Computing Fundamentals

OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)

:: Jack Bennett, 12F

Components of a Computer System (3.1.1)

 Hardware: physical parts of a computer system
o Three categories: input devices, storage devices and output devices

 All systems need instructions of some sort which generally come from the user.
 Some systems need text, some high-quality images, and some video images.
 Input devices are chosen for their quality and ease of use.
 Used so that the computer can be told what to do and what data to use.

 Storage devices are used so that the computer can remember what it is meant to do
when it is switched back on after having been turned off, otherwise by the time you
tried to give it a second instruction it would have forgotten the first.

 An output device is any hardware used to communicate processed data to

the user.
 Used to display what the computer has just done or to control some
device to do something useful.

 Software: actual programs or data that a computer system uses (two types...)
o Systems software: set of programs that organise, utilise and control hardware
o Applications software: designed to make use of system for specific purposes

Software (3.1.2)
 The systems lifecycle is a set of rules written as a series of stages that need to be
followed in order to produce a new computer system.
 It is a term used to describe the stages in an ICT project.
 Commonly it is the process by which an existing system is replaced with another.

 There are nine stages to the systems development lifecycle:

1. Definition of the problem
2. Feasibility study
3. Collection of information
4. Analysis
5. Design
6. Implementation
7. Evaluation
8. Installation
9. Maintenance

 On the next page is an illustration of the systems lifecycle...

Page 1 of 23
 Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

Problem Definition
•Define problem the
system is to
Maintenance overcome
•Problems cleared;
tweaks to improve Feasibility Study
system; data
•Looks at alternative
backed up;
solutions
peripherals
upgraded; relocate
system

Information
Installation Collection
•How to install new •Define how old
system system works and
problems

Evaluation Analysis
•Does the finished •Analyse how
solution meet its current system
requirements? works - uses lots of
•Does it solve the diagrams and
problem? flowcharts

Design
Implementation
•Exact details of
•Establishing new requirements are
system defined

 Implementation: if a team of programmers have to be employed, problems can

occur such as multiple uses of the same variable but for different functions – an area
like this is where bugs can occur.

 Installation: analyst must decide how to install system into business, alternatives...
o Switch off the old system and switch on the new.
o You run the old and new system in parallel for a time.
o You run only part of the new system (phased approach).

Page 2 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 The waterfall model is one model of the cycle in which progress is seen as flowing
steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases of:
1. Conception
2. Initiation
3. Analysis
4. Design (Validation)
5. Construction
6. Testing
7. Maintenance
 The first formal description of waterfall model is often cited to be from an article
published in 1970 by Winston Royce.
 Well suited to projects that have low risk in the areas of user interface and
performance requirements, but high risk in budget and schedule predictability and
control.

 The spiral model is the most generic of the models.

 Most lifecycle models can be derived as special cases of the spiral model.
 Uses a risk management approach to software development.
 Intended for large, expensive and complicated projects.

 Generic applications software has a relatively large number of different uses.

o Word processors are an example of generic software.
o Tailored to user’s specific needs (rather than task-specific).
 Software can be divided into two types:
o Off-the-shelf – available for immediate use
o Custom-written – specifically written to solve a particular problem
 An example application might be software to control a specific process on a
production line, which therefore may well be the only one of its kind, and so would
not appear in a local computer shop.

 Knowledge-based systems are software designed to be able to store vast amounts

of data about a particular topic.
 This data can then be interrogated so that sensible information can be gleaned.
o Data is initially collected from specialist experts.
o The software is then used to replace the experts in conditions where the
expert is unavailable.
 Typical uses would be to provide medical diagnoses or to interpret geological data.

Page 3 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Operating systems (OS)...

o Provide a platform on which applications can run
o Control hardware
o Allow communication with the outside world

:: SIX TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

SINGLE USER – one user at a time.

MULTI USER – data centrally stored, e.g. supermarket checkout system.

MULTITASKING – allows multiple tasks to be run concurrently (or appear to).

