DISUSUN OLEH
2021
DAFTAR ISI
DAFTAR ISI...........................................................................................................ii
DAFTAR TABEL.................................................................................................iii
DAFTAR GAMBAR.............................................................................................iv
BAB I PENDAHULUAN.......................................................................................1
1.1 DEFINISI OTITIS MEDIA........................................................................1
1.2 ETIOLOGI OTITIS MEDIA......................................................................1
BAB II ISI................................................................................................................3
2.1 PATOFISIOLOGI OTITIS MEDIA..........................................................3
2.2 DIAGNOSIS...............................................................................................4
2.3 TERAPI BERDASARKAN GUIDELINE.................................................6
BAB III PENUTUP................................................................................................19
3.1 KESIMPULAN.........................................................................................19
DAFTAR PUSTAKA............................................................................................20
LAMPIRAN...........................................................................................................21
ii
DAFTAR TABEL
iii
DAFTAR GAMBAR
Gambar 2.1 Hasil Pemeriksaan Telinga Menggunakan Otoskopi dari Otitis Media
Akut. Terdapat Eritema dan Menggembungnya Membran Timpani
dengan Hilangnya Struktur Telinga yang Normal ............................4
iv
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
Selain itu, jenis kelamin mampu meningkatkan risiko Otitis Media Akut.
Laki- laki memiliki resiko lebih besar terkena Otitis Media daripada perempuan.
Hal ini berkaitan dengan pneumatisasi mastoid yang lebih kecil pada laki-laki,
pajanan polusi, infeksi saluran nafas berulang serta trauma yang lebih sering
terjadi pada laki-laki. Dari penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa jumlah pasien laki-
laki lebih banyak dari pada perempuan yaitu sebayak 84 orang (58,7%) (Marni,
Zulhafis Mandala, 2018).
BAB II
ISI
3
4
Gambar 2.1 Hasil Pemeriksaan Telinga Menggunakan Otoskopi dari Otitis Media
Akut. Terdapat Eritema dan Menggembungnya Membran Timpani dengan
Hilangnya Struktur Telinga yang Normal
2.2 DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis Otitis Media ditandai dengan pembengkakan membran timpani
sedang hingga berat, onset otorrhea (kondisi telinga mengeluarkan cairan) baru
yang tidak disebabkan oleh otitis eksterna, atau pembengkakan ringan pada
membran timpani yang ditandai dengan nyeri telinga kurang dari 48 jam atau
eritema. Otitis Media tidak boleh didiagnosis pada anak-anak yang tidak memiliki
bukti objektif efusi telinga tengah (Harmes et al., 2013).
Jika terdapat gejala Otitis Media dan tidak terbukti adanya efusi pada
otoskopi gunakan otoskopi pneumatik, timpanometri, atau keduanya harus
digunakan. Otoskopi pneumatik adalah teknik yang berguna untuk diagnosis
Otitis Media dengan 70% hingga 90% sensitif dan spesifik untuk menentukan
adanya efusi telinga tengah. Peradangan dengan tonjolan membran timpani pada
otoskopi sangat dapat memprediksi Otitis Media (Harmes et al., 2013).
Timpanometri dan reflektometri akustik merupakan tambahan yang penting
untuk otoskopi atau otoskopi pneumatik. Timpanometri memiliki sensitivitas dan
spesifisitas 70% hingga 90% untuk mendeteksi cairan telinga tengah, tetapi
bergantung pada kerja sama pasien. Dikombinasikan dengan otoskopi normal,
hasil timpanometri yang normal dapat membantu untuk memprediksi ada tidaknya
efusi
telinga tengah. Reflektometri akustik memiliki sensitivitas dan spesifisitas yang
lebih rendah dalam mendeteksi efusi telinga tengah dan harus dikorelasikan
dengan pemeriksaan klinis. Timpanosentesis adalah metode yang dianjurkan
untuk mendeteksi adanya efusi telinga tengah dan mendokumentasikan etiologi
bakteri, tetapi jarang dilakukan (Harmes et al., 2013).
Adapun gejala-gejala yang membantu dalam mendiagnosis dengan
melakukan pemeriksaan telinga. Gejala-gejala tersebut meliputi: Membengkaknya
membran timpani, Otorrhea, Otalgia (dianggap sedang atau berat jika nyeri
berlangsung minimal 48 jam), Demam (dianggap parah jika suhu 39°C atau lebih
tinggi). Anak- anak memiliki gejala nonverbal dengan sakit telinga ditunjukkan
dengan memegang, menggosok, atau menarik telinganya, sedangkan pada Bayi
mungkin menangis, mudah tersinggung, atau sulit tidur (Harmes et al., 2013).
Selain itu, kadar serum procalsitonin (PCT) meningkat dengan cepat pada
pasien dengan penyakit bakteri invasif. Tingkat PCT meningkat lebih cepat
daripada tingkat protein C-reaktif. Selain itu, penurunan yang cepat pada tingkat
PCT mendukung bukti bahwa sumber infeksi bakteri merespons penatalaksanaan
klinis. Beberapa penelitian telah mengevaluasi peran peningkatan kadar PCT
serum sebagai cara untuk meningkatkan kemungkinan etiologi bakteri dari infeksi
saluran pernapasan pada orang dewasa, seperti penyakit Otitis Media (Gilbert,
2011).
