The Einstein Summation Notation

Introduction to Cartesian Tensors

and Extensions to the Notation
Alan H. Barr
California Institute of Technology

An Order-independent Representation form, however, the terms in the equations can

erent orders with-
The Einstein summation notation is an algebraic
short-hand for expressing multicomponent Carte-
sian quantities, manipulating them, simplifying
them, and expressing the expressions in a com-
puter language short-hand. It manipulates ex-
pressions involving determinants, rotations, mul-
tidimensional derivatives, matrix inverses, cross
products and other multicomponent mathemati-
cal entities.
Esn can help you write closed form expressions
for such things as deriving and computing messy
multidimensional derivatives of expressions, ex-
pressing multidimensional Taylor series and chain
rule, expressing the rotation axis of a 3D rota-
erent deni-
be arranged and factored in di
out changing the algebraic result. The ability to
move the factors around as desired is a particu-
larly useful symbolic property for derivations and
manipulations.
1 Mathematical Background:
Tensors
In general, abstract \coordinate independent"
multidimensional mathematical operators and
objects can be categorized into two types: lin-
ear ones like a vector or a matrix, and non-linear
ones. Although there are many di
tion matrix, nding the representation of a matrix
in another coordinate system, deriving a fourth
(4D) vector perpendicular to 3 others, or rotating
around N-2 axes simultaneously, in N dimensions.
Esn is an \expert friendly" notation: after an ini-
tions, for this document it will suce to think
of tensors as the set of (multi)linear multidi-
mensional mathematical objects { whatever the
nonlinear ones are, they are not tensors. Vari-
ous other tensor denitions exist { for instance,
tial investment of time, it converts dicult prob-
lems into problems with workable solutions. It
does not make \easy" problems easier, however.
erent coordinate systems.
The algebraic terms explicitly delineate the nu-
erent numerical representations of a Carte-
merical components of the equations so that the
tensors can be manipulated by a computer. A C-
preprocessor has been implemented for this pur-
pose, which converts embedded Einstein summa-
tion notation expressions into C Language expres-
sions.
In conventional matrix and vector notation, the
multiplication order contains critical information
for the calculation. In the Einstein subscript
1
a tensor can be thought of as the mathematical
objects which satisfy certain transformation rules
between di
Di
sian tensor are obtained by transforming be-
tween Cartesian coordinate systems, which have
orthonormal basis vectors, while a generalized
tensor is transformed in non-orthonormal coor-
dinates.
The components of a Cartesian tensor are magni-
tudes projected onto the orthogonal Cartesian ba-
sis vectors three dimensional N -th order Carte-
sian tensors are represented in terms of 3N com-
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 2

ponents. another. The tangent vectors transformed prop-

The arrays of numbers are not the tensors them- erly with the stretching transformation. They are
selves. A given set of numbers represent the ten- \contravariant" noncartesian tensors.
sors, but only in a particular coordinate system.
The
0 numerical
1 representation of a vector, such as
1
B
@2C A, only has geometric meaning when we also
3
know the coordinate system's basis vectors { the
vector goes one unit in the rst basis vector direc-
tion, two units in the second basis vector direc-
tion, and three units along the third basis vector
direction. Thus, a tensor is an abstract math-
ematical object that is represented by di erent
sets of numbers that depend on the particular co-
ordinate system that has been chosen the same
tensor will be represented by di erent numbers
when we change the coordinate sytesm. Figure 2: Normal vectors on the sphere

Figure 3: Unlike the tangent vectors, the normal

Figure 1: Non-Cartesian coordinates. Tangent
vectors are \contravariant" noncartesian tensors.
Noncartesian coordinates need two transforma-
tion rules, not just one. For instance, in Figure
1 we're given a circle and its tangent vectors. If
we stretch the whole gure in the horizontal di-
rection, (this is equivalent to lengthening the hor-
izontal Cartesian basis vector so it is not a unit
vector anymore, so the coordinates are now non-
cartesian), we can see that the stretched circle
and the stretched vectors are still tangent to one
vectors, when the gure is stretched in the hor-
izontal direction, are not the normal vectors for
the new surface!
Generalized tensor transformations (for noncar-
tesian coordinates) are locally linear transforma-
tions that come in two types: contravariant ten-
sors transform with the tangent vectors to a sur-
face embedded in the transformed space, while
covariant tensors transform with the normal vec-
tors.
Contravariant indices are generally indicated by
superscripts, while covariant indices are indicated
by subscripts. Good treatments of these conven-
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
tions may be found in textbooks describing ten-
sor analysis and three-dimensional mechanics (see
SEGEL], and MISNER,THORNE,WHEELER]).
Generalized tensors are outside the scope of this
document.
Figure 4: Normal vectors are covariant tensors
they are transformed by the inverse transpose of
the stretching transformation matrix.
For Cartesian transformations, such as pure ro-
tation, tangent vectors transform via the same
matrix as the normal vectors there is no di
er-
ence between the covariant and contravariant rep-
3
to obtain the numerical representations of
the same object in another coordinate sys-
tem. That rule is described in section 3.
1.1 Example 1:
For example, let us consider the component-by-
component description of the three-dimensional
matrix equation
a=b+M c
(we utilize one underscore to indicate a vector,
two for a matrix, etc. We will occasionally use
boldface letters to indicate vectors or matrices.)
The above set of equations is actually a set of
three one-component equations, valid in any co-
ordinate system in which we choose to represent
the components of the vectors and matrices.
Using vertical column vectors, the equation is:
0 a 1 0 b 1 0 m m m 10 c 1
@ a12 A = @ b12 A+@ m11 12 13 1
21 m22 m23 A @ c2 A
a3 b3 m31 m32 m33 c3
which is equivalent to:
resentations. Thus, subscript indices suce for
Cartesian tensors.
A zero-th order tensor is a scalar, whose sin-
gle component is the same in all coordinate sys-
tems, while rst order tensors are vectors, and
second order tensors are represented with matri-
ces. Higher order tensors arise frequently intu-
itively, if a mathematical object is a \k-th order
Cartesian tensor," in an N dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system, then
1. The object is an entity which \lives" in the
N dimensional Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem.
2. The object can be represented with k sub-
scripts and N k components total.
3. The numerical representation of the object
is typically di
erent in di
erent coordinate ease the expression and manipulation of complex
systems.
4. The representations of the object obey the
Cartesian form of the transformation rule,
a1 = b1 + m11 c1 + m12 c2 + m13 c3
a2 = b2 + m21 c1 + m22 c2 + m23 c3
a3 = b3 + m31 c1 + m32 c2 + m33 c3
The above equations condense into three in-
stances of one equation,
X
3
ai = bi + mi j c j i = 1 2 3:
j =1
The essence of the Einstein summation notation
is to create a set of notational defaults so that the
summation sign and the range of the subscripts do
not need to be written explicitly in each expres-
sion. This notational compactness is intended to
equations.
With the following rules, the above example be-
comes:
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
ai = bi + mi j c j
1.2 Denition of Terms:
There are two types of subscript indices in the
above equation. The subscript \i" is free to vary
from one to three on both sides of the above equa-
tion, so it is called a free index. The free indices
must match on both sides of an equation.
The other type of subscript index in Example 1 is
the dummy subscript \j ." This subscript is tied
to the term inside the summation, and is called a
bound index. Sometimes we will place \boxes"
around the bound indices, to more readily indi-
cate that they are bound. Dummy variables can
be renamed as is convenient, as long as all in-
stances of the dummy variable name are replaced
by the new name, and the new names of the sub-
scripts do not conict with the names of other
subscripts, or with variable names reserved for
other purposes.
1.3 The Classical Rules for the N di-
mensional Cartesian Einstein Sum-
mation Notation
We remind the reader that an algebraic term is
an algebraic entity separated from other terms
by additions or subtractions, and is composed of
a collection of multiplicative factors. Each fac-
tor may itself composed of a sum of terms. A
subexpression of a given algebraic expression is
a subtree combination of terms and/or factors of
the algebraic expression,
The classical Einstein summation convention
(without author-provided extensions) is governed
by the following rules:
Scoping Rule: Given a valid summation-
notation algebraic expression, the notation is
still valid in each of the algebraic subexpres-
sions. Thus, it is valid to re-associate sub-
expressions: If E, F, and G are valid ESN-
expressions, then you can evaluate EF and then
4
combine it with G or evaluate FG and then com-
bine it with E :
EFG = (EF)G = E(FG)
Rule 1: A subscript index variable is free to
vary from one to N if it occurs exactly once in a
term.
Rule 2: A subscript index variable is bound
to a term as the dummy index of a summation
from one to N if it occurs exactly twice in the
term. We will sometimes put boxes around bound
variables for clarity.
Rule 3: A term is syntactically wrong if it con-
tains three or more instances of the same sub-
script variable.
Rule 4: Commas in the subscript indicate that
a partial derivative is to be taken. A (free or
bound) subscript index after the comma indicates
partial derivatives with respect to the default ar-
guments of the function, (frequently spatial vari-
ables x1 , x2 , and x3 or whatever x y z spatial
coordinate system is being used). Partial deriva-
tives with respect to a reserved variable (say t,
the time parameter) are indicated by putting the
reserved variable after the comma.
With these rules, Example 1 becomes
ai = bi + mi j c j
The subscript \i" is a free index in each of the
terms in the above equation, because it occurs
only once in each term, while \j " is a bound in-
dex, because it appears twice in the last term.
The boxes on the bound indices are not neces-
sary they are used just for emphasis.
At rst, it is helpful to write out the interpre-
tations of some \esn" expressions in full, com-
plete with the summation signs, bound indices,
and ranges on the free indices. This procedure
can help clarify questions that arise, concerning
the legality of a particular manipulation. In this
way, you are brought back into familiar territory
to see what the notation is \really" doing.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
1.4 Why only two instances of a sub-
script index in a term?
bj cj dj =? (b j c j )dj =? bj (c j d j ):
However,
X
3 X
3 created using an even number of interchange op-
bj cj dj = (
6 b j c j ) dj etc:
j =1 j =1
The rst expression is a number, while the second
expression is a vector which equals a scalar (b c)
times vector d. The third expression is a di
erent (1 2 3) ! (2 1 3) ! (2 3 1)
vector, which is the product of the vector b with
the scalar c d, which are not remotely equiva-