BATCH – from the 1950s, to stop people slowing down the few computers, similar tasks run
sequentially.

DISTRIBUTED – centrally located data which is downloaded or process distributed to local

machines be worked on.

REAL TIME – safety critical systems; responses within a critical timeframe; failsafe
conditions.

 Functions of an OS...
o Provide and manage hardware resources (memory management etc.)
o Provide Human Computer Interface between computer and user
o Provide interface between applications and the machine itself
o Provide security for the data on the machine (particularly for multi users)
o Provide utility software for maintenance

 With batch processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together.
 They are run through the computer as a group.
 Performance is increased by attempting to keep CPU busy at all times.
o Buffering, offline operation, spooling and multiprogramming.

Process of transferring data by

placing it in a temporary folder
where another program may
access it for at a later time.

Page 4 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 One of the purposes of the operating system is to provide a human-computer

interface which lets users tell the computer what to do, and allows the computer to
ask the user for input or to display results.

o GUI – Graphical User Interface

o WIMP – Windows Icons Menus Pointers

 MENU BASED – often confused with GUI (menus). The whole interface is run from
menus. Screens are in hierarchical layers so are often intuitive and simple.
 FORM BASED – DVD film control. Multiple options displayed as forms where there
are buttons to move forms.

GRAPHICAL USER COMMAND LINE

 Great for beginners.  Powerful and fast.
 GUIs tend to be intuitive.  Simple prompt screen.
 Context sensitive help.  Good example is MS-DOS®.
 Add-ons can cause actual software to  Quick and flexible.
be quite slow because of processing  Only useful if you understand how
time. the system works.
 Many commands are hidden so not  Otherwise can cause drastic
to confuse the user. problems.

COMMON INTERFACE NATURAL LANGUAGE

 Many Windows applications use a
common interface so that they all
become easier to use.
 For example, they all have similar File
and Edit menus and some shortcut
keys do the same in all applications.
 Designed to understand human
phrases.
 Input may be through human speech.
 Easy to use interface.
 Intensive processing (makes slow).
 People use different phrases to mean
the same thing (ambiguity).

 Good interface design is important because it will...

o Be easy to use for inexperienced users
o Give information about what processing is happening
o Be consistent so that the user becomes familiar with it quickly
o Have facilities for more experienced users to customise the interface
o Always do as the user expects
o Be clear (everything should be obvious to the user)
o Reduce the possibility of mistakes by checking the user’s input
o Not require the user to remember many commands

Page 5 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 System utilities are programs that perform specific functions (generally

maintenance).
 Some tasks that system utilities carry out include...

COMPRESSION FILE CONVERSION KEEPING CONFIGURATION

System utility programs
convert data into a format
that takes up far less
memory space.
Communication of data is
faster when file size is
reduced, and it is therefore
particularly useful when data
is being sent from one
computer to another.
File extensions are related to
specific applications. A
utilities program enables
applications to open a file
with a different extension.
e.g. MS Word can open a
.wps file created by the word
processor in MS Works even
though its own files have an
extension of .doc(x).
FILES
These contain information
on system parameters.
When a program is run, it
may need to look at
configuration files to see
which conditions it should
adapt to.

Data: Its Representation, Structure and Management in

Information Systems (3.1.3)
 We generally use the decimal (or denary) system as our number system in everyday
life as humans.
 However computers find it easy to work with a number system based on 2 because
only the digits 0 and 1 are used – this is called a binary system.

 To convert a number from our system to binary (base 2), we use a column diagram
to simply puts 1s in each column that is needed to make the number, for example...

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 172
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 75
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

o Therefore, taking denary 75, its binary form is 01001011.

 If the column headings are changed so that we have base 8 numbers, then in the
case of 75, we have 0113 – this is called the octal system.

512 64 8 1 75
0 1 1 3

Page 6 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Some information is stored in computers as numbers in base 16.

 This is called hexadecimal (or just hex).
 Principles are exactly the same as for denary, binary, octal or any other base.

