Introduction: semiconductor lasers

Edge-emitting Laser Diodes (EELs)

All laser diodes are based on light-emitting diodes (LEDs). As with the photodiode, the
underlying structure is a p-n junction, the only difference is the direction of the applied
voltage or bias. The p-n junctions consist of a semiconductor layer (silicon in most
photodiodes) doped with atoms carrying extra valence electrons (n-type semiconductors)
under a layer doped with atoms carrying one valence electron less than silicon (p-type
semiconductor). Charge migration creates a depletion region with an electric field
directed toward the p region, allowing current to flow in only one direction.

In a photodiode, a reverse bias potential is applied across the diode, preventing current
from flowing in the absence of light. With exposure to light, electron-hole pairs are
created, generating a current. In a laser diode or a LED, the process is exactly reverse. A
positive bias is applied, causing current to flow. As the electrons form the n-type
semiconductor flow into the p-type semiconductor, they combine with the holes,
releasing energy in the form of light.

Diode lasers differ in that light is generated by stimulated rather than spontaneous
emission, with the result that the generation efficiency is much higher. A second
difference between diode lasers and LEDs is that lasers require a higher current. With
higher current, the excited states become more populated than the relaxed states-the
condition known as a population inversion. Laser amplification now occurs because each
photon on average produces more than one stimulated photon before leaving the laser or
being absorbed. Once this laser amplification occurs, the quantum efficiency in
converting additional electrical energy into light jumps to values much higher than those
for LEDs.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of an edge emitting laser diode.

Vertical Emitting lasers (VCSELs)

A vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) is a specialized laser diode that
promises to revolutionize fiber optic communications by improving efficiency and
increasing data speed. The acronym VCSEL is pronounced 'vixel.'

Older laser diodes, called edge-emitting diodes, emit coherent light or infrared (IR)
energy parallel to the boundaries between the semiconductor layers. The VCSEL emits
its coherent energy perpendicular to the boundaries between the layers. The vertical in
VCSEL arises from the fact that laser diodes are typically diagrammed showing the
boundaries as horizontal planes, so the output of the VCSEL appears to emerge vertically
in these drawings.

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of a vertical cavity laser.

VCSELs have been constructed that emit energy at 850 nanometers (nm) and 1300
nm.These wavelengths correspond to energy in the near infrared (IR) portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. (The longest visible red is at approximately 770 nm.) Optical
fibers transmit energy most efficiently at wavelengths around 1550 nm. Materials used to
manufacture VCSELs include gallium arsenide (GaAs), aluminum gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs), and indium gallium arsenide nitride (InGaAsN).

The VCSEL has several advantages over edge-emitting diodes. The VCSEL is cheaper to
manufacture in quantity, is easier to test, and is more efficient. In addition, the VCSEL
requires less electrical current to produce a given coherent energy output. The VCSEL
emits a narrow, more nearly circular beam than traditional edge emitters; this makes it
easier to get the energy from the device into an optical fiber. The main challenge facing
engineers today is the development of a high-power VCSEL device with an emission
wavelength of 1550 nm.

VCSELs have high performance and low cost advantages. The key features are:

1. The structure can be integrated in two-dimensional array configuration.

2. Low threshold currents enable high-density arrays.
3. Surface-normal emission and nearly identical to the photo detector geometry give
easy alignment and packaging.
4. Circular and low divergence output beams eliminate the need for corrective
optics.
5. Passive versus active fiber alignment, combined with high fiber-coupling
efficiency.
6. Low-cost potential because the devices are completed and tested at the wafer
level.
7. Lower temperature-sensitivity compared to edge-emitting laser diodes.
8. High transmission speed with low power consumption.

VCSELs are promising emitter for fiber data communication at speeds higher than 1Gbs.
They enable high performance systems in Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Channel, and ATM
markets. Through their integration with original equipment manufacturer's (OEM)
systems design, the 850nm VCSELs provide enhanced performance

benefits to a variety of applications, such as local area networks(LAN),

telecommunication switches, optical storage and other optoelectronic systems.
Based on Seminar taken by ARAVIND SURESH, CEC 2011 Batch