lent. Thus, we are limited to two instances of any
particular subscript index in a term in order to
retain the associative property of multiplication
in our algebraic expressions.
Unlike conventional matrix notation, Esn factors
are both commutative and associative within a
term. For beginners it is particularly important
to check Esn expressions for validity with respect
to rule 3 and the number of subscript instances
in a term.
2 A Few Esn Symbols
The Kronecker delta, or identity matrix, is rep-
resented with the symbol  with subscripts for the
rows and columns of the matrix.
( Two subscripts are needed for matrices:
ij = 0 i=j
6
1 i=j
The logical \1" symbol is an extended symbol
related to the Kronecker delta.
( sub i j."
1logical expression = 1 expression is true
0 otherwise
So 1i = j = ij .
The order-three permutation symbol ijk is
used to manipulate cross products and three di-
mensional matrix determinants, and is dened as
follows:
5
8
>
< 0 if any pair of subscripts is equal
ijk = > 1 (i j k) is an even perm. of (1 2 3)
: 1 (i j k) is an odd perm. of (1 2 3)
;
An even permutation of a list is a permutation
erations of the elements. An odd permutation
requires an odd number of interchanges. The six
permutations of (1,2,3) may be obtained with six
interchange operations of elements:


! (3 2 1) (3 1 2) (1 3 2):
! !
Thus, the even permutations are (1,2,3), (2,3,1),
and (3,1,2), while the odd permutations are
(2,1,3), (3,2,1), and (1,3,2).
2.1 Preliminary simplication rules
The free-index operator of a vector, matrix or
tensor converts a conventional vector expression
into the Einstein summation form. It is indicated
by parentheses with subscripts on the right. Vec-
tors require one subscript, as in
(b)i = bi
which is verbosely read as \the i-th component
of vector b (in the default Cartesian coordinate
system) is the number b sub i."
(M )ij = Mij :
can be read as \the ij-th component of matrix M
in the default coordinate system is the number M
To add two vectors, you add the components:
(a + b)i = ai + bi
This can be read as \the i-th component of the
sum of vector a and vector b is the number a sub
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 6

i plus b sub i."1 2.1.1 Rules involving ijk and
ij

To perform matrix-vector multiplications, The delta rule
the second subscript of the matrix must be bound
to the index of the vector. Thus, to multiply ma- When a Kronecker delta subscript is bound in a
trix M by vector b, new bound subscripts are cre- term, the expression simpli es by
ated, as in:
(1) eliminating the Kronecker delta symbol, and
(M b)i = Mi j b j (2) replacing the bound subscript in the rest of
the term by the other subscript of the Kronecker
delta. For instance,
which converts to
vik =
i j M j k
(M b)1 = M11 b1 + M12 b2 + M13 b3
(M b)2 = M21 b1 + M22 b2 + M23 b3 becomes
(M b)3 = M31 b1 + M32 b2 + M33 b3 vik = Mik 
To perform matrix-matrix multiplications, and
the second subscript of the rst matrix must be vk =
ij ai Mjk
bound to the rst subscript of the second matrix. becomes
Thus, to multiply matrix A by matrix B , you cre- vk = a j M j k
ate indices like:
or equivalently, ai Mik . Note that in standard
(A B )ij = Ai k B k j notation,
vk = (M T a)k :
which converts to:
Rules for the order-N permutation symbol
(A B )11 = A11 B11 + A12 B21 + A13 B31
(A B )21 = A21 B11 + A22 B21 + A23 B31 Interchanges of subscripts ip the sign of the per-
(A B )31 = A31 B11 + A32 B21 + A33 B31 mutation symbol:

(A B )12 = A11 B12 + A12 B22 + A13 B32 i1 i2 . . . iN = ; i2 i1 . . . iN

(A B )22 = A21 B12 + A22 B22 + A23 B32 Repeated indices eliminate the permutation sym-
(A B )32 = A31 B12 + A32 B22 + A33 B32 bol (since lists with repeated elements are not
(A B )13 = A11 B13 + A12 B23 + A13 B33 permutations).
(A B )23 = A21 B13 + A22 B23 + A23 B33
(A B )33 = A31 B13 + A32 B23 + A33 B33 iijk . . . ` = 0
1
In the esn C preprocessor, the default ranges are dif-
This is related to the behavior of determinants,
ferent: where interchanges of columns change the sign, or
#f c; i = a; i + b; i repeated columns send the determinant to zero.
g (assuming the arrays have been declared over the Note repeat of index i.
same range). In C, this expands to:
c0] = a0] + b0]
c1] = a1] + b1] The order-three permutation symbol sub-
c2] = a2] + b2] script rule
For the special case of an order-three permutation
symbol, the following identity holds.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
ijk = jki
The order-3 epsilon-delta rule
The order-3 -
rule allows the following subscript
simpli
cation (when the
rst subscript of two per-
mutation symbols match:
i jk i pq =
jp
kq ;
jq
kp
In other words, the combination of two permu-
tation symbols with the same
rst subscript is In addition, we note that
equal to an expression involving Kronecker deltas
and the four free indices j , p, k, and q. In prac-
tice, the subscripts in the permutation symbols
are permuted via the above relations, in order to
apply the -
rule.
A deriviation to verify the identity is provided in
Appendix A.
3 Transformation Rules for
Cartesian Tensors
We express vectors, matrices, and other tensors
in dierent Cartesian coordinate systems, with-
out changing which tensor we are representing.
The numerical representation (of the same ten-
sors) will generally be dierent, in the dierent
coordinate systems.
We now derive the transformation rules for Carte-
sian tensors in the Einstein summation notation,
to change the representation from one Cartesian
coordinate system to another. Some people in
fact use these transformation rules as the de
- a = a^1 e^ + a^2 2 e^ + a^3 3 e^ = a^i ie^
nition of a Cartesian tensor { any mathemtaical
object whose representation transforms like the
Cartesian tensors do is a Cartesian tensor.
Consider a three dimensional space, with right-
handed2 orthonormal3 basis vectors 1e 2e and
2
The author strongly recommends avoiding the com-
puter graphics convention of left handed coordinates, and
recommends performing all physically based and geomet-
ric calculations in right handed coordinates. That way,
you can use the last 300 years of mathematics texts as
references.
3
mutually perpendicular unit vectors
7
3e. In other words, each basis vector has unit
length, is perpendicular to the other basis vectors,
and the 3D vectors are named subject to the right
hand rule.
Right handed unit basis vectors satisify:
e
2 e = 3e
1
e
3e = 1e, and
2
3
e
1 e = 2e:
i
e  j e =
ij :
This result occurs because the dot products of
perpendicular vectors is zero, and the dot prod-
ucts of identical unit vectors is 1.
We also consider another set of right-handed or-
thonormal basis vectors for the same three dimen-
sional space, indicated with \hats," vectors 1 e^
2e
^ and 3 e^, which will also have the same proper-
ties.
i
e^  j e^ =
ij , etc.
3.1 Transformations of vectors
Consider a vector a, and express it with respect
to both bases, with the (vertical column) array of
numbers a1  a2  a3 in one coordinate system, and
with the array of dierent numbers a^1  a^2  a^3 in
the other.
vector a = a1 1 e + a2 2 e + a3 3 e = ai i e
and also for the1 same vector,
Since the two expressions represent the same vec-
tor, they are equal:
ai i e = a^i ie^ (sum over i)
We derive the relation between a^i and ai , by dot-
ting both sides of the above equation with basis
vector k e.
Thus, by commuting and reassociating, and the
fact that the unit basis vectors are mutually per-
pendicular, we obtain:
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 8

By dotting twice by pe and q e, a similar derivation

(ai e)  e = (^ai e^)  e, or
i k i k
shows us that the transformation rule for a matrix
is:
ai (ie  k e) = a^i ( ie^  k e), or
Mij = Tip Tjq M^ pq
ai
ik = a^i ( i e^  k e), or
For instance, with the standard bases, where
ak = (k e  ie^) a^i 0 1
1
The above expression, in conventional notation, 1
e=B@ 0 CA 
becomes: 0
X1 N 0 1
a1 = ( e  e^) a^i 0
e=B
@ 1 CA 
i
2
X2
i=1
N
0
a2 = ( e  i e^) a^i
X
=1
i
N etc., note that
a3 = 3
( e  i e^) a^i 0 1
1 0 0
@ 0 0 0 CA 
e e=B
i=1
Thus, a matrix T re-expresses the numerical rep- 1 1

resentation of a vector relative to a new basis via 0 0 0

ai = Tij a^j 0 1
0 1 0
where e e=B
1 2
@ 0 0 0 CA 
0 0 0
Tij = ( e  e^) i j
etc.
Note that the transpose of T is its inverse, and
det T = 1, so T is a rotation matrix. 3.3 Transformations of N -th order
Tensors
3.2 Transformations of matrices
You would not be surprised then, to imagine basis
The nine basis vectors of (3 dimensional) matrices vectors of 3rd order tensors as being given by
(2nd order tensors) are given by the nine outer
products of the previous basis vectors: ijk
 = ie j e k e
k`
 = k e`e: with a transformation rule (from hatted coordi-
nates to unhatted)
The above matrix equation uses \dyadic" nota-
tion for the outer product of the two basis vectors
k
e and `e. The outer product of two vectors is a Aijk = (Tip ) (Tjq ) (Tkr ) A^pqr
matrix, whose i ; j -th component is given by:
Also, not surprisingly, given an N th order tensor
(a b)ij = ai bj quantity X, it will have analogous basis vectors
Thus, the nine quantities which form the nine di- and will transform with N copies of the T matrix,
mensional basis \vectors" of a three-by-three ma- via:
trix are the outer products of the original basis
vectors: Xi1 i2 . . . iN = (Ti1 j1 ) . . . (TiN jN ) X^j1 . . . jN
M = Mij ij  = Mij iej e
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 9

4 Axis-Angle Representations 4.2 Rotation is a Linear Operator

of 3D Rotation We will be exploiting linearity properties for the
derivation:
One very useful application of Esn is in the repre-
sentation and manipulation of rotations. In three Rot(a + b) = Rot(a) + Rot(b)
dimensions, rotation can take place only around and
one vector axis.
Rot( a) =  Rot(a):
4.1 The Projection Operator See Figure 5.
The rst operator needed to derive the axis-angle
matrix formulation is the projection operator. To
project out vector b from vector a, let
anb=a; b
such that the result is perpendicular to b.
e2
Rot(e2) = -sin, cos Rot(e1) = cos, sin
The projection operation \a n b" can be read as
vector a \without" vector b. Note that
 = ab  bb :
e1
)
(B

Figure 6. Two-d rotation of basis vectors 1 e and

ot

e by angle  are displayed. Rot(1 e) = cos  1e +

+R

2
A)

sin  2 e, while Rot(2 e) = ; sin  1 e + cos  2 e.

t(

Rot(B)
Ro
=
B)

4.3 Two-D Rotation.

A+
t(
Ro

Two dimensional rotation is easily derived, using

linearity. We express the vector in terms of its
basis vector components, and then apply the ro-
tation operator.
Rot(A)
Since
Figure 5. Visual demonstration that rotation is a = a1 1e + a2 2 e
a linear operator. Just rotate the document and
observe that the relationship holds: Rot(A+B) = Therefore
Rot(A) + Rot(B) no matter which rotation oper-
ates on the vectors. Rot(a) = Rot(a1 1e + a2 2e):
Using linearity,
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 10

Finally, let e2 = e3
e1 . It's in the direction of

Rot(a) = a1 Rot(1e) + a2 Rot(2e) r
(a n r) which is in the same direction as r
a.
From Figure 6 we can see that that Note that

Rot(1e) = cos 1e + sin 2e e
2e = 3e

1

and 2
e
3 e = 1 e, and
Rot(2 e) = ; sin 1e + cos 2 e: 3
e
1e = 2e:
Thus, We have a right-handed system of basis vectors.

Rot(a) = (cos  a1 ; sin  a2 ) 1 e 4.5 Deriving the axis-angle formula-

+ (sin  a1 + cos  a2 ) 2 e tion
First, note that rotation of vectors parallel to r
around itself remain unchanged.
axis r
We're now ready to derive Rot(a) around r by .
By de nition,
r x a a = a n r + r
Rot(a\r) Thus,
Rot(a) = Rot(a n r +  r)
angle theta = Rot(a n r) + Rot(r)
= Rot(ja n rj 1 e) +  r
a \ r = ja n rj Rot(1 e) +  r
= ja n rj (cos  1 e + sin  e2 ) + r
Figure 7. The rotation is around unit vector axis
r, by right handed angle . Note that the vectors = cos  (a n r) + sin  (r
a) + (a  r)r
r, a n r and r
a form an orthogonal triple.