If you have to be able to count from 0 to fifteen before going back to the
start and putting a 1 in front of the 0 to stand for sixteen it means we have
to have sixteen digits.

 We have ten of them (from 0 to 9) but we need six extra ones.

 They are the capital letters from A to F.

A stands for the denary value ten

B stands for eleven
C stands for twelve
D stands for thirteen
E stands for fourteen
F stands for fifteen

...and then 10 (in hex) stands for sixteen (in denary).

 If the column headings are changed so that we have base 16 numbers, then in the
case of 75, we have 4B.

256 16 1 75
0 4 11

 Binary coded decimal (BCD) is another representation which is similar to binary.

 It simply represents the different digits in the number separately using four binary
digits for each denary digit.

for example, 7 in binary is no eights, 1 four, 1 two and 1 one – i.e. 0111
5 in binary is no eights, 1 four, no twos and 1 one – i.e. 0101

so 75 in BCD is 01110101 (just pit the two lots of binary together)

 We cannot store negative numbers as there is nowhere to put the minus sign.
 Therefore we put a 1 in front of the number to stand for a – sign.

Page 7 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Using -75, it goes from 01001011 (in binary) to 11001011 as the first bit changes its
meaning – i.e. it no longer stands for “128” but instead “+/-”.

 This is called sign/magnitude representation because the byte is in two parts:

o The sign and
o The size of the number

 There are two PROBLEMS with sign and magnitude:

1. The biggest number that can be represented is now half what it was
2. The binary now contains two types of data: a sign and a value

 This makes it very difficult to do arithmetic because different bits mean different
things.

 Another way of doing negative numbers which gets round the problem of having a
bit that is no longer a number is to use a system called 2s complement.
 In 2s complement the first bit stands for -128 instead of just a minus sign...

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

 Now, -75 must start with a 1 because it is the only place where it can get the minus
sign from, but -128 is 53 too many.
 So as well as 1 lot of -128 we will need +53 to get back to -75.
 To obtain +53...

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 -75
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

 So -75 in 2s complement binary is 10110101.

 Addition: with binary there are only 4 possible sums:

o 0+0=0
o 0+1=1
o 1+0=1
o 1 + 1 = 0, carry 1

Page 8 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 75
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 14
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 =89
CARRY ==> 1 1 1

The sum here is 1 + 1 and

then a carry is added.
Think of it as 1 + 1 = 10 and
then add the carry making
11, which is 1 down and
carry 1 again.

 Subtraction: easy if using 2s complement because 75 – 14 is the same as 75 + (-14)

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 75
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 -14
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 =61
1 1 <== CARRY

 A character set consists of a code that pairs each character from the alphabet with a
sequence of natural numbers, in order to store text on a computer.

 ASCII is a binary code used to handle text using the English alphabet.
 Stands for ‘American Standard Code for Information Interchange’.
 ASCII uses 7 binary digits to represent characters:
o 1000001 represents the upper-case letter A;
o 1000010 represents B;
o 1000011 represents C and so on in sequence

 EBCDIC is an 8-bit character encoding used on IBM machines primarily.

 Stands for ‘Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code’.
 Based on BCD – coding done in groups of 4.

 Unicode is very similar to ASCII, except it contains far more characters.

Page 9 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Designed to include all the symbols that are used throughout the world including all
Arabic, Chinese and Japanese characters.
 It is constantly growing in size as more and more characters are accepted.

 Data can be collected in a manual way – i.e. not directly connected to a computer –
such as via questionnaires, and then it can be typed into a computer using a
keyboard.
o For this reason, forms must be designed in such a way that they are not at all
ambiguous in gathering the required data.

 The person entering data from the forms can make typos in processing so much
data, taking the date of birth 1st February 2003 (01/02/03) as an example.
 The typist may accidently key in 41/02/03 – they have broken a rule, as there are at
most 31 days in a month.
 As long as the computer knows the rules, it can tell the operator their mistake.
 This is known as data validation.

 This type of data validation is known as a range check because it checks that the
data is within a certain range, in this case between 1 and 31 (or 1 and 28 if it’s a bit
more sophisticated!).