Untuk memahami bagaimana hubungan kadar procalsitonin dengan antibiotik
maka diperlukan interpretasi procalsitonin. Berikut interpretasi procalsitonin
terhadap antibiotik: (Dharaniyadewi et al., 2017)
Memulai antibiotika*
Jika pemeriksaan PCT dilakukan pada awal penyakit, periksa ulang kadar PCT
6-12 jam kemudian
PCT < 0,25 µg/L PCT PCT > 0,25 PCT > 0,5 µg/L PCT > 1 µg/L
µg/L sampai < sampai < 1 µg/L
0,5 µg/L
* tidak termasuk kondisi yang membutuhkan terapi antibiotika secepatnya seperti syok, sepsis,
meningitis purulenta
* Berarti obat ini dapat diberikan dengan pertimbangan bila pasien telah
menerima obat Amoxicillin dalam 30 hari terakhir atau pasien memiliki
gejala otitis-konjungtivitis.
PENUTUP
3.1 KESIMPULAN
2. Pemberian terapi Otitis Media dengan gejala-gejala awal atau ringan yang
tepat adalah menggunakan antibiotik golongan Penisilin sebagai lini pertama,
seperti Amoxicillin dan kombinasi Amoxicillin dengan Asam Klavulanat.
Namun, bila pasien memiliki alergi terhadap antibiotik golongan Penisilin,
maka antibiotik golongan Cephalosporin, seperti Cefdinir, Cefuroxime,
Cefpodoxime, dan Ceftriaxone ini dapat diberikan sebagai terapi alternatif
Otitis Media (obat dapat diberikan dengan cara Per Oral/P.O).
3. Pemberian terapi Otitis Media dengan gejala yang berat atau semakin parah
walaupun pasien sudah diberikan antibiotik adalah golongan penisilin
kombinasi, seperti Amoxicillin Klavulanat P.O atau Ceftriaxone IM/IV.
Terapi alternatif nya adalah Clindamycin dengan atau tanpa Cephalosporin
generasi ketiga, seperti Cefixime secara P.O. Namun, bila terapi alternatif
tidak memberikan efek terapi yang diinginkan, maka berikan obat
Clindamycin dengan Cephalosporin generasi ketiga secara P.O atau lakukan
Tymphanocentesis dan segera hubungi dokter spesialis THT.
19
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
20
LAMPIRAN
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
ABSTRAK
Terapi an tibiotika awa I d an te pa I m erupa kan faktor yan g pen tin g untuk kesinta san pasien sehin gga dip erl ukan
pemeriksaan yang cepaI dan akurat untuk d eteksi a d an ya ba kteri di sirkula si. +CT merupakan biomarker yan g pa lin g ser in
g dipelajari d an rutin dig una kan d a lam pro ktik klinik d an reko men dasi so at ini di be be rap a neg a ra. Ka dor PCT
serf m men in g kat pad a se psis. Ka dor PCT norma I di bow a h 0,5 ng/mL dan ka dar PCT * 2 ng/mL memiliki risiko tin gg i
untuk sepsis. PCT Iebih unggu I d a ripada CRP untuk dia g nosis d an progn osis se psis pa d a pasien kritis terapi p enggu na
an nya ha rms teta p diirin g i d en gon penilaian sec ara klinis. Ha I ini teru to ma pentin g pa da awa I infeksi a to u pasien
dengon infeksi fokaI d an pasien pem bed a han. PCT mun g kin Iebih ba ik untuk men yingkirkan dia gn osis se psis d a ripa da
untuk dia gn osis sepsis itu sendiri pa d a pasien kritis teruta ma jika dila kukan p emeriksa an PCT seria I. Pem eriks a an PCT
ju go d a pat dig unakan untuk mem bantu dala m p en ggunaan antibiotika. Penn eriksa an PCT dapat digunakan untu k men g
hin d ari pen gguna an antibio Jika yan g tid a k diperl ukan p a d a pasien kritis d en gon geja I a SIRS tanpa infeksi: wa laup
un demikian, em eriksa an PCT teta p ha rus diinterpreta sikan sesu a i d en gon temu an klinis d an paramever la b oratoris la in
nya.
Kate kun ci. proc aIe ito nin, se psis
PENDAH ULUAN
Ifultur darah merupakan uji baku emas pada
Infeksi bakteri dan sepsis merupakan mas alah
sepsis. Namun hasil kultur biasanya baru didapatkan 12
yang sering terjadi pada pasien krifis, baik sebagai
sampai 48 jam kemudian. Ifultur darah pada sekitar 15%
penyebab perawatan maupun sebagai infeksi
pasien sepsis memberikan hasil yang negatif. Hal ini
nosokomial selama perawatan. Pemberian terapi
disebabkan antara Iain karena organisme penyebab fidak
anfibiofika awal yang efekfif pada i nfeksi menurunkan
dapat tumbuh pada media kultur yang bias a. Penyebab
morbiditas dan mortalitas. Pemberian antibiofika
lainnya adalah kondisi sepsis tidak disebabkan oleh
harus diatur sedemikian sehingga mencegah
bakteremia tetapi akfivasi sitokin pirogenik dengan
terjadinya resistensi anfibiofika.'
bakteremia transien. Terapi anfibiofika awal dan tepat
Pasien dalam kondisi krifis sering memberikan
merupakan faktor yang penting untuk kesintasan pasien
gejala systemic inflammatory response syndrome SIRS).
