7
5.0 4.6
5.4 6.4
1046 Composites in the sporting goods industry
rackets have been fabricated by braiding. The
braiding process for composites is identical to
braiding textiles, except that the fiber is usu-
ally braided as a prepreg. Prince introduced
the Vortex tennis racket, braided with co-min-
gled nylon and carbon fibers, in the late 1980s.
Ski poles, kite tubes, arrow shafts, and similar
hollow or solid shafts are made by the pultru-
sion process. Pultrusion of composites is
similar to extruding metals. The resin and
fiber material are pulled through a heated die
that forms the composite to shape and cures
the resin in one continuous process. Since the
fibers are essentially all aligned down the axis
of the part there is little transverse or hoop
strength unless hoop fibers or other off-axis
reinforcement such as mats are added during
the process. Arrow shafts have shattered on
impact because of this lack of strength in the
hoop direction.
Resin transfer molding (RTM) consists of
injecting resin into a mold containing fiber in a
preform pattern. Resin transfer molding is
usually used in conjunction with a fiber place-
ment technique such as hand lay-up, braiding
or filament winding. Some tennis rackets are
fabricated using the resin transfer molding
process4.
The filament winding process is the
machine controlled technique of applying a
controlled amount of resin and oriented fiber
on a mandrel that provides the finished com-
ponent shape. The mechanics of filament
winding are illustrated in Fig. 49.2 The ten-
sioned fiber bands are accurately placed on
the mandrel using numerically computer
controlled or chain and gear mechanical
winding machines. Fig. 49.2 shows the fiber
being pulled from tensioned spools through
the delivery eye onto the rotating mandrel.
The resin can either be pre-applied on the fiber
in an off-line operation (pre-impregnation, or
wet prepreg) or applied during the winding
operation (wet winding). Prepregging usually
requires storing the material at low tempera-
ture until required for winding to retard the
curing process. Wet winding uses a resin
bath, along the fiber path between the ten-
sioning system and the delivery eye, through
which the dry fibers are pulled. Both wet
winding and prepreg winding are widely
used. The choice of technique depends on the
application, cost and quality requirements.
Composites that have directionally oriented
continuous fibers are analyzed by techniques
such as netting analysis, rule of mixtures, clas-
sical lamination theory, and micromechanics.
These analysis techniques all account for the
fact that composites have material properties
that depend on the fiber directions of each ply.
The overall directional properties of the lami-
nate are calculated by adding the relative
effects of each ply. The analyses are more com-
plicated than with isotropic materials such as
steel and aluminum. However, the wide-
spread use of computers has made the task of
analyzing composites relatively simple.
Composites are in many cases much
stronger and stiffer than metals such as steel,
aluminum or titanium. When one takes into
account the much lower density of composites
as compared to metals, composites have an
even greater performance advantage over
metals. To compare material properties on an
equal weight basis (instead of an equal volume
basis), a property such as ultimate strength is
divided by the density of the particular mater-
ial. The resultant is termed specific strength.
The same can be applied to stiffness (modulus)
and is called specific modulus. Comparing
materials this way is very important when
designing weight critical parts.
Figures 49.3 and 49.4 show the strength,
modulus, and specific properties of represen-
tative composites and metals. The composite
data are for composites with all fibers oriented
in one direction (unidirectional ply data). The
test loads are applied to the specimens in the
same direction as the fibers. Also, all compos-
ite data presented here are for 60% fiber and
40% resin by volume samples. This ratio is
typical for advanced composite laminates. The
epoxy resin used to make the samples is not
indicated specifically because its effect on the