 Other validation checks include:

o FORMAT CHECK – 01/02/003 would be rejected because the computer knows
the format should be dd/mm/yy and will not accept anything else.
o LENGTH CHECK – 01/02/003 will be rejected because knows to expect 8
characters and there are 9.
o CHARACTER CHECK – a1/02/03 will be rejected because the computer knows
the first character has to be a digit.
o PRESENCE CHECK – the typist missed it out, the computer will report an error
because it was expecting data.

 Data verification is the process of determining the correctness of the data.

 It tests against specifications – i.e. is the data present rather than is it correct.

 Data can equally be collected in an automatic way.

 Speech input and temperature sensors are examples of automatic inputs.

Page 10 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Barcode readers read the light and dark parallel lines on many products and devices,
but the barcode has had to be created first.
 Dark lines are read in pairs and correspond to digits that combine to form the
barcode that will convey information about the article to the computer.

 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is the process of capturing human-marked data

from forms such as surveys and tests. It is the use of shading in of boxes or specific
areas of a form to represent data – it’s the positioning of the shading that matters,
hence the paper needs to be positioned precisely.
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is the reading of the individual characters by
the computer. These shapes are compared to a standard set of character shapes
stored in the computer’s memory.
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a character recognition technology
used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of cheques. The
technology allows computers to read information off of printed documents.
 Unlike barcodes or similar technologies these three codes can be easily read by
humans.

 A typical computer game such as a car racing game will have many outputs:
o Video – realistic view of the race on screen
o Sound – atmosphere and clues as to the engine performance
o Graphical images – map of the track (position), speedometer, time etc.
o Tabular information – show salient points from last lap
o Text – report any problems that arise
o Some form of alarm to warn when fuel is low

Page 11 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

THE SYLLABUS STATES THAT IN THE EXAM YOU MAY NEED TO...
 Describe possible forms of output such as graphs, reports, interactive presentations,
sound, video, images, animations, stating the advantages and disadvantages of each
with reference to the target audience.

 Data needs to be backed up.

 There are lots of ways data can be lost...
o Hard drives can fail
o Viruses can destroy or corrupt data
o Computer systems can be damaged in fires or floods
o Files might be accidentally deleted

GLOBAL BACKUPS INCREMENTAL BACKUPS MIRRORED HARD DRIVES

All data files are copied to a
second storage medium.
Quick to restore data.
Backing up can be slow –
problem if backups need to
be regular.
Only copies files that have
changed since last backup.
Only backing up altered files
makes it much quicker.
Restoring can take a long
time as data needs to be
rebuilt from separate
backups.
A second hard disk keeps an
exact mirrored copy of the
main hard disk.
If main disk fails, mirror is
immediately available and
fully up-to-date.
Mirroring systems can be
very expensive.

 Archiving is the storing of data that is not being actively used, but may be needed at
some point in the future.
 Data is copied to a suitable storage medium, but then original data is removed.
 MAIN PURPOSE of archiving is that it frees storage space on main system.
 However archived data is still available should it ever be needed.

Hardware (3.1.4)
 The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the central part of a computer.
o Consists of special registers – ALU, CU and IAS.

 Control Unit manages execution of instructions: fetches the instruction, decodes it

and synchronises its execution. It then sends control signals out to rest of processor
(in order of instructions) using pathways called busses. There are different types of
busses depending on the type of data. The CU uses a control bus.

Page 12 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 The Arithmetic Logic Unit is where any arithmetic instructions or logical comparisons
are carried out. It also acts as the gateway to the processor.
 All inputs/outputs pass through it before being directed to other parts of the system.

 The Immediate Access Store is simply the main memory of the computer.

 Special registers keep a check on the progress of the instructions and data as they
move around the processor...

•PROGRAM COUNTER: keeps a check on whereabouts the next instruction is

in the memory – after one instruction has been carried out the PC will

PC always be able to tell the processor where the next instruction is.

•MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER: this is where the address that was read from
the PC is sent.
MAR

•MEMORY DATA REGISTER: the memory is searched to find the address

being held in the MAR and whatever is in that address must be the

MDR instruction – a copy of it is placed in the MDR.

•CURRENT INSTRUCTION REGISTER: the instruction that is now in the MDR

is copied into the CIR. When it is in the CIR, the instruction can be split into
its parts.
•One part is sent to the computer to be decoded so that the processor can
send signals to the relevant parts of the processor to carry out the
instructions.

CIR •Another part is an address that tells the processor whereabouts in the
memory the data is that is to be used.
•So if the instruction is ADD 20, it will be split up, the control units works
out how to do an 'add', and the 20 is where the processor will find the data
that has to be added.

Page 13 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 The address part (20 in the example) is sent back to the MAR.
 The memory is then searched.
o Whatever is in the address 20 is copied into the MDR.
 The value in the MDR can then be used according to the instruction in the CIR.
 If the instruction is to do some arithmetic or logical comparison the data is sent to
the Accumulator that will carry out the task.

 Control bus sends instructions from control unit to different parts of processor.
 Data bus carries data from one register to another.
 Address bus carries location address to which the data is going.
 As they travel around the processor...
o The various localities look at the address as it passes,
 If it matches then the data is grabbed.

 Two characteristics of computer memory are ROM and RAM.

 They describe the different characteristics required perfectly.
o Read Only Memory: data held here cannot be altered. Data is not erased
when power is switched off, making it ideal to store instructions that a
computer needs to ‘boot up’ – this is called the boot (or bootstrap) program.
o Random Access Memory: data wiped clear when power is switched off. The
quality of being erasable when power is lost is called being ‘volatile’ while
ROM therefore is ‘non-volatile’.

 Primary memory is the only storage directly accessible to the CPU.

 CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
 There are more sub layers of the primary memory, besides main large-capacity RAM:
o Processor registers are located inside the processor.
o Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and
much slower main memory (increases performance of the computer).

 Secondary storage media is basically external memory.

o Can be categorised into three types – magnetic, optical and solid state.

 Magnetic devices are typified by the hard disk that is part of most computers.
 Misnamed because it will consist of series of disks stored on top of each other.
 Data is stored as small amounts of magnetism on surface of disks can be read by
heads and can then be interpreted as standing for a 0 or a 1.
 Diagram to show components of a hard disk...

Page 14 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 Optical devices are typified by CDs, DVDs and BDs (which are similar to hard disks).
 They store data as pits (little indentations) on the surface of a reflective disc.
 Data is read by moving a laser beam across the surface of the disc and reading the
change in position of the reflected beam.

Disc refers to an optical media whereas

disk refers to a magnetic media.

 Solid state storage is typically found in flash memory (USB pen drive).
 No moving parts = no mechanical process involved.
 Data is stored in a thin layer of oxide between non-conductive layers.
 Main disadvantage compared to magnetic media is that they are more easily lost.

 Buffers are small areas of memory that act to temporarily store data while it is
waiting to be used or to be sent somewhere else.
 A printer will have a buffer whose job it is to store work sent from the processor while
the printer prints it out – this lets the processor get on with something else and not
have to wait until the printout is finished before it can carry on.

 Interrupts are messages sent from other places to the processor.

 A message needs to be sent to the processor when the printer runs out of data in the
buffer and wants some new data sent so that it can carry on.