4.4 An Orthogonal triple 4.6 Deriving the components of the ro-

tation matrix
Given a unit vector r around which the rotation Since rotation is a linear operator, we represent
will take place (the axis) we can make three or- it with a matrix, R.
thogonal basis vectors.
Using Esn, we can easily factor out the compo-
Let the third basis vector, 3 e = r. nents of the matrix, to obtain its components:
Let the
rst basis vector, 1 e, be the unit vector from the previous equation, we know the i-th
in the direction of a n r. component of both sides of the equation is given
by:
Note that by the de
nition of projection, 3 e is
perpendicular to 1 e. (Rot(a))i =
;R a (a n r) + sin (r

a) + (a r)r )i
i = (cos
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
Thus,
Rij aj = cos (a n r)i + sin (r

a)i + (a r ) r i
= cos (
ij; ri rj )aj + sin ikj rk aj + aj rj ri
Note that each term has aj in it. We put every-
thing on one side of the equation, and factor out
the aj on the right.
 
;Rij + cos (
ij ; ri rj ) + sin ikj rk + rj ri aj
Unfortunately, we can't divide out the aj term,
rst column vector of the
because j is involved in a sum, from 1 to 3. How-
ever, since the above equation is true for all val-
ues of aj , then the esn factor on the left must be
zero. (For instance, we could let aj =
1j ,
2j
and
3j in sequence.)
Thus, putting Rij to the other side of the equa-
tion, the ij th components of the rotation matrix
are given by:
Rij = cos  (
ij ; ri rj ) + sin  ikj rk + rj ri
You can reverse the sign of the permutation sym-
bol to get:
Rij = cos  (
ij ; ri rj ) ; sin  ijk rk + rj ri
5 Summary of Manipulation
Identities
In this section, a series of algebraic identities are
listed with potential applications in multidimen-
sional mathematical modeling.
rst subscript of the per-
List of Einstein Summation Identities:
(1) The free-index operator of a vector, matrix
or tensor converts a conventional vector expres-
sion into the Einstein form. It is indicated by
11
parentheses with subscripts, requiring one sub-
script for vectors, as in ( b )i = bi , and two
subscripts for matrices, as in ( M )ij = Mij .
You can think of ()i as an operator which dots
the argument by the i-th basis vector.
Sometimes we will use the free index operator to
select column vectors of a matrix, such as the
following:
( E )i = i e
=0
In this case 1 e is the
matrix E , 2 e is the second column, etc. 4
(2) The dot product of two vectors a and b is
expressed via: a  b = ai bi = a i b i :
(2a) The outer product of two vectors a and b
is expressed via: (a b)ij = ai bj :
(3) In 3-D the vector cross product of two vec-
tors a and b is expressed via:
(a
b)i = ijk aj bk 
or, putting boxes on the matching sets,
(a
b)i = i j k a j b k 
or
(a
b)1 = a2 b3 ; a3 b2
(a
b)2 = a3 b1 ; a1 b3
(a
b)3 = a1 b2 ; a2 b1
(in which the free index of the output cross prod-
uct vector becomes the
mutation symbol, while two new bound indices
are created).
(4)
ij
jk =
i j
j k =
ik =
ki .
Note that i e 6= (e)i . The right hand side is an i-th
4
scalar, while the left side is an i-th vector.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05
(5)
ii =
i i = 3 in three dimensional space.

ii = N in N dimensional spaces.
(6)
i j
i j =
ii = N .
(7) ijk = ; jik .
(8) ijk = jki .
(9) The -
rule allows the following subscript
simpli
cation:
i jk i pq =
jp
kq ;
jq
kp
(10) If Sij is Symmetric, i.e., if Sij = Sji ,
then
qij Sij = 0:
(11) If Aij is Antisymmetric, i.e., if Aij =
;Aji , then Aij ; Aji = 2Aij . In addition,
since Mij ; Mji is always antisymmetric,
qij (Mij ; Mji ) = 2 qij Mij
(12) Partial derivatives are taken with respect
to the default argument variables when the sub-
script index follows a comma:
For example, given a scalar function F of vector
argument x, the i-th component of the gradient
of F is expressed as:
(rF )i = F i = @x@F :
rst column of a matrix M is designated
i Mi1 , while the second and third columns are in-
Given a vector function F of vector argument x,
the the derivative of the i-th component of F (x)
with respect to the j-th component of x is ex-
pressed as:
Fi j = @Fi
@xi :
Argument evaluation takes place after the partial
derivative evaluation:
12
 
Fi j (x) = @F@i () 
j =x
(13) xi j =
ij  where x is the default spatial
coordinate vector.
(14) Sometimes partial derivatives may also be
taken with respect to reserved symbols, set aside
in advance.
F t = @F
@t :
(15) (r2 F )i = Fi jj
(16) The determinant of an NxN matrix M may
be expressed via:
detM = i1 i2 . . . iN M1i1 M2i2 . . . MNiN
The order N cross product, is produced by leav-
ing out one of the column vectors in the above
expression, to produce a vector perpendicular to
N ; 1 other vectors.
For three-by-three matrices,
det(M ) = ijk M1i M2j M3k = ijk Mi1 Mj 2 Mk3 :
(17) Another identity involving the determinant:
qnp det(M ) = ijk Mqi Mnj Mpk
(18) The
dicated by Mi2 and Mi3 . The three rows of a
three dimensional matrix are indicated by M1i ,
M2i , and M3i .
(19) The transpose operator is achieved by
switching subscripts:
(M T )ij = Mji :
(20) A matrix times its inverse is the identity ma-
trix:
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 13

(22a) The axis-axis representation of a rotation

Mi j (M ;1) j k =
ik : rotates unit vector axis a to unit vector axis b by
setting
(21) The SinAxis operator. The instantaneous r = jaa
b

bj
rotation axis r and counter-clockwise angle of
rotation  of a three by three rotation matrix R and letting
is governed by the following relation (a minus sign
is necessary for the left-handed version):  = cos;1(ai bi )
(SinAxis(R))i = ri sin  = 12 ijk Rkj : (23) The inverse of a rotation matrix R is its
This identity seems easier to derive through the transpose:
\esn" form than through the matrix notation (R;1 )ij = Rji
form of the identity. It expands to
i.e.,
r1 sin  = 1=2(R32 ; R23 )
R;1 = RT
r2 sin  = 1=2(R13 ; R31 )
(24) When R is a rotation matrix, Rij Rkj =
r3 sin  = 1=2(R21 ; R12 )
ik . Likewise, Rji Rjk =
ik .
(22) The three by three right-handed rotation
matrix R corresponding to the instantaneous (25a) The matrix inverse5 of a general N by N
unit rotation axis r and counter-clockwise angle matrix M :
of rotation  is given by:
(M ;1 )ji =
ii2 i3 . . . iN jj2 j3 . . . jN Mi2 j2 . . . MiN jN
Rij = ri rj + cos (
ij ; ri rj ) ; sin  ijk rk : (N ; 1)! detM