sehingga diperlukan pemeriksaan yang cepat dan akurat
SIRS sering terjadi pada pasien setelah pembeda
untuk deteksi adanya bakteri di sirkulasi.°
han, trauma, Inflamasi berat sepel pankreafitis dan
Berbagai biomarker untuk diagnosis sepsis yang
infeksi. Jika terdapat sepsis maka pemberian tera pi
dapat digunakan antara lain procalcitonin (PCT), berbagai
suporfif saja fidaklah cukup. If arena itu, dibutuhkan
interleukin (IL), hitung eosinofil, adrenomedulin (ADM)
cara yang praktis untuk menentukan adanya dan
dan pro—ADM, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) dan pro
beratnya derajat sepsis. Adanya diagnosis sepsis
— ANP, pro—vasopresin (copepfin), interferon—y (IFN—
membutuhkan terapi yang spesifik dan cepat
y), triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1
termasuk pemberian anfibiofi ka dan Control sumber
(TREM—
infeksi. Sepsis juga memiliki prognosis yang lebih buruk
1) dan resistin. PCT merupakan biomarker yang
daripada SIRS. Ifeterlambatan diagnosis dan
paling sering dipelajari dan rutin digunakan dalam
pemberian antibiotika pada pasien sepsis akan
prakfik klinik dan rekomendasi saat ini di beberapa
meningkatkan mortalitas. Ifarena itu, membedakan sepsis
negara. Ifadar PCT serum meningkat pada sepsis. Ifadar
dan SIRS sangatlah penfing. Berbagai penanda
PCT normal di bawah 0,5 ng/mL dan kadar PCT > 2
diagnosfik telah digunakan untuk mengkonfirmasi atau
ng/mL memiliki risiko tinggi untuk sepsis. Waktu paruh
mengeksklusi diagnosis sepsis.'
kadar PCT adalah 24—36 jam. Meta analisis oleh Uzzan
dkk mendapatkan hasil bahwa
Jurnal Penyakit Dalam Indonesia | Vol. 2, No. 2 | April 2015 | 116
Peran Procoicitonin sebagai Penanda Inflamasi Sistemik pada Sepsis
Memulai antibiotika *
J il‹a oemeri ksaan PCT dilakukan pada awal oe nyakit, periksa ulang l‹ad ar PCT 6—12 jam
PCT < 0,25 kemudia n PCT > 0,25 eg/L sampai 0,5 pg/L PCT > 0,5 eg/L samoai < 1 pg/L PCT > 1 pg/L
eg/L
Menghenfikan antibiotika
PCT < 0,25 ug/L
PCT > 0,25 ug/L sampai 0,5 pg/L PCT > 0,5 ug/L sam oai < 1 PCT > 1 pg/L
pg/L
Penghenhan antibiotika sangat Penghentian antibioh ka disaran kan Lanjutkan antibiotika disaran kan Lanjutkan antibiofi ka
sangat disaran kan disaran kan
Serum procalcitonin (PCT) levels rapidly increase in patients with invasive bacterial disease. PCT
levels increase faster than do C-reactive protein levels. Furthermore, a rapid decrease in the PCT
level is supporting evidence that the source of the bacterial infection is responding to clinical
management. In patients with community-acquired bacterial pneumonia, sequential PCT levels are
useful as a guide to shorter courses of antimicrobial therapy. With use of emerging multiplex real–
time polymerase chain reaction platforms for the detection of viral and bacterial respiratory
pathogens, it should be possible to critically assess whether an elevated serum PCT level is a valid
biomarker of invasive bacterial infection.
D
o
w
nl
oa
de
d
fro
m
htt
ps
://
ac
ad
e
mi
c.
ou
p.
co
m/
ci
d/
art
icl
e/
52
/s
up
pl
_4
/S
34
6/
42
42
03
by
gu
es
t
adipocytes were incubated with endotoxin-sensitized macro- measure the PCT level alone, although such an assay is in
phages [6]. Albeit intriguing, the data are incomplete. In the development [18].
absence of TNF or other macrophage-derived PCT and Viral RTIs
proinflammatory cytokines, what is the PCT response of Unfortunately, most studies have used the less sensitive LUMI
tissues to the presence of bacterial or fungal infection. test; thus, the results are difficult to interpret. There is one
Whether PCT is helpful or detrimental to the host is un- pertinent published study of children and a published abstract
certain. Exogenous PCT given to healthy animals produces no in adults that used the more sensitive Kryptor assay [14, 15].
recognizable ill effects, whereas exogenous PCT given to The pediatric study involved 1154 children seen for
septic animals increases mortality. Administration of specific bronchitis and pneumonia in a German emergency department
PCT antibody to septic animals is associated with a reduced during the period August 2004–October, 2006 [14]. In 327
mortality rate [2, 7]. It is tempting to speculate that PCT children (age, 2 months to 17 years), both serum PCT levels
assists the host by recognition of invasion by bacteria. and nasopharyngeal swab reverse-transcription polymerase
PCT differs from other biomarkers of invasion by bacterial chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays for 13 respiratory viruses and
D
pathogens. Serum PCT serum levels are detectable as early as 4 ‘‘atypical’’ bacterial pathogens were performed. A o
3–4 h after invasion, which is much earlier than the increase in potential viral pathogen was identified in 149 of 225 w
the C-reactive protein level or erythrocyte sedimentation rate nl
patients with a serum PCT level <0.1 ng/mL. A respiratory
oa
[4]. Thus far, elevated PCT levels have not been noted for viral pathogen was identified in 64 of 102 patients with a de
other
inflammatory conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease, serum PCT level >0.25 ng/mL. The problem is that no d
temporal giant cell arteritis, polyarteritis nodosa, systemic lupus fro
erythematosis, gout, and Still disease [8–11]. Available data in- bacterial cultures of sputum or blood samples were performed m
dicate that PCT levels are not influenced by therapy with glu- for either group. Without culture data for bacteria, it is not htt
cocorticoids or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents [12, 13]. ps
PCT levels do not increase or increase only modestly in possible to determine how many of the patients with higher ://
patients with infection due to respiratory viruses [14, 15]. PCT levels had both viral and bacterial pathogens present. For ac
example, 3 patients with high PCT levels had positive blood ad
In vitro, IL-1b induces PCT secretion by cultured e
adipocytes [6]. The PCT secretion is nearly completely culture results. mi
The adult study focused on hospitalized patients with lower c.