Page 15 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

Object Features Advantages Disadvantages

Barcode Uses a laser beam to Fast and reliable. Can Input is limited to a
Reader read the code. even read curved number code. An extra
surfaces or upside layer of packaging is
down. Check digit that needed for multipack
is included in the code goods (different
makes it good at barcode to the
rejecting errors. individual items).
MICR Uses special ink which Provides a high level of Systems are expensive
contains iron particles security and and can only accept a
(can be magnetised) automation to the few characters.
and then read when processing of cheques.
numbers pass through
MICR machine.
OCR OCR software converts Can convert large Recognition can be
a scanned image of the amounts of text into a poor, particularly with
text into an actual text digital form that can be low quality originals
file by recognising each edited in a word and unusual fonts.
character. processor etc.
OMR Uses infrared light to Quick and reliable way Limited to fairly simple
scan marks on prepared of inputting large data capture such as
forms such as multiple- amounts of simple selections from a menu
choice examination data. or marking things
answer sheets or present or absent.
lottery tickets. Cannot be used for text
and number input.
Scanner Uses reflected light to Once an image is Images can take a lot of
read data from a paper digitalised then it can memory space. Quality
document. be enhanced with can be lost in
graphics software. digitalising process.
Touch Devices which enable a Software can alter the Not suitable for
Screen use to control a screen while it is inputting large amounts
computer by touching running making it more of data. Selecting
an area of the screen. flexible than a concept detailed objects can be
keyboard. difficult with fingers
Dot Matrix Printers produce a hard Low setup and Low quality – produce
Printer (for copy on paper. maintenance costs black and white printing
example) Different printers are (robust machines). Print and can only print low
suited to different quickly as produces resolution graphics.
purposes. duplicate copies of Can be quite noisy
printouts at once. because of their design.
Plotter A drum plotter prints by Accurate and can Slow and relatively
moving a pen sideways produce far larger expensive compared to
over the surface of a printouts than standard printers. Cannot print

Page 16 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

sheet of paper. printers. photographic images.

Can only fill solid blocks
using closely hatched
lines.
Speaker These transducers Cheap and widely Analogue device so the
convert an alternating available. Capable of digital sound signal has
electrical current into producing very high to be converted (by a
sound. quality sound. sound card).
Microphone Digital audio can be Voice recognition Stored audio files can
saved for playback. software can be used to take up a lot of
Voice recognition can convert your voice into memory. Voice
also be used in security text or to control menu commands can be
systems. options etc. difficult to recognise.
Sensor Detect changes in the Huge range of possible Most sensors need an
physical or chemical sensors. Switch sensors interface to convert
environment and can detect angles of tilt analogue signals into
convert them into or whether something the digital signals that a
electrical signals. is open or closed. computer can
understand.
Actuator Used to control physical Electricity is easily Can be expensive as
movement. routed to actuator. complicated intricate
Easily controlled. Faults mechanisms are
easy to diagnose. required.

 Actuators are output devices that control physical movement.

o Three main types – motors, hydraulic and pneumatic.

 Motors are powered by electrical signals from the computer.

o Stepper-motors are ones where the signal moves the motor in a series of tiny
but accurate steps (as in flatbed scanners).
o Servo-motors are where the signal enables the motor to move continuously
at high speed (as in computer-operated drills).

 Hydraulic actuators are powered by fluid pressure.

 Controlled by computer.
 Slow but very powerful (useful for heavy lifting).

 Pneumatic actuators are like hydraulic ones but are powered by air pressure.
 Therefore less powerful but more responsive.
 Often used to power robots on fast moving automated production lines.

Page 17 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

Data Transmission (3.1.5)

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a collection of computers and peripherals in one
building or site which are connected together using cable or wireless connection.
 A defining characteristic is their higher data-transfer rates.
 LANs are usually linked using cables or fibre-optic backbones for fast links.

 A Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers over a large distance to other
towns or countries using telecommunication links, e.g. the internet.
 There has been a large increase in the number of WANs in recent years, due to the
reduced costs of transferring data and the demand for more instant communication.
 WANs use long distance communication technologies.

HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Each computer needs a The server itself needs a network operation system and
network interface card (NIC) software.
and a connection to the
network. Network software will usually allow data compression,
encryption and error correction.
There’s usually a main central
computer (server) which often Each machine will need a browser to view the
stores shared programs and internet/intranet pages.
individual files.
Email software will be needed to communicate across
To connect to a WAN, like the the LAN.
internet, a modem or
gateway/router will be If an internet connection is required then the server will
needed. need connection software and software to stop
unauthorised access from outside the LAN (a firewall).