-MACHINE DRIVE
Fig. 49.2 Layout of a typical filament winding machine (Courtesyof Composites Machines Company.)
unidirectional ply properties is negligible
compared to the effect of the fibers.
In Fig. 49.3 it can be seen that composite
plies are up to twice the strength of high
strength steel and three to five times stronger
than titanium and aluminum. Comparing
specific strengths, composites are three to
eight times stronger than the metals. The stiff-
ness of the materials, shown in Fig. 49.4, range
from fiberglass composite at the low end to
high modulus carbon composite at the high
end with metals in between. Composites com-
pare more favorably to metals in specific
modulus. The specific modulus of the com-
posites shown are one to six times greater
than for metals.
Fatigue resistance is another important
material property to consider when designing
Manufacturing techniques 1047
orlzontal and VeWtical
a product. Fatigue describes the phenomenon
of reduced strength over time of load applica-
tion (static fatigue) or the number of times a
load is applied (cyclic fatigue). Aluminum and
fiberglass composites suffer from poor fatigue
performance whereas carbon compositesexcel.
Figure 49.5 displays the cyclic fatigue
strength of various metals and composites.
Specimens of each material were loaded
repeatedly in tension to various predeter-
mined loads and then the loads were removed,
until the specimens failed. A curve of cyclic
stress against number of cycles to failure can
be constructed for each material, from which
the 10 million cycle failure stress for each
material can be obtained. The 10 million cycle
life is considered by designers to approximate
an infinite life for most applications.
1048 Composites in the sporting goods industry

Specific Strength, E6 in.

Material 0 2 4 6 8
34 msi carbon

42 msi carbon

50 msi carbon

5-2 glass

E glass

Kevlar

Spectra 1000

Titanium

-
4340 Steel

Aluminum
0 100 200 300 400 500
Strength, ksi
Strength Specific Strength
Fig. 49.3 Strength of composites; comparison with metals at 60% fiber volume.
Specific Modulus, E6 in.
Material 800
34 msi carbon

42 msi carbon

50 msi carbon

S-2 glass

E glass

Kevlar

Spectra 1000

Titanium

4340 Steel

Aluminum
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Modulus, Msi
-Modulus Specific Modulus
Fig. 49.4 Stiffness of composites; comparison with metals at 60% fiber volume.
 Sporting goods applications 1049

Tension - tension ratio at 10 E + 7 cycles

Material

-
34 msi carbon
42 msi carbon

-
50 msi carbon

-
S-2 glass

-
E glass
Kevlar
Titanium
4340 Steel
Aluminum
100 200 300 400 500 600
Alt. stress density, ksi/lb. per cu. in.

Fig. 49.5 Fatigue strength of composites; comparison with metals at 60% fiber volume.

The failure loads shown in Fig. 49.5 are because of the changes in 'feel' of the rod.
given as stress density which is the test stress Many golf shafts incorporate both
divided by the material density. For the mate- carbon/graphite and boron reinforcements to
rials tested, composites have two to six times change flex point, reduce shaft weight, increase
the specific fatigue resistance as metals. torque resistance and increase clubhead
It is important to mention that the previous speed5.
comparisons of metals and composites do not
tell the whole story. Often, the benefits of a
49.3 SPORTING GOODS APPLICATIONS
composite part compared to a metal one
would not be as great as indicated by the dif-
49.3.1 RACKETS
ferences in ply strength and stiffness. The
design allowable composite ply strength is There are approximately 22.5 million tennis
10-20% lower than the test specimen players and 7 million racquetball players in
strengths. Other factors including voids, long- the USA. These players purchased 2.45 mil-
term environmental effects, use temperature lion tennis rackets at a cost of $170 million and
and imperfect fiber alignment all reduce the 1 million racquetball rackets at a cost of $53.4
ultimate strength of composites. Finally, when million retail dollars in 1992. Approximately
all the reinforcing fibers are not in the direc- 73% of these rackets were composite4.
tion of the load, the fibers do not carry the load Most all of these rackets are produced in
as efficiently. However, when these factors are the Far East using a compression molding
adequately controlled, there are many applica- process with an internal bladder. This process
tions where composite structures greatly consists of hand lay-up of prepreg around a
outperform their metal counterparts. Sport straight metal mandrel and plastic bladder.
and recreation applications are one market After lay-up the prepreg/bladder is removed
area where composites have a decided advan- from the mandrel and placed in a compres-
tage over metals. sion mold. The mold is closed, the bladder is
There are other not easily quantifiable rea- pressurized, and the part is temperature
sons for choosing a particular composite or an cured. A significant portion of the labor in
individual lay-up. Fishmg rods generally do manufacturing a racket is in the surface fin-
not have hoop reinforcement or angle plies ishing, painting and labeling.
1050 Composites in the sporting goods industy