blocked if interferon (IFN)–c is added to the medium. Serum ou
IFN-c levels increase in response to a variety of viral respiratory tract infections over 4 winter seasons from 1999 to p.
respiratory tract infections [16]. Thus, the absence of an 2003 [15]. Data from RT-PCR for 7 common respiratory co
m/
increase in serum PCT levels in patients with viral respiratory viruses and sputum plus blood cultures were reported for 63 ci
tract infection may be due to inhibition of PCT synthesis by patients. Only a respiratory virus was found in 34 patients, d/
whose mean PCT levels (62 standard deviations [SDs]) were art
IFN-c. icl
Serum PCT Assays 0.7 6 2.3 ng/mL. The higher-than-expected result is con- e/
The first commercial PCT assay was an immunometric assay founded by 2 patients who had blood cultures positive for 52
/s
(LUMI Test; Brahms), which measures levels of PCT plus the Staphylococcus epidermidis that may represent invasive patho- up
combination of calcitonin and calcitonin-carboxyl-peptide- I gens or contaminants. In 23 patients with a virus detected by pl
_4
[3]. The functional lower limit of sensitivity is ~0.5 ng/mL. In a positive PCR result and bacteria detected by a positive /S
patients with documented pure viral infection, the serum PCT culture result, the mean PCT level (62 SDs) was 2 6 5 ng/mL 34
may increase to no more than 0.1 ng/ml. Conversely, in re- (mean 1/2 2 SD). In 9 bacteremic patients without evidence 6/
42
sponse to bacterial pneumonia, the PCT level may increase to of viral infection, the mean PCT level (62 SDs) was 19 6 26 42
no more than 0.25 ng/mL. Therefore, the LUMI test is sub- ng/mL. In short, there are limited surveillance data supporting 03
by
optimal as a method of distinguishing a virus-induced increase the state- ment that the PCT level does not increase in patients gu
in the PCT level to 0.1 ng/mL and a bacteria-induced increase with infection due to only respiratory viruses. es
to >0.25 ng/mL. The US Food and Drug Administration– t
In contrast, there are substantive data that human infection
approved second-generation assay is described as a time-re- with rhinovirus, respiratory syncitial virus (RSV), influenza,
solved cryptate emission (Kryptor; Brahms) immunoassay that adenovirus, and metapneumovirus stimulate a robust cytokine
has a functional lower limit of detection of 0.05 ng/mL [17]. response that includes gamma interferon [16, 19].
The antibody used also recognizes both PCT and CCP-I. With Furthermore, the magnitude of the IFN-c response varies with
use of a research assay that detects only the PCT molecule in the type of inciting virus (eg, IFN-c levels are higher in
the absence of infection, normal human serum PCT levels nasopharyngeal secretions obtained from patients with
were measured at 0.033 6 0.003 ng/mL (mean 1/2 2 SD) [3]. influenza than in RSV- infected patients [16]. In addition, a
In short, none of the currently commercially available PCT deficiency in the receptor for IFN-c is reported to increase the
assays severity of respiratory viral infection [20]. It is tempting to
speculate that the magnitude of the IFN-c response correlates
with the degree of suppression of
Pr
oc
al
ci
to
ni
n
in
R
e
s
pi
ra
to
r
y
T
ra
ct
I
n
fe
ct
io
n
s
d
C
I
D
2
0
1
1
:
5
2
(
S
u
p
p
l
4
)
d
S
3
4
7
This is a corrected version of
the article that appeared in
print.
Acute otitis media is diagnosed in patients with acute onset, presence of middle ear
effusion, physical evidence of middle ear inflammation, and symptoms such as pain,
irritability, or fever. Acute otitis media is usually a complication of eustachian tube
dysfunction that occurs dur- ing a viral upper respiratory tract infection. Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Haemophilus influen- zae, and Moraxella catarrhalis are the most common
organisms isolated from middle ear fluid. Management of acute otitis media should
begin with adequate analgesia. Antibiotic therapy can be deferred in children two years
or older with mild symptoms. High-dose amoxicillin (80 to 90 mg per kg per day) is the
antibiotic of choice for treating acute otitis media in patients who are not allergic to
penicillin. Children with persistent symptoms despite 48 to 72 hours of anti- biotic
therapy should be reexamined, and a second-line agent, such as amoxicillin/clavulanate,
should be used if appropriate. Otitis media with effusion is defined as middle ear
effusion in the absence of acute symptoms. Antibiotics, decongestants, or nasal steroids
do not hasten the clearance of middle ear fluid and are not recommended. Children with
evidence of anatomic damage, hearing loss, or language delay should be referred to an
otolaryngologist. (Am Fam Physician. 2013;88(7):435-440. Copyright © 2013 American
Academy of Family Physicians.)
O
See related editorials Diagnosis
▲
at titis media is among the most
http://www.aafp.org/ common issues faced by phy- Previous diagnostic criteria for AOM were
afp/2013/1001/od1.html sicians caring for children. based on symptomatology without oto-
and http://www.aafp. scopic findings of inflammation. The
Approximately 80% of children
org/afp/2013/1001/od2.