 If data is going to be transmitted from one computer to another, then the bits have
to be sent from one machine to another.
 Using the 8-bit byte as an example...

1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Page 18 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 One way of doing the transmission would be to send the byte, one bit at a time,
through a single wire (connection) – this is known as serial data transmission.

1 1
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1

 Another way would be to use a number of wires, one for each of the bits in the byte,
this is known as parallel data transmission.

1 1
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1

 Parallel transmission is much faster than serial transmission.

 But serial transmission is safer because it is difficult to keep all the bits together.
 Bits naturally transmit at slightly differing rates.

 Simplex data transmission: one way data communication (e.g. radio station).
 Duplex transmission: bidirectional data communication (e.g. telephone).
 Half-duplex: data only in one direction at a given time (e.g. walkie talkies).

 The more wires connecting devices, the more data that can be transmitted in a given
period of time – the number of bits that can be transmitted within a timeframe is
called the bit rate (measured in units called baud).
 The number of bauds that can be transmitted per second is called the baud rate.
 Low and high bit rates are of importance and are both preferable in different
situations.
 For example, the transmission of a video from one device to another...

Page 19 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

IMMEDIATE THOUGHTS...
 Video files are very large.
 Must require high bit rate for transmission.

HOWEVER THIS IS NOT NECESSARILY TRUE...

 If the recipient is not going to watch the video until next week then it can take
days to download onto the recipient’s hard drive.
 When it is needed, it can run straight from the hard drive.
 If the recipient wants to actually watch the video as it arrives (called streaming)
the data must arrive quickly enough to stop pausing or breaking up of the picture
or sound.
o This effect can sometimes be seen on a network if all the machines on a
network are being used to exhibit the same screen as it is being streamed
around the network – if the picture starts freezing then the bit rate is not
high enough to cope.
 The problem is not caused by the size of the files being sent, but
rather by the way that the files are being used.
 These files are said to be time sensitive because they lose their value unless they
arrive in a particular time period.

 Errors can occur in data transmission.

o There are three methods – echoing, checking sums and parity checks.

 Echoing back: if a set of data is transmitted from one device to another, one
checking mechanism is to send it back to the sending device. When data gets back to
the sending device it is compared to what was sent, and if the two sets of data
match, we can assume that it go there OK. However, if it is different, an error as
occurred somewhere, so the original data is sent again. This process is then repeated
until the ‘echo’ matches the original.

 Check sums: data that is sent is made up of binary numbers. Numbers can be added
together. When a set of data is sent the original bytes are added together and the
answer is then sent with the data. When the data bytes get to the destination they
are added together and their checksum is worked out. If the calculated checksum is
the same as the one that has been sent, it is assumed that the data has not been
corrupted. If it is different, then data needs to be resent.

 Parity check: data is sent in fixed byte sizes (normally 8 bits). The data being sent
would be in the first 7 bits of the byte, the eighth bit being reserved as the parity bit.

Page 20 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

Imagining that the data is 0110110, and there is one bit left over which is used as the
check, the parity check works by making the number of 1s in a byte either always
odd or always even. This is something that has to be sorted out during the first
contact between the devices, whether they will agree to use odd or even parity
checking. In our example, there are four 1s in the data at the moment – four is an
even number, so if the devices are using even parity the last bit will be set to 0. On
the other hand, if odd parity is being used then we have to have an odd number of
1s in the byte. The 7 bits we already have cannot be changed because that would
change the data! But the eighth bit can be set to 1, giving five 1s, which is odd. So
the data above would be sent as 01101100 in a system with even parity and
01101101 in an odd parity system. Whichever parity, the data stays the same and it
is the final bit that changes (called the parity bit).

 Packet switching: simply transmission across a network.

 Groups data – irrespective of content, type, or structure – into suitably-sized blocks,
called packets.
 Packets can be sent by any route, and are rebuilt by the receiver.
 Multiple messages can be sent simultaneously on an ad hock basis.

 Circuit switching: another form of transmission across a network.