Other processes that have been used

include injection molding, braiding, and resin
transfer molding and combinations of these
processes. Filament winding is being consid-
ered because it can allow the use of wet
winding, which reduces the raw materials
costs and labor content in racket manufactur-
ing. This process uses wet resin and dry
fibers and provides product consistency
because the operation is machine controlled.
The preform can be wound on a straight man-
drel to allow standard filament winding
techniques to be used. After winding, the pre-
form can be removed from the mandrel and
placed in the mold. The key technology is to
place the wet fiber preform in the mandrel
without disturbing or kinking the fibers. The
process then continues as the typical
processes now being used. A typical product
of this method is shown in Fig. 49.6. Filament
winding can also be used to dry wind the
fiber to make a cheap oriented fiber preform.
Then using RTM, the resin can be injected
with the prospect of further reducing hand
surface finishing. An additional advantage to
filament winding is the design flexibility of
changing strength and stiffness around the Fig. 49.6 Prince graphite extender racket. (Courtesy
racket head, which is difficult to accomplish of Spyrotech.)
using lay-up techniques.
impact on the acceptance of carbon fiber com-
posites in the bicycle industry. In 1991 more
49.3.2 BICYCLE FRAMES AND COMPONENTS
than 50% of the carbon bicycles produced
Advanced composite bicycle frames first worldwide (>lo0 000) were manufactured in
appeared in the early 1970s. These frames Taiwan6.
were not successful due to poor design and Tube and lug designs dominated the mar-
manufacturing techniques and market resis- ket until 1993. The technique consists of
tance to the new materials. In the mid-l980s, bonding premade tubes into forged or cast
composites in bicycles had success in the mar- metal lugs. Trek developed a composite lug
ket place and today are the materials of choice that is offered in some of their frames. Kestrel
for new designs6. For the past few years introduced a molded monocoque frame in
approximately 12 million bicycles were sold 1987. Molded monocoques are manufactured
annually in the USA. Of these, approximately by lay-up of composite material into female
10% were considered high-end (sales price mold halves with the reinforcing metal pieces
over $750) products. as required. The female mold sections are
In 1989 and 1990 Greg LeMond won the brought together and internal bladders are
Tour de France Bicycle Race using a carbon inflated to provide compaction pressure dur-
fiber frame. His success has had a significant ing the curing operation.