Expanded, the above relation becomes: Please note that the numerator of the above ex-
pression involves an enormous number of individ-
ual components when written out in a conven-
M11 = r1 r1 + cos (1 ; r1 r1 ) tional form. The above expression exhibits an
M21 = r2 r1 ; cos r2 r1 + r3 sin  incredible economy.
M31 = r3 r1 ; cos r3 r1 ; r2 sin  (25b) The three by three matrix inverse is
given by:
M12 = r1 r2 ; cos r1 r2 ; r3 sin 
qnp Mjn Mkp
M22 = r2 r2 + cos (1 ; r2 r2 ) (M ;1 )qi = ijk 2 det M :
M32 = r3 r2 ; cos r3 r2 + r1 sin 
The algebraically simpli ed terms of the above
M13 = r1 r3 ; cos r1 r3 + r2 sin 
M23 = r2 r3 ; cos r2 r3 ; r1 sin  5
The author hesitates to expand this daunting expres-
sion out!
M33 = r3 r3 + cos (1 ; r3 r3 )

Relation 22 yields a right-handed rotation around

the axis r by angle . It can be veri ed by multi-
plying by vector ai and comparing the result to
the axis-angle formula in section 4.5.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 14

expression are given by: This is equivalent to

(M ;1 )11 = (M33 M22 ; M23 M32 )= det M
(M ;1 )21 = (M23 M31 ; M33 M21 )= det M @ (F (G(x(t)))) = X 3 X 3
F G @xk (t)
(M ;1 )31 = (M32 M21 ; M22 M31 )= det M @t i j j k @t
j =1 k =1

(M ;1 )12 = (M13 M32 ; M33 M12 )= det M where

(M ;1 )22 = (M33 M11 ; M13 M31 )= det M 
(M ;1 )32 = (M12 M31 ; M32 M11 )= det M Fi j = @F@i () 
j  = G( x(t))
(M ;1 )13 = (M23 M12 ; M13 M22 )= det M and
(M ;1 )23 = (M13 M21 ; M23 M11 )= det M
(M ;1 )33 = (M22 M11 ; M12 M21 )= det M @Gj ( ) 
Gj k = @ 
k  = x(t)
(The factor of 2 canceled out.)
To verify the above relationship, we can perform (28) Multidimensional Taylor Series:
the following computation:

qr = (M ;1 M )qr = (M ;1)qi Mir Fi (x) = Fi (x0 ) + Fi j (x0 )(xj ; x0j )
Thus, the above terms simplify to:
+ 2!1 Fi jk (x0 )(xj ; x0j )(xk ; x0k )
ijk qnp Mjn Mkp qnp (ijk Mir Mjn Mkp )
Mir =
2 det M 2 det M

From identity 17, the determinant cancels out and + 3!1 Fi jkp (x0 )(xj ;x0j )(xk ;x0k )(xp ;x0p )+   
the above simpli es to:
qnp rnp (29) Multidimensional Newton's Method
2 can be derived from the linear terms of the multi-
which, by the epsilon-delta rule, becomes dimensional Taylor series, in which we are solving
F (x) = 0, and letting Jij = Fi j :
pqn prn =
qr
nn ;
qn
nr
2 2 xj = x0j ; (J ;1)ji Fi (x0 ):
3
qr ;
qr
= 2 =
qr
(30) Orthogonal Decomposition of a vector v
which veri es the relation. in terms of orthonormal (orthogonal unit) vectors
1 e, 2 e, and 3 e:
(26) From the preceding result, we can see that
in 3 dimensions: v = (v  j e)j e:
;1
ijk Mjr Mks = 2 det M (M )qi qrs : (31) Change of Basis: we want to express vj j e
in terms of new components times orthonormal
(27) The Multidimensional Chain Rule in- basis vectors j e^. A matrix T re-expresses the
cludes the eects of the summations automati- numerical representation of a vector relative to
cally. Additional subscript indices are created as the new basis via
necessary. For instance,
vj = Tij v^j
(F (G(x(t))))i t = Fi j (G(x(t)))Gj k ( x(t))xk t : where
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 15

Tij = ( e e^):
i j
cos  = Rii2 1 :
;

(32) The delta rule: the angle  is given by

ij esn-expressioni = esn-expressionj :  = Atan( sin   cos ):
j j

If  = 0, any axis suces, and we are nished.

(33) The generalized stokes theorem: Otherwise, if  = 0, we need to know the value of
6

Z Z r. In that case, if  = , then

6

n esn-expressioni d  = esn-expressioni j dv  Rij

@R j R rk = 2ijk
;

sin  
Likewise, Otherwise, if  = , then since the original rota-
Z Z tion matrix
n esn-expressioni d  = esn-expressioni i dv
@R i R Rij = 2ri rj
ij 
;

then
(34) Multiplying by matrix inverse: if
Rij +
ij
Mij xj = esn-expressioni r i rj = 2
then Letting
R +

; ; Mij = ij 2 ij 
(M )pi Mij xj = (M )pi esn-expressioni
1 1
we can solve for ri , by taking the ratio of non-
or, simplifying and renaming p back to j , diagonal and square roots of nonzero diagonal
xj = (M ;1 )ji esn-expressioni terms, via
M
Note the transpose relationship of matrices M ri = q ij ]
and M (;1) in the rst and last equations. Mj ]j ]
Note that we are using j ] to be an independent
(35) Conversion of Rotation matrix Rij to index as dened near the bottom of page 3. We
the axis-angle formulation: choose the value of j to be such that Mj ]j ] is
We rst note that any collection of continuously its largest value.
varying axes r and angles  produces a continuous
rotation matrix function, via identity 22. How-
ever, it is not true that this relation is completely 6 Extensions to the tensor no-
invertible, due to an ambiguity of sign: the same tation for Multi-component
matrix is produced by dierent axis-angle pairs.
For instance, the matrix produced by r and  is equations
the same matrix produced by r and . In fact,
; ;

if  = 0 then there is no net rotation, and any In this section, we introduce the no-sum notation
unit vector r produces the identity matrix (null and special symbols for quaternions.
rotation).
Since
 R
sin  = ijk2 ij , and
j j
j j
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 16

6.1 The \no-sum" operator
The classical summation convention is incomplete
as it usually stands, in the sense that not all
multi-component equations (i.e, those involving
summation signs and subscripted variables) can
be represented. In the scalar convention, the de-
fault is not to sum indices, so that summation
signs must be written explicitly if they are de-
sired. Using the classical summation convention,
summation is the default, and there is no con-
venient way not to sum over a repeated index
(other than perhaps an awkward comment in the
margin, directing the reader that the equation is
written with no implicit summation).
Thus, an extension of the notation is proposed
in which an explicit \no-sum" or \free-index" op-
erator prevents the summation over a particular
index within aPterm. The no-sum operator is rep-
resented via i
or (which is easier to write) a
subscripted prex parenthesis (i ). This modi-
6
into matrix and vector notation for interpreta-
tion. Sometimes, however, there is no convenient
way to express the result in conventional matrix
notation.
6.2 Quaternions
The other proposed extensions to the notation aid
in manipulating quaternions. For convenience,
a few new special symbols are dened to take
quaternion inverses, quaternion products, prod-
ucts of quaternions and vectors, and conversions
of quaternions to rotation matrices. A few iden-
tities involving these symbols are also presented
in this section.
6.2.1 Properties of Quaternions
A quaternion is a four dimensional mathematical
object which is a linear combination of four inde-

cation extends the types of formulations we can pendent basis vectors: 1, i, j, and k, satisfying
represent, and augments algebraic manipulative the following relations:
skills. Expressions involving the no-sum operator
are found in calculations which take place in a i2 = j2 = k2 = ; 1
particular coordinate system without the exten- ijk = ; 1
sion, all of the terms are tensors, and transform By pre- and post-multiplying by any of i, j, or k,
correctly from one coordinate system to another. it is straightforward to show that
For instance, a diagonal matrix
0 1
a1 0 0 ij = k
M =B @ 0 a2 0 CA jk = i
0 0 a3 ki = j
is not diagonal in all coordinate systems. ji = k
;