 Uses a dedicated route reserved for whole message.
 The major advantage is that there are very fast rates.
 Although only a few messages can be sent simultaneously.
 Eavesdropping is also far easier than in packet switching.

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

In circuit switching, the path must be decided before data
transmission starts, whereas with packet switching, there is no need
to worry about establishing a route.

Completion of packet switching method is more reliable because of

the ability to send data packets over any route.

However, the completion can sometimes be delayed as packets may

have to be received over different routes (and must always be
reassembled in the correct sequence).

Although if the connection breaks with circuit switching, so does the

transmission of data.

Page 21 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 A protocol is the language used by computers while talking with each other.
 In its simplest form, a protocol sets the rules used in communication between
computers in the transmission of data.
 There is no point in one device transmitting at a different rate than the other can
receive, because the data pulses will get confused.
 Part of the protocol must be an agreement over bit rates.
 Another part will be parity – if the data is sent as having even parity and the
receiving device is expecting odd parity, messages will never be accepted.
 The same goes for echoing back – if one device is set to send back data and the other
is not, then the data will never be checked.
 Other important aspects to the protocol would be what character set is used.
 Rules that go to make up the protocol are divided into two:
o Those parts that are logically based and physically based.

 The logical parts can generally be thought of as applying to the data.

 The physical parts can be thought of as being applied to the methods used for
communication (e.g. are we going to use cable or wireless?).

 Different parts of the protocol are arranged in layers.

 Each layer contains different information.
 Different types of information can be thought of as being reliant on each other.
 A simple example being that the choice of the physical means of communication will
dictate whether it is possible to use serial or parallel transmission of the data.
 Because there is a sensible structure of one thing having to be decided before going
onto the next, it allows us to put the various layers in order and it means that
changes to the protocol can be made easily by altering just one layer (and the links
to the other layers it is in contact with), not the whole protocol.
 This has meant a standardisation of the components of a computer system.

Implications of Computer Use (3.1.6)

THE SYLLABUS STATES THAT THIS TOPIC COVERS...
Economic, social, legal, ethical and environmental implications of computer use.

THIS SECTION IS FAIRLY OBVIOUS (AS IT IS OPINIONATED), AND KNOWLEDGE CAN BE SUMMARISED...
 ICT has changed national patterns of employment (economic).
 ICT services have changed how businesses work.
 Social issues have been created (affecting the way society is organised).

Page 22 of 23
Computing Fundamentals
OCR F451 Written Exam (January 2010)
:: Jack Bennett, 12F

 There are five main social issues:

1. Information rich and information poor (two-tier society; money)
2. Internet’s changing how people interact (home shopping; less physically fit)
3. Overreliance on technology (hackers exploit weaknesses)
4. Impact on literacy (text language and automatic spell check)
5. Faster pace of life (increased stress levels)

 Three main ethical issues:

1. Unrestricted internet access
2. Ease of copying (copywritten) computer files
3. Increased government surveillance (“Big Brother”)

 Environmental issues are generally one-sided...

 Working from home saves petrol; less pollution
 Teleconferencing saves international travel
 Shop online so companies do not need to have ‘real’ shops
 Insistence on always upgrading mobile phones (landfill sites)

 Privacy and confidentiality of data held in computer systems is of vital importance.

o Folders can be set to read-only.
o Discs can be write-protected.
o Data can be encrypted (applying algorithms).
o Presence of a firewall.
o Different users can have different permission levels.
o Software logs can be used to look at patterns of access.
o Security software (virus, antispyware etc.) must be kept up-to-date.
o Passwords need to be kept secure:
 Use a mixture of numbers and letters.
 Don’t use a recognised word (from the dictionary).
 Change password regularly (every month recommended).
 Never use the same password more than once.

 Large organisations that store people’s personal data are controlled in what they can
and cannot store by a law called the Data Protection Act.
 This lays down rules about what data can be stored and for how long.
 It also states that organisations must declare who within the organisation can be
allowed to see personal data.
 The main problem with legislation is that policing it is almost impossible!

Page 23 of 23