html. will have at least one episode of acute otitis updated American Academy of Pediatrics
media (AOM), and between 80% and 90% guideline endorses more stringent otoscopic
▲ Patient information:
A handout on this topic will have at least one episode of otitis media criteria for diagnosis.8 An AOM diagnosis
is available at http:// with effusion (OME) before school age.1,2 requires moderate to severe bulging of the
familydoctor.org/family This review of diagnosis and treatment of tympanic membrane (Figure 1), new onset
doctor/en/diseases- otitis media is based, in part, on the Uni-
conditions/ear-infections/
treatment.html. versity of Michigan Health System’s clinical
care guideline for otitis media.2 Table 1. Risk Factors for Acute Otitis
CME This clinical content Media
conforms to AAFP criteria
for continuing medical Etiology and Risk Factors
Age (younger)
education (CME). See Usually, AOM is a complication of eusta-
CME Quiz on page 429. Allergies
chian tube dysfunction that occurred Craniofacial abnormalities
Author disclosure: No rel- during
SevcantthfienaQnRcicaol Exposure to environmental smoke or other
an acute viral upper respiratory tract infec- respiratory irritants
daeffibliealtoiowns. with tion. Bacteria can be isolated from middle
your mobile device Exposure to group day care
for easy access to the
ear fluid cultures in 50% to 90% of cases of
Family history of recurrent acute otitis media
patient information hand- AOM and OME. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Gastroesophageal reflux
out on the AFP mobile Haemophilus influenzae (nontypable), and
site. Immunodeficiency
Moraxella catarrhalis are the most common
No breastfeeding
organisms.3,4 H. influenzae has become the Pacifier use
most prevalent organism among children Upper respiratory tract infections
with severe or refractory AOM following
the introduction of the pneumococcal con- Information from references 8 and 9.
jugate vaccine.5-7 Risk factors for AOM are
listed in Table 1.8,9
October 1,from
Downloaded 2013 Volume Family
the◆ American 88, Number 7 website at www.aafp.org/afp.
Physician www.aafp.org/afp
Copyright © 2013 American Academy of FamilyAmerican
Physicians.Family Physician
For the private, non-
435
commercial use of one individual user of the website. All other rights reserved. Contact copyrights@aafp.org for copyright questions and/or permission requests.
Otitis Media the absence of acute symptoms.10,11 If OME
is suspected and the presence of effusion on
otoscopy is not evident by loss of landmarks,
pneumatic otoscopy, tympanometry, or both
should be used.11 Pneumatic otoscopy is a
SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE use-OME is defined as middle ear effusion in
Evidence ful technique for the diagnosis of AOM and
Clinical ratingReferences OME8-12 and is 70% to 90% sensitive and
recommendation spe-
An AOM diagnosis requires moderate to severe C 8 cific for determining the presence of middle
bulging of the tympanic membrane, new onset
of otorrhea not caused by otitis externa, or mild
ear effusion. By comparison, simple
bulging of the tympanic membrane associated otoscopy
with recent onset of ear pain (less than 48
is 60% to 70% accurate.10,11 Inflammation
with
hours) or erythema.
Middle ear effusion can be detected with the C 9 bulging of the tympanic membrane on otos-
combined use of otoscopy, pneumatic copy is highly predictive of AOM.7,8,12 Pneu-
otoscopy, and tympanometry. matic otoscopy is most helpful when
Adequate analgesia is recommended for all C 8, 15 cerumen
children with AOM. is removed from the external auditory
Deferring antibiotic therapy for lower-risk C 19, 20, 23 canal.
children with AOM should be considered. Tympanometry and acoustic reflectom-
High-dose amoxicillin (80 to 90 mg per kg per C 8, 10 etry are valuable adjuncts to otoscopy or
day in two divided doses) is the first choice for
pneumatic otoscopy.8,10,11 Tympanometry
initial antibiotic therapy in children with AOM.
Children with middle ear effusion and anatomic C 1
has a sensitivity and specificity of 70% to
damage or evidence of hearing loss or 1 90% for the detection of middle ear fluid,
language delay should be referred to an but is dependent on patient cooperation.13
otolaryngologist. Combined with normal otoscopy findings, a
AOM = acute otitis media.
normal tympanometry result may be help-
A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or ful to predict absence of middle ear effusion.
limited- quality patient-oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease-oriented
evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information about the
Acoustic reflectometry has lower sensitivity
SORT evidence rating system, go to and specificity in detecting middle ear effu-
sion and must be correlated with the clinical
primary care setting .
ANALGESICS
436 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 88, Number 7 ◆ October 1, 2013
Otitis Media
Table 2. Treatment Strategy for Acute Otitis
Media
Initial presentation
Diagnosis established by physical examination findings and presence of symptoms bilateral AOM regardless of additional signs
Treat pain or symptoms.8
Children six months or older with otorrhea or severe signs or symptoms (moderate Among children with mild symptoms,
or severe otalgia, otalgia for at least 48 hours, or temperature of 102.2°F [39°C] or
higher): antibiotic therapy for 10 days
observation may be an option in those six to
Children six to 23 months of age with bilateral acute otitis media without severe
23 months of age with unilateral AOM, or
signs or symptoms: antibiotic therapy for 10 days in those two years or older with bilateral or
Children six to 23 months of age with unilateral acute otitis media without severe uni- lateral AOM.8,10,19 A large prospective
signs or symptoms: observation or antibiotic therapy for 10 days study of this strategy found that two out of
Children two years or older without severe signs or symptoms: observation or three children will recover without
antibiotic therapy for five to seven days antibiotics.20 Recently, the American
Persistent symptoms (48 to 72 hours)
Academy of Family Physicians
Repeat ear examination for signs of otitis media
recommended not prescribing antibiotics for
If otitis media is present, initiate or change antibiotic therapy
otitis media in children two to 12 years of
If symptoms persist despite appropriate antibiotic therapy, consider intramuscular
age with nonsevere symptoms if observation
ceftriaxone (Rocephin), clindamycin, or tympanocentesis
is a reasonable option.21,22 If observation is
Information from reference 8. chosen, a mechanism must be in place to
ensure appropriate treatment if symptoms
the management of AOM involves deferring antibiotic persist for more than 48 to 72
therapy in patients least likely to benefit from antibiot- hours. Strategies include a scheduled follow-up visit or
ics.18 Antibiotics should be routinely prescribed for chil- providing patients with a backup antibiotic prescription
8,20,23
dren with AOM who are six months or older with to be filled only if symptoms persist.
