1) Literature Survey

a) Experiential learning

Learning :

Learning combines four basic elements: the experience we have , the opputunity to practice and embed
those experiences in our long term memory, the conversations and interaction we have with others and
reflection. Actually we always learn through what we do, through what we see and through what we
hear. If we think about most of pur learning experiences we have ever had in our lives most of them will
probably have occurred through errors we have made which is again a practical perspective of the
learning. Learning is hardly earned by theories rather no to implement the theories into practice.

Experiential learning:

Experiential learning theory offers a fundamentally different view of the learning process from that of
the behavioral theories of learning based on an empirical epistemology or the more implicit theories of
learning that underline traditional educational methods, methods that for the most part are base on a
rational idealist epistemology.

This perspective on learning is called “experiential” for two reasons.

The first reason is to tie it clearly to its intellectual origins in the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget.

The second reason is to emphasize the central role that experience plays in the learning process. This
differentiates experiential learning theory from rationalist and other cognitive theories of learning that
tend to give primary emphasis to acquisition, manipulation, and recall of abstract symbols, and from
behavioral learning theories that deny any role for consciousness and subjective experience in the
learning process.

Three models of the experiential learning process:

The Lewinian Model of Action Research and Laboratory Training

In this technique of action research and the laboratory method, learning ,change, and growth are seen
to be facilitated best by an integrated process that begins with here and now experience followed by
collection of data and observations about that experience.

The data are then analyzed and the conclusions of this analysis are feedback to the actors in the
experience for their use in the modification of their behavior and choice of new experiences

Dewey’s Model of Learning:

It is remarkably similar to the Lewinian model, although he makes more explicit the development
nature of learning implied in Lewin’s conception of it as a feedback process by describing how learning
transforms the impulses, feelings and desire of concrete experience into higher order purposeful action.

The formation of purposes is, then, a rather complex intellectual operation:

It involves:

1) Observation of surrounding conditions

Knowledge of what has happened in similar situations in the past a knowledge obtained partly by
recollection and partly from the information, advice and warning of those who have had a wider
experience and

Judgment which puts together what is observed and what is recalled to see what they signify.

A purpose differs from an original impulse and desire through its translation into a plan and method of
action based upon foresight of the consequences of action under given observed conditions in a certain
way.
The impulse of experience gives ideas their moving force, and ideas give direction to impulse.

Piaget’s Model Of learning and Cognitive Development:

For Piaget, the dimensions of experience and concept, reflection and action form the basic continua for
the development of adult thought.

Development from infancy to adulthood moves from a concrete phenomenal view of the world to an
abstract constructionist view, from an active egocentric view to a reflective internalized mode of
knowing .the learning process whereby this development takes place in a cycle of interaction between
the individual and the environment that is similar to the learning models of dewey and lewin.

Characteristic of experiential learning:

Learning is better conceived as a process not in terms of outcomes:

The emphasis on the process of learning as opposed to the behavioral outcomes distinguishes
experirntial learning from the idealist approaches of traditional education and from the behavioral
theories of learning created by Watson,Hull,Skinner and others.
Ideas are not fixed and immutable elements of thoughts but are formed and re-formed through
experience.In all three of the learning models just reviwed,learning is described as a process whereby
concepts are derieved from and continuously modified by experience.No two thoughts are same ,since
experience always intervenes.

Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience

Knowledge is a continuously derieved from and tested out in the experiences of the learner.william
James(1890) in his studies on the nature of human consciousness, marveled at the fact that
consciousness is continuous.

The process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of
adaptation to the world:

Each of the three models of experiential learning describes conflicts between opposing ways of dealing
with the world,suggesting that learning results from the resolution of these conflicts.

The Lewinian model emphasizes two such dialectics- the conflict between concrete experience and
abstract concepts and the conflict between observation and action.For dewey the major dialectics is
between impulse that gives ideas their “moving force” and reason that gives desire its direction.

In piaget’s framework, the twin processes of accommodation of ideas to the external world aand
assimilation of experience into existing conceptual structures are the moving force of cognitive
development.

In Paulo Freire’s work, the diaelectic nature of learning and adaptation is encompassed in his concept of
praxis,which he defines as “Reflection and actin upon the world in order to transform it “(1974).

All models above suggest the idea that learning is by its very nature a tension and conflict-filled
process.New knowledge ,skills or attitude are achived through confrontation among the four modes of
experiential learning .Learners ,if they are to be effective need four different kinds of abilities—

Concrete experience abilities

Reflective observation abilities

Abstract conceptualization abilities

Active experimentation abilities

Learning is an holistic process of adaptation to the world :

Experiential learning is not a molecular educational concept but rather is a molar concept describing the
central process of human adaptation to the social and physical environment.

It is holistic concept much akin to the Jungian Theory of psychological types(Jung,1923),in that it seeks
to describe the emergence of basic life orientations as a function of dialectic tensions between basic
modes of relating to the world.

Learning involves the integrated functioning of the total organism-thinking, feeling, perceiving and
behaving. Hence it is not a special province of a single specialized realm of human functioning such as
cognition or perception.

Learning is the major process of human adaptation. This concept of learning is considerably broader
than that commonly associated with the school classroom. It occurs in all human being , in all human
settings,from schools to the workplace, from