Nonetheless, it can be convenient to do the cal- kj = i

;

culation in the coordinate system in which M is ik = j

;

diagonal.
X Thus, a quaternion
Mij = (ai
ij ) = (i ai
ij ) 0 1
BB qq01 CC
6

Some of the identities for this augmented notation q=B@ q2 CA

are found later in this document.
The ease of manipulation and the compactness
of representation are the main advantages of the
summation convention. Generally, an expression
is converted from conventional matrix and vector
notation into the summation notation, simplied
in the summation form, and then converted back
q3
can represented as
q = q0 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k
and quaternion multiplication takes place by ap-
plying the above identities, to obtain
 Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 17

Note that
pq = (p0 + p1 + p2 + p3 )(q0 + q1 + q2 + q3 )  ! !  ! !
i
= p0 (q0 + q1 + q2 + q3 )
j k i j k
s1 s2 = s2 s1
i
+p1 (q0 + q1 + q2 + q3 )
i i
j
j
k
k
v1 v2 6
v2 v1
+p2 (q0 + q1 + q2 + q3 )
j i j k With this notation, quaternion-vector, vector-
+p3 (q0 + q1 + q2 + q3 )
k i j k quaternion, and vector-vector multiplication rules
= p0 q0 + p0 q1 + p0 q2 + p0 q3
i j k
become clear: to represent a vector, we set the
+p1 q0 + p1 q1 ( ) + p1 q2 ( ) + p1 q3 ( )
i ii ij ik
scalar part of the quaternion to zero, and use the
+p2 q0 + p2 q1 ( ) + p2 q2 ( ) + p2 q3 ( )
j ji jj jk
above relation to perform the multiplications.
+p3 q0 + p3 q1 ( ) + p3 q2 ( ) + p3 q3 ( )
k ki kj kk
= p0 q0 ; p1 q1 p2 q2 ; p3 q3
+ (p1 q0 + p0 q1 + p2 q3 ; p3 q2 )
i
Quaternion Inverse:
+ (p2 q0 + p0 q2 + p3 q1 ; p1 q3 )
j
+ (p3 q0 + p0 q3 + p1 q2 ; p2 q1 )
k
The inverse of a quaternion q is another quater-
nion q;1 such that q q;1 = 1. It is easily veried
that
6.2.2 The geometric interpretation of a  !
quaternion q;1 = s =(s2 + v v):
v ;

A quaternion can be represented as a 4-D com-
posite vector, consisting of a scalar part s and a
three dimensional vector portion v :
 !
q = vs :
A quaternion is intimately related to the axis-
angle representation for a three dimensional rota-
tion (see Figure 1). The vector portion v of a unit
quaternion is the rotation axis, scaled by the sine
of half of the rotation angle. The scalar portion,
s is the cosine of half the rotation angle.
 !
cos( =
q = sin(=2)r 2)
where r is a unit vector, and q q = 1
Thus, the conversion of a unit quaternion to and
from a rotation matrix can be derived using the
axis-angle formulas 22 and 35. Remember that
the quaternion angle is half of the axis-angle an-
gle.
Rotating a vector with quaternions is achieved by
pre-multiplying the vector with the quaternion,
and postmultiplying by the quaternion inverse.
We use this property to derive the conversion for-
mula from quaternions to rotation matrices.
Quaternion Rotation:
(Rot(v))i = (qvq;1 )i  i = 1 2 3:
With this identity, it is possible to verify the ge-
ometric interpretation of quaternions and their
relationship to the axis-angle formulation for ro-
tation.
The most straightforward way to verify this re-
lation is to expand the vector v into components
parallel to r and those perpendicular to it, plug
into the rotation formula, and compare to the
equation in section 4.5.
i.e., to evaluate
(Rot(v )) = (q((v r) + r)q;1 )
n

Quaternion Product:
A more compact form for quaternion multiplica- 6.3 Extended Symbols for Quaternion
tion is Manipulations
 ! !  ! The author has developed a few special symbols
s1 s2 = s v s1+ss2 v v 1+ vv2 v ;
: to help write and manipulate quaternion quanti-
v1 v2 1 2 2 1 1 2  ties more conveniently. We dene all quaternion
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 18

components as going from 0 to 3, with the vec-
tor part still going from 1 to 3, with zero for the
scalar component.
If we are not using the full range of a variable
ijk =
ij
k0 +
ik
j 0
i0
jk + 00ijk;
The quaternion-vector product structure con-
stant  ki` allows us to multiply a quaternion q
v

(going, say from 1 to 3 when the original goes and a vector v via
from 0 to 3), we need to explicitly denote that. (qv)k =  ki` qi v` v

We hereby extend our Kronecker delta to allow

zero in the subscripts, so where the nonzero  components are given by:
v

(i, j, k = 1 . . . 3)

00 = 1
and  i0k =
ik
v

 0jk =
jk
v
;

0i = 0 i = 0: 6
 ijk = ijk
v

We create a new permutation symbol, 0 which

allows zero in the subscripts. It will be +1 for
even permutations of (0 1 . . .  3), and 1 for odd
;
Note, using the full range for i, j, and k, that
 ijk =
ik
j 0
i0
jk + 00ijk
v

permutations. ;

The quaternion inverter structure constant

ij The vector-quaternion product structure con-
allows us to compute quaternion inverses: stant k`i allows us to multiply a vector v and
v

qI;1 =
ij qj =(qK qK ): a quaternion q via
(vq)k = k`i v` qiv

where
8 where the nonzero  components are given by:
>
< 1 i = j = 0
v

ij = > 1 i = j = 0 : (i, j, k = 1 . . . 3)
: 0 otherwise
; 6

Note, using the full range for i and j, that ij 0 =
ij

v

0jk =
jk
v
;

ij = 2
i0
j 0
ij : ; ijk = ijk
v

The quaternion product structure constant Note, using the full range for i, j, and k that
Kij allows us to multiply two quaternions p and
q via v
ijk =
ij
k0
i0
jk + 00ijk
;

(pq)K = K ij pi qj
The vector-vector product is the conventional
where the nonzero  components are given by: (i, cross product.
j, k = 1 . . . 3) The quaternion to rotation matrix structure
000 = 1 constant ijk` allows us to create a rotation6 ma-
ij 0 =
ij trix R
i0k =
ik Rij = ijk` qk q` =(qN qN ):
0jk = ;
jk
ijk = ijk It is straightforward to express in terms of the
's:
Note, using the full range, for i, j, and k that 6
Note that qN qN = q q in the following equation.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 19

ijk` = ikp pj N
N `v
 !
q = 21
0 0
! q
To derive this relation, we note that the i-th com-
ponent of the rotation of vector a is given by: (i,
j, k = 1 . . . 3)
Denition of angular velocity in three
dimensions
(Rot(a))i = (qaq;1 )i  i = 1 2 3:
= ikp qk (aq;1 )p Consider a time varying rotation Rot(t), (for in-
= ikp qk pj N aj (q;1 )N
v stance, represented with a matrix function or
= ikp qk pj N aj
N ` q` =(q q)
v quaternion function), which brings an object from
body coordinates to world coordinates.
= (ikp pj N
N ` ) qk q` =(q q)aj
v

In three dimensions, we dene angular velocity !

Since we can represent these rotations with a as the vector quantity
three dimensional rotation matrix R, and 1. whose direction is the instantaneous unit
(Rot(a))i = Rij aj vector axis of rotation of the time varying
rotation and
for all aj , we can eliminate aj from both sides 2. whose magnitude is the angular rate of ro-
of the equation, yielding tation around the instantaneous axis.
Rij = ikp pj N
N ` qk q` =(q q):
v
We derive angular velocity both for matrix repre-
Thus, sentations and for quaternion representations of
ijk` = ikp pj N
N ` :
v rotation.
The direction of the instantaneous axis of rota-
tion can be obtained by using a matrix-to-axis
7 What is Angular Velocity in operator on the the relative rotation from t to
3 and greater dimensions? t + h.
In symbolic form, angular velocity is given by
Using the axis/angle representation of rotation,
matrices, and quaternions, we dene, derive, in-
terpret and demonstrate the compatibility be- ! = lim 0
Axis(RelRot(t h )) Angle(RelRot(t h ))
tween the two main classic equations relating the
h! h

angular velocity vector !, the rotation itself, and for either representation method.
the derivative of the rotation.
Matrix Eqn: Matrix representation
m =! m
0

Let M (t) be a time varying rotation matrix which
or takes us from body coordinates to world coordi-
nates, and let N (t h) be the relative rotation from
m =! m 0
M(t) to M(t+h).
In other words, since N takes us from M(t) to
where M(t+h),
(! )ik = ijk !

M (t + h) = N (t h) M (t)
j

Quaternion Eqn:
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 20

so Expressing M and M' in terms of !

RelRot(t h) = N (t h) We can express Mps (t) Mqs (t) in terms of ! by
0

N (t h) = M (t + h) M (t) T
multiplying both sides by ijk .
Nij (t h) = Mip (t + h) (M )pj (t) T

Nij (t h) = M
ip (t + h) Mjp (t) 2
!j = 12 pqj Mps (t) Mqs (t) 0

= Mip (t) + hMip + (h ) Mjp (t)ijk !j = 12 ijk pqj Mps (t) Mqs (t)
0
O
0

so = 12 (
jp
kq
jq
kp ) Mps (t) Mqs (t)

;
0

Nij (t h) =
ij + hMip (t) Mjp (t) + (h2 )

0
= 12 (Mjs (t) Mks (t) Mks (t) Mjs (t))
O
0
;
0

ijk !j = Mjs (t) Mks (t) 0

Expressing ! in terms of M and M'

Expressing M' in terms of ! and M
To nd !, we can convert N (t h) to axis/angle
form, to nd the direction of the axis and the We take the equation in the previous section, and
angular rate of rotation, and take the limit as h multiply by Mkp :
goes to zero.

! = lim 0 Axis( ( )) Angle( ( ))

N t h N t h Mkp ijk !j = Mjs (t) Mks (t)Mkp
0

Mkp ijk !j = Mjp (t)

h! h
0

However, a simpler method is available. We note so

that as h 0, Angle(N) sin(Angle(N)). Thus,
! !
Mjp (t) = ijk !j Mkp
0

the product of the matrix Axis operator and the

Angle operator in the limit will equal the matrix Thus, we have derived the matrix equation pre-
SinAxis operator (which is easier to compute). sented in the introduction.

! = lim0
SinAxis(N (t h)) Quaternion representation
h
 Npq (t h)
h!

!i = 12 lim0 pqi h Let q(t) be a time varying rotation quaternion

h!
which takes us from body coordinates to world
= 21 lim0 pqi
pq + hMps (t) Mqs (t) coordinates, and let p(t h) be the relative rota-
0

Thus
h!
tion from q(t) to q(t+h).
!i = 12 ipq Mps (t) Mqs (t)
0
In other words, since p takes us from q(t) to
q(t+h),
Note that the SinAxis operator is described in
identity 21 also note that q(t + h) = p(t h) q(t)
!i] = M i + 1]s Mi + 2]s )
0
so
RelRot(t h) = p(t h)
p(t h) = p(t + h) p 1 (t) ;

or
!1 = M 2s M3s 0

!2 = M 3s M1s 0
Expressing ! in terms of q and q'
!3 = M 1s M2s 0

To nd !, we can convert p(t h) to axis/angle

form, to nd the direction of the axis and the
angular rate of rotation, and take the limit as h
goes to zero.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 21

What about non-unit quaternions?

! = lim !0 Axis( ( )) Angle( ( ))
p t h p t h

Let Q = mq be a non-unit quaternion (with mag-

h h

However, as in the case with the matrices, a sim- nitude m, and q is a unit quaternion).
pler method is available. We note that as h ! 0,
Angle(N) ! sin(Angle(N)). Thus, as before, the
product of the matrix Axis operator and the An- Q0 = (mq)0
gle operator in the limit will equal twice the = mq0 + m0 q
quaternion VectorPart operator which returns the = m 12 !q + qd=dt(Q  Q)1 2 =

vector portion of the quaternion.7 = 12 !Q + Q=(Q  Q)1 2 d=dt(Q  Q)1 2

= =

= 12 !Q + Q  Q0 Q=Q  Q
VectorPart(p(t
h)) So
! = 2 lim
!0 VectorPart
h
( ( + ) ;1 )
h

= 2 lim !0 q t h q

(I ; QQ)Q0 = 21 !Q
= 2VectorPart(1 + q0 (t)q;1 )
h h

so ! or
0 = 2q0 (t)q;1
! Q0 = 21 (I + (1;  ) )!Q
QQ
Q Q

Expressing q' in terms of ! and q Alternate derivation of ! (works in N

We take the equation in the previous section, and dimensions)
multiply by 12 q on the right: Let M(t) be an N dimensional rotation matrix
! which brings an object from body coordinates to
q0(t) = 0 world coordinates.
! q
1
2
Note that
Thus, we have derived the quaternion equation
presented in the introduction. Min Mkn = ik
Taking the derivative of both sides,
Relating angular velocity to rotational ba-
sis vectors M 0in Mkn + Min M 0kn = 0
Let basis vector e be the p-th column of M, so
p
which means
the i-th element of the p-th basis vector is given
by M 0in Mkn = ;Min M 0kn = Aik
( e)i = Mip
p
= ;Aki
Thus,
Thus, M 0in Mkn = Aik
( e0p )i = ijk !j ( e)k
To solve for M 0 , multiply both sides by Mkj .
p

or So
e0p = !j
p
e M 0ij = Aik Mkj
The VectorPart operator can be thought of as a Half-
7
In N dimensions, the antisymmetric matrix A
SinAxis operator on the unit quaternion. takes the place of the angular velocity vector !.
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 22

8 Examples. scripts \i" and \j ," so by the symmetric identity

(10), the term is zero. So,
Example 1. To simplify the vector a

( b
c ) we use the re-association rules, the re- qji Rij = qji ikj sin  rk :
arrangement rules, the permutation symbol sub- Since
script interchange rules, the - rule, the  sim-
plication rules, and the re-association and rear- ( qji ) = iqj ikj
ikj
rangement rules: = qk jj ; qj jk = 3qk ; qk = 2qk
(a
(b
c))i = i j k a j (b
c) k
qji Rij = 2qk sin  rk
= ijk aj knp bn cp and
= (ijk knp )aj bn cp
= (kij knp )aj bn cp qji Rij = 2 sin  rq
= (in jp ; ip jn )aj bn cp which completes the derivation.
= aj bi cj ; aj bj ci
= (aj cj )bi ; (aj bj )ci Example 5. To verify the matrix inverse iden-
tity (25), we multiply by the original matrix Mim
Therefore a
(b
c) = (a  c)b ; (a  b)c. Note that on both sides, to see if we really have an identity.
a
(b
c) 6= (a
b)
c.
M  qnp M M
Example 2. The equation c = ai bi has two re- (M ;1 )qi Mim =? 12 im ijk det M jn kp :
peated subscripts in the term on the right, so the
qnp (ijk Mim Mjn Mkp )
index \i" is bound to that term with an implicit
summation. This is a scalar equation because qm =? 12 det M
there are no free indices on either side of the equa- Using identity (17), this simplies to
tion. In other words, c = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 =
ab qm =? 12 (qnp det
mnp ) det M
M
Example 3. To show that a(b
c) = (a
b)c = so
det(a
b
c) qm = 12 (2qm )
a  (b
c) = ai (b
c)i Thus, the identity is veried.
= ai ijk bj ck
= ijk ai bj ck Example 6. To verify identity (26), we multiply
= det(a
b
c) by the determinant, and by qrs . Identity (11)
ijk ai bj ck = (ijk ai bj )ck is used to eliminate the factor of 2. The other
= (kij ai bj )ck details are left to the reader.
= (a
b)k ck Example 7 To discover the inverse of a matrix
= (a
b)  c A of the form
Example 4. To derive identity (21) from iden- A = aI ; bxx :
tity (22), we multiply (22) by qji :
i.e.,
qji Rij = (
qji ri rj +c
(ij ;ri rj ))+ qji s
ikj rk : Aij = (aij ; bxi xj ):
The second factor of the rst term on the right We are looking for Bjk such that
side of the above equation is symmetric in sub-
Aij Bjk = ij :
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 23

We assume the form of the inverse, within an un-

determined constant : sa  v ; sa  v = 0
 The vector part becomes
Bjk = ( jk a + xj xk ): s(sa ; a v ) + (a
v )v + v (sa ; a v )
Since
The i-th component of the vector part of the rotation
becomes
Aij Bjk = (aij ; bxi xj )( jka + xj xk ) = s2 ai ; 2s(a v)i + (a
v)vi ; ijk vj kpq ap vq
= s2 ai ; 2s(a v)i + (a
v)vi ; ( ijk kpq )vj ap vq
= s2 ai ; 2s(a vi + (a
v)vi ; (vj ai vj ; vj aj vi )
= ik ; ab xi xk + axi xk ; bxi xk (xj xj ) = s2 ai ; vj vj ai + 2(vj aj vi ; 2sa v
= c2=2 ai ; s2=2 ai + 2s2=2ri rj aj ; s ijk aj rk
= ik + (a ; b=a ; b(xj xj ))xi xk
= c ai ; s ijk aj rk + (1 ; c )ri rj aj
= (c ij ; s ijk rk + (1 ; c )ri rj )aj
we conclude that, = (ri rj + c (ij ; ri rj ) ; s ijk rk )aj
a ; b=a ; b(xj xj ) = 0

so which veries the relationship (see identity 22).

 = a2 ; abb (x  x) : 8.1 Sample identities using the no-sum

Thus, operator.
I A few identities using the no-sum operator are
A;1 = a + a2 ;bx x
ab(x  x) listed. This is not an exhaustive exploration the
purpose is to give an intuitive feeling for the ter-
Example 8. Verifying the relationship between minology. It is hoped that this new terminology
the axis-angle formulation and quaternions: may be helpful in the development of multicom-
Consider a unit quaternion ponent symbolic manipulative skill.
! ! 0 1
X a b
q = vs = cos(=2)
sin(=2)r ( ai bi ) = (B
1 1
@ a2 b2 CA)i
a3 b3
6

Thus,
i

0 1
X X a 1 0 0
s = c=2 ( ij ai ) = ( ij aj ) = (B @ 0 a2 0 CA)ij
and 0 0 a3
6 6

i j

X X
v = s=2 r: bi ( ij ai ) = (aj bj )
6 6

The rotation X X i j

bj ( ij ai ) = (ai bi )
! X X
6 6

0 ;1
i i

plk ( kj gk ) = (plj gj )

Rot(a) = qaq ! ! !
6 6

X k j

= vs 0 s 1i ( ai bi ) = ai bi
! a ;v !
6

= vs av In the prex subscript form, the nosum symbol

sa ; a
v is not written into the expression | the prex
subscript is sucient by itself. Thus, the above
The scalar part becomes expressions may also be represented via:
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 24

0 1
a 1 b 1 Z
(i ai bi ) = (B
@ a2 b2 CA)i (I body
)ij = (x
y
z )(ij xk xk ;xi xj ) dx dy dz:
a3 b3 body
0 1 A point in the body b transforms to the point
body

a 1 0 0
(i ij ai ) = (j ij aj ) = (B
@ 0 a2 0 CA)ij
0 0 a3
bi (i ij ai ) = (j aj bj )
bj (i ij ai ) = (i ai bi )
plk (k kj gk ) = (j plj gj )
1i (i ai bi ) = ai bi
Please note that many of the above algebraic sub-
expressions are not tensors | they do not follow
the tensor transformation rules from one coordi-
nate system to another.
in space b through the following relation:
bi = Mij (bbody
)j + xi
9 References
Segel L., (1977) Mathematics Applied to
Continuum Mechanics, Macmillan, New York
Misner, Charles W., Kip S. Thorne, and John
Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation, W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco, 1973.

8.2 Equations of motion of rigid Bod- Appendix A - Derivation of 3D

ies using Esn. epsilon-delta rule.
Given a rigid body with mass m, density To derive the identity,
(x
y
z ), position of center of mass in the world
x, position of center of mass in the body at its  i jk  i pq = jp kq ; jq kp
origin, a net force F , net torque T , momentum
p, angular momentum L, angular velocity !, ro- rst evaluate the expression with independent in-
tation quaternion q, rotational inertia tensor in dices for j , k, p, and q, and then expand the sum
body coordinates I , the equations of motion
body
over the bound index i, letting i equal f1
2
3g,
for the rigid body in the lab frame becomes: but in the order starting with j , then j + 1, and
j + 2 ( modulo 3, plus 1).
d=dt xi = pi =m
d=dt qi = 1=2 ijk !j qk
v
ijk] ipq] = jjk] jpq]
d=dt pi = Fi + j + 1]jk] j + 1]pq]
+ j + 2]jk] j + 2]pq]
d=dt Li = Ti
where
The rst term is zero, due to the repeated index
!i = (I (;1) )ij Lj
j . There is a nonzero contribution only where
(I (;1) )ij = mip mjs ((I )(;1) )ps
body k = j + 2 in the second term, and k = j + 1 in
the third.
mij =
ijkl qk ql =(q  q)
= ;1k = j + 2] j + 1]pq
and +1k = j + 1] j + 2]pq
Barr, Extending the Einstein Summation Notation, 2.05 25

Expanding the two nonzero terms of the permu-

tation symbols:

= ;1k = j + 2] (1
p=j+2]
q=j] ; 1
p=j]
q=j+2] )

+1k = j + 1] (;1
p=j+1]
q=j] + 1
p=j]
q=j+1] )
Expand, add and subtract the same term, then collect
into positive and negative terms:
= ;1k = j + 2] 1p = j + 2]q = j ]
+1k = j + 2] 1p = j ]q = j + 2]
;1k = j + 1] 1p = j + 1]q = j ]
+1k = j + 1] 1p = j ]q = j + 1] )
+1k = j ] 1p = j ]q = j ] )
; 1k = j ] 1p = j ]q = j ] )
= ;1k = j ] 1p = j ] ; 1k = j + 1] 1p = j + 1]

;
 1k = j + 2] 1p = j + 2] 1q = j ]
+ 1k = j ] 1q = j ] + 1k = j + 1] 1q = j + 1]

+ 1k = j + 2] 1q = j + 2] 1p = j ]

Since j takes on only three values the rst parenthetic

expressions is 1 if k equals p, and the other is 1 if k
equals q.

= 1p = j ] 1q = k] ; 1q = j ] 1p = k]

= pj qk ; qj pk