severe signs or symptoms (i.e., moderate or severe
ANTIBIOTIC SELECTION
otalgia, otal- gia for at least 48 hours, or temperature of
102.2°F [39°C] or higher), and for children younger Table 3 summarizes the antibiotic options for children
than two years with with AOM.8 High-dose amoxicillin should be the initial
Amoxicillin-clavulanate*
90 mg/kg per day of
Table 3. Recommended Antibiotics
Cefuroxime for pe
(30 mg/kg (Initial amoxicillin,
or Delayed) Treatment
with 6.4 mg/ and for Patients Who
Have
Failed Initial Antibiotic day in 2 divided doses) kg per day of
Amoxicillin- clavulanate
(90 Therapy
clavulanate*
mg/kg per day of Cefpodoxime (10 mg/kg er n 2 divided
amoxicillin, with 6.4 or
mg/ p
Initial immediate delayed antibiotic Antibiotic treatment after 48-72 h of failure of initial antibiotic
kg per day of clavulanate
treatment day in 2 divided doses) Ceftriaxone
treatment (50 mg/kg IM
Recommende Ceftriaxone
Alternative(50 mg/kg IM orRecommende
IV per day for 1 or 3
d
first-line or treatment
IVpenicillin
(if per day for 1 or 3 d
days, not to exceed 1 g
first-line Alternative
treatment days, not to exceed 1 g
allergy) per
treatment treatment
Amoxicillin (80 to 90 perCefdinir (14 mg/kg per day) Ceftriaxone, 3 d clindamycin (30-40
mg/kg
per day in 2 divided dayin 1 or 2 ( mg/
kg per day in 3 divided doses), with
doses)
or doses) r or
without third-generation
NOTE: Cefdinir, cefuroxime, cefpodoxime, and ceftriaxone are highly unlikely to be associated with cross-reactivity with penicillin allergy on the
cephalosporin
basis Failure of second
of their distinct chemical i antibiotic
Clindamycin (30-40 mg/kg per day
structures.
or in3 divided doses) plus third-
IM = intramuscular; IV = generation
intravenous. cephalospori
[amoxicillin to n
*—Mayclavulanate Tympanocentesi
be considered in patients who have received amoxicillin in the previous 30 d or who have the otitis-conjunctivitis
syndrome.ratio, 14:1] in 2 divided s†
Consult
doses)
specialist†
†—Perform tympanocentesis/drainage if skilled in the procedure, or seek a consultation from an otolaryngologist for tympanocentesis/drainage.
If the tympanocentesis reveals multidrug-resistant bacteria, seek an infectious disease specialist
consultation.
Reprinted with permission from Lieberthal AS, Carroll AE, Chonmaitree T, et al. The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media.
Pediatrics.
2013;131(3):e983.
October 1, 2013 ◆ Volume 88, Number 7 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 437
ISSN: 2303-1395 E-JURNAL MEDIKA, VOL. 8 NO.1,Januari, 2019
ABSTRAK
Otitis Media Akut (OMA) merupakan penyakit infeksi telinga bagian tengah yang sering dijumpai
terutama pada anak-anak. Anak-anak lebih rentan terhadap OMA dikarenakan anatomi dan sistem
kekebalan anak berbeda dengan orang dewasa, anak-anak yang terkena terutama pada usia 2 tahun.
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui karakteristik penderita OMA yang berobat ke Instalasi
Rawat Jalan SMF THT Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat (RSUP) Sanglah Denpasar pada tahun 2014.
Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan data dari rekam medis penderita OMA yang datang
ke RSUP Sanglah Denpasar. Karakteristik seperti umur, jenis kelamin, gejala klinis, sisi telinga yang
terkena OMA, dan riwayat ISPA akan dicatat. Kemudian data diproses dengan menggunakan
Statistical Product and Service Solution (SPSS). Data sejumlah 77 sampel telah dikumpulkan.
Distribusi proporsi tertinggi adalah pada usia < 2 tahun (38,9%), laki-laki (59,7%), nyeri telinga
(84,4%), unilateral (54,5%), dan ada riwayat ISPA (81,8%). Insidensi terjadinya OMA cukup sering
di masyarakat terutama pada golongan anak-anak. Oleh karena itu, disarankan untuk melakukan
konsultansi awal kepada dokter jika terdeteksi gejala klinis OMA. Penelitian yang lebih lanjut
diperlukan untuk menentukan faktor risiko terjadinya OMA, yang berguna untuk tindakan
pencegahan.
Kata kunci: Otitis media akut, Infeksi, ISPA, Rumah Sakit Umum Pusat Sanglah Denpasar.
ABSTRACT
Acute Otitis Media is a disease that affect middle ear, commonly found especially in children.
Children is more suceptible to Acute Otitis Media because of children anatomy and immunity system
is not working like in the adult. Acute Otitis Media in children, mostly in children 2 years old.
Purpose of this study was to describe the characteristic of Acute Otitis Media patient in outpatient
children of E.N.T. Department at Sanglah Denpasar General Hospital in 2014. This study has been
carried out by assessing the medical records all Acute otitis media patient that come to Sanglah
Denpasar general hospital. who aged between . Data on children were gathered from medical records,
including age, gender, clinical manifestations, ear/ears involved, and history of upper respiratory tract
infection. The data obtained were then processed by using Statistical Product and Service Solution
(SPSS). A total of 77 data were collected. The highest proportion is: age <2 years old (38.9%), male
(59.7%), pain in ear/ears (84.4%), unilateral ear involved (54.5%), and positive history of upper
respiratory tract infection (81.8%). The incidence of acute otitis media was common in society
especially in children. Therefore parents sugges to do early consultation to doctors if there was any
symptom of acute otitis media. Further study is needed to determine the various risk factors associated
with acute otitis media, for prevention purposes.