Tube and lug frames are relatively simple to
manufacture. However, the frames can have
durability problems if the tubes and tube to
lug joint are not properly designed to prevent
significant stiffness mismatches. Galvanic cor-
rosion potential is a concern. Filament
winding offers an inexpensive method for
manufacturing frame tubes. Wet winding
techniques allow using the required materials
in the lowest cost form. Since the process is
machine controlled, labor requirements are
minimized. Currently the most widespread
manufacturing method is roll-wrapping. Roll-
wrapping requires cutting prepreg plies of
composite and hand wrapping them around a
metal mandrel prior to curing.
Frame tubes are not the only use of com-
posites in the bicycle industry. Handlebars are
filament wound, removed from the mandrel,
and then cured in a mold to provide the
proper shape and curvature. An internal blad-
der provides the compaction pressure. Seat
posts, swing arms, and handlebar extensions
can be made using this process. Titanium
tubes in some front wheel suspension systems
are reinforced with composite tubing. Wheels
and spokes are also being made of composite
materials using combinations of roll wrap-
ping, hand lay-up and resin transfer molding.
49.3.3 GOLF SHAFTS
In 1992 over 100 million composite golf shafts
were made world wide with a wholesale dol-
lar value of $900 million7.The majority of the
shafts were manufactured in the Far East and
sold for less than $10 each wholesale. At the
present time, virtually all composite golf
shafts are manufactured using the roll-wrap
process. This process relies on manual orien-
tation of the plies of material on the mandrel
and ply alignment can be inconsistent from
part to part. The alignment directly affects the
shaft performance; flex, and torque. The cut
plies also create a seam down the length of
the shaft which causes inconsistency in the
shaft performance. Attention to ply alignment
Sporting goods applications 1051
helps to reduce the seam effect on perfor-
mance consistency.
Grafalloy introduced a filament wound
shaft for the 1993 season. Filament wound
shafts provide superior performance at low
weight and cost compared to roll-wrapped
shafts available with comparable performance
specifications. Those familiar with the indus-
try believe filament winding will be the
process of choice in manufacturing golf shafts
in the next few years.
Player tests and mechanical golfer testing
have proven the performance improvements
of a filament wound shaft over roll-wrapped
shafts. Many original equipment manufactur-
ers are evaluating filament wound shafts for
their product lines. One factor where roll-
wrapped shafts can have an advantage over
filament wound shafts is in tip durability.
Filament winding can introduce more voids in
the composite laminate than roll-wrapping.
Special attention is needed by filament
winders to insure that their product has suffi-
cient tip strength.
ASTM is working to establish test methods
for golf shafts. Standard tests will allow for a
better comparison of products and give the
customer more confidence in the quality and
performance of the product being purchased.
49.3.4 FISHING POLES
In 1992, 16 million fishing poles were pur-
chased in the USA. Virtually all were produced
in the Far East using the roll-wrap process. It is
estimated that about 20% are high-end prod-
ucts and may be amenable to the
manufacturing costs of automated processes in
the USA. For filament winding, this market
segment is the least developed. Development
work is underway to produce a cost competi-
tive high-end fishing pole in the USA.
49.3.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS
Other applications for composites in the sport-
ing goods industry include softball bats, pool
1052 Composites in the sporting goods industry
cues, kite tubing, shoe inserts, ski poles and
model aircraft. The majority of these products
are currently being manufactured by either
roll-wrapping, hand lay-up, or pultrusion.
Improvements in material properties, reduc-
tion in material prices, and significant
improvement in component performance has
created a market for composites in the sport-
ing goods industry*. Unfortunately for USA
manufacturers, the majority of the sporting
goods products are fabricated overseas. This
business will only come back to the USA if
companies are cost competitive and/or offer a
product of higher value which is superior in
performance. One method to improve cost
competitiveness is through the use of automa-
tion. Filament winding, along with innovative
engineering, offers the possibility of bringing
composites to the forefront in the sporting
goods industry.
REFERENCES
1. Segal, C.L. Worldwide Markets For Advanced
Fibers, 23rd Intern. SAMPE Tech. Conf.,
Kiamesha Lake, NY, October 23,1991.
2. Anon. Westinghouse ESG News, Oct, 1994.
3. Kline & Company The Changing Advanced
Polymer Composites Market, 1993.
4. Feeney, B. Composites in Racquetball and Tennis
Rackets, SME Conf. Composites Manufacturing
and Tooling '94, Anaheim, California, January
17-20.
5 . Levin, S. The Use of Composite Materials in the
Bicycle Industry, SME-Effective Applications of
Composites in the Sporting Goods and
Recreational Industry Clinic, August, 1992.
6. Textron Specialty Materials, Boron Backgrounder.
7. McConnell, V. Composites in sports: goingfor the
gold, Adv. Comp., September/October 1992.
8. Mcconnell, V. Sports Applications - Composites
at Play, High Performance Comp., Jan/Feb 1994.