Keywords: Acute otitis media, Infection, Upper Respiratory Tract Infection, Sanglah Denpasar
General Hospital
https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/eum 51
DISTRIBUSI USIA DAN JENIS KELAMIN PADA ANGKA KEJADIAN OTITIS MEDIA
AKUT DI RUMAH SAKIT UMUM DAERAH ABDUL MOELOEK BANDAR LAMPUNG
TAHUN 2016
ABSTRAK
Latar Belakang: Penyakit Otitis Media Akut adalah penyakit peradangan telinga
tengah yang cukup sering terjadi di kalangan masyarakat saat ini. Otitis Media Akut
terutama disebabkan oleh virus atau bakteri dan berhubungan erat dengan infeksi
hidung dan tenggorokan. Faktor usia sebagai salah satu faktor resiko Otitis Media Akut
(OMA) perlu dikaji karena angka kejadian pada tiap kelompok usia tertentu bervariasi
dan nilainya berbeda dengan teori dan penelitian sebelumnya.
Tujuan: Penelitian ini ditujukan untuk mengetahui bagaiman distribusi usia dan
jenis kelamin pada angka kejadian OMA di RSUD Abdul Moeloek Bandar Lampung Tahun
2016.
Metode: Jenis penelitian yang di gunakan adalah studi deskriptif retrospektif.
Data yang digunakan berupa data sekunder yang diambil dari rekam medic pasien Otitis
Media Akut (OMA) di RSUD Abdul Moloek Bandar Lampung Tahun 2016. Teknik
pengambilan sampel penelitian ini adalah dengan menggunakan cara Slovin dan
didapatkan sampel sebanyak 143 orang.
Hasil: Didapatkan usia terbanyak pasien OMA di RSUD. Dr. H. Abdul Moeloek
Provinsi Lampung tahun 2016 adalah kelompok usia 0 – 5 tahun sebayak 24 orang (16,8
%), kelompok usia 6 – 11 tahun sebanyak 22 orang ( 15,4 % ), kelompok usia 12 – 16
tahun sebanyak 22 orang ( 15,4 ), kelompok usia 17 – 24 tahun sebanyak 30 orang
( 21,0 % ), kelompok usia 26 – 35 sebanyak 13 orang ( 9,1 % ), kelompok usia 36 – 45
tahun sebanyak 23 orang ( 16,1 % ), kelompok usia 46 – 55 tahun sebanyak 6 orang
( 4,2% ), 56 – 65 sebanyak 2 orang ( 1,4 % ), yang paling rendah usia kelompok >
65
tahun yaitu 1 orang (0,7%)
Kesimpulan: Pada penelitian ini didapatkan hasil distribusi usia dan jenis kelamin
berbeda dengan beberapa teori kebanyakan dimana usia dewasa lebih banyak yang
mengalami otitis media akut dibandingkan usia anak – anak di RSUD Abdul Moeloek
Bandar Lampung Tahun 2016.
Kata kunci : Otitis Media Akut (OMA), faktor usia, angka kejadian.
symptoms until there are changes in the nasopharyngeal available. This makes it possible for the use of influenza
milieu. Viral URI plays a pivotal role in AOM pathogenesis
by causing nasopharyngeal inflammation, changes in bacte- vaccines and/or antiviral drugs to prevent of AOM associ-
rial adherence properties and colonization, and Eustachian ated with influenza. Between one-third and two-thirds of
tube (ET) dysfunction. The ET is the natural barrier which
prevents influx of colonizing bacteria from the nasopharynx young children with influenza-associated URI develop
to the middle ear cavity. Young children are susceptible to
AOM not only because of immaturity of the systemic im- AOM [7, 30]. IAV replicates in respiratory epithelial cells
munity but also from the lack of anatomic immunity of the
and circulating leukocytes. It produces chemokines and
cytokines which induce the extravasation of blood and
mononuclear cells to the extra-vascular matrix and the de-
velopment of an antiviral and a Th1-mediated immune
ET [16]. response [31]. IAV secretion of neuraminidase has been
During viral URI, inflammatory changes in the nasophar- shown to increase pneumococcal adhesion and invasion
ynx and the ET are induced and bacterial adherence and
colonization increase. Influenza A virus (IAV), coronavirus capabilities in the ET and middle ear [32]. IAV-mediated
NL63 and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) augment bac-
terial adherence to epithelial cells [17–19]; IAV has also inflammation caused ET congestion and further reduced
been shown to promote nasopharyngeal colonization of S.
pneumoniae [20]. Viruses also modify host immune func- cilial function, which resulted in bacterial clearance inhibi-
tions [21, 22], and interfere with antibiotic activity [23–25]. tion [33]. Early viral challenge studies in adult volunteers
Viruses alter mucous property and diminish the normal
mucociliary clearance of the coating epithelial cells by infected with IAV have shown the development of an ET
reducing the production of bactericidal substances in the
nasopharynx, ET, and the middle ear cavity, and hence obstruction, negative middle ear pressure, and the develop-
increase bacterial pathogenicity [26, 27]. Mucociliary
changes of the ET lead to ET dysfunction and/or obstruction ment of MEF to a lesser extent (3–19 %) [34]. In an
and negative middle ear pressure, which occurs more
severely in young children, as documented in tympanomet- experimental model utilizing human middle ear epithelial
ric measurements during URI [28]. This negative middle ear cells, IAV infection led significant changes in host
pressure facilitates the entrance of both pathogenic bacteria
and viruses into the middle ear cavity causing middle ear interferon- inducible genes, chemokine and cytokine genes,
pro- and anti-apoptotic genes, signal transduction and
transcrip- tion factors, cellular immune response, cell cycle
and metabolism genes [35]. In an animal model, in which
mice were infected intranasally with IAV, middle ear
inflammation and even hearing loss were documented
[36]. IAV co-infection with S. pneumoniae resulted with
a higher bacterial load when compared with bacterial
infection alone.
inflammation, MEF accumulation, and signs and symptoms
RSV is a large RNA paramyxovirus which is most com-
of AOM.
monly associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia in very
young children; it may also cause acute respiratory disease,
including URI in any age group. RSV was detected for the
Viral Upper Respiratory Tract Infection
first time from the MEF in the 1960s [37], and to date RSV
is considered to be one of the most ototropic viruses [9,
Viral URI evolves following direct invasion of the mucosa
14•]. Nearly half of young children with RSV-URI
coating the upper airway by viral agents, which undergo
developed AOM within 4 weeks of URI onset, mostly
frequent changes in antigenicity, posing challenges to the
within 1 week [7]. In children presenting with AOM, RSV
immune defense system. Inoculation by the virus begins
has been found in specimens obtained from nasal wash and
when secretions are transferred by touching a hand
MEF samples [8]. RSV detection from the MEF ranged
exposed to the pathogen to the nose or mouth or by directly
from 2 % to 22 % of AOM cases, with or without positive
inhaling respiratory droplets. Most viral URI symptoms
bacterial cultures [7, 38, 39]. It has also been demonstrated
result from the inflammatory response of the immune
that RSV is an important contributing factor for the
system to the invading pathogens. Local infection in the
occurrence of AOM in young children hospitalized with
nasopharynx can easily spread to the adjacent organs,
respiratory distress [40]. In a recent study in children aged
leading to sinusitis, laryngitis, tracheobronchitis,
3–18 months who were hospitalized with acute
pneumonia, and AOM in particular [29].
bronchiolitis, more than half had AOM at entry or
Several respiratory viruses have been extensively developed AOM within 14 days, and 25 % more
studied related to AOM pathogenesis; among the more developed MEF throughout the 2-week obser- vation
common and important are IAV, RSV, human rhinovirus period [41]. RSV was identified in more than half of the
(HRV), and adenovirus. MEF aspirates obtained. RSV has also been demonstrat- ed
IAV: Influenza virus is the only respiratory virus for to significantly prime the expression of several pro-
which effective vaccines and antiviral drugs are currently inflammatory interleukins (IL) such as IL-6 and IL-8,
which are the most important mediators of fever and of
the acute
Infection and Drug Resistance Dovepress
open access to scientific and medical research
Ali Qureishi1 Abstract: Acute otitis media and otitis media with effusion are common childhood
Yan Lee2 disorders, a source of significant morbidity, and a leading cause of antibiotic prescription in
Katherine Belfield3 primary health care. Although effective treatments are available, some shortcomings remain,
John P Birchall4 and thus better treatments would be welcome. Recent discoveries within the field of otitis
Matija Daniel2 media research relat- ing to its etiology and pathogenesis have led to further investigation
aimed at developing novel treatments. This article provides a review of the latest evidence
1
Otolaryngology Head and Neck
Surgery, Northampton General relating to the understanding of acute otitis media and otitis media with effusion, current
Hospital, Northampton, UK; treatment strategies, their limitations, new areas of research, and novel strategies for
2
NIHR Nottingham Hearing
Biomedical treatment.
Research Unit, Nottingham, UK; Keywords: otitis media, ear, hearing, infection, biofilm, antibiotics
3
Biomaterials Related Infection
Group, 4Otorhinolaryngology Head
and Neck Surgery, The University Introduction
of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Otitis media (OM) is a group of complex infective and inflammatory conditions
affect- ing the middle ear, with a variety of subtypes differing in presentation,
associated complications, and treatment. OM is a leading cause of health care visits
worldwide, and its complications are important causes of preventable hearing loss,
particularly in the developing world.1 This article provides an update on recent
scientific achievements within the field of OM research and clinical management.
OM is pathology of the middle ear and middle ear mucosa, behind the ear drum
(tympanic membrane). The middle ear is a cavity containing the ear ossicles
(malleus, incus, and stapes), with the eustachian tube placed anteriorly (leading to
the nasophar- ynx), the mastoid air cells posteriorly, tympanic membrane laterally,
and the inner ear medially. Other important nearby structures are the brain and
meninges superiorly and the sigmoid sinus posteriorly, and any infection of the
middle ear can spread to sur- rounding structures with serious results. The middle
ear is lined by modified respiratory epithelium, including ciliated cells and goblet
cells; the epithelium produces mucins that are normally transported down the
eustachian tube.
Different types of OM present in different ways.2 Acute OM (AOM) usually
affects children aged under 2 years, and presents with acute onset symptoms and
signs of
otalgia and fever, in a child that is systemically unwell. It is acute inflammation, and
Correspondence: Ali Qureishi
C/o Matija Daniel
may be caused by bacteria or viruses. A particular subtype of AOM is acute
Otolaryngology, Nottingham suppura- tive OM, which is characterized by the presence of pus in the middle ear.
University Hospitals, Derby Rd,
Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
If the ear drum perforates (this occurs in approximately 5%, although higher rates
Tel 44 115 924 9924 x61224 have been reported)3–5 then ear discharge will be present also; the perforation
email aliqureishi@doctors.org.uk usually heals spontaneously.3 AOM is one of the commonest childhood infectious
diseases; in the
submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com
Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 15–24 15
Dovepress © 2014 Qureishi et al. This work is published by Dove Medical Press Limited, and licensed under Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported,
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S39637 v3.0)
License. The full terms of the License are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further
permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. Permissions beyond the scope of the License are administered by Dove Medical Press Limited. Information on
how to request permission may be found at: http://www.dovepress.com/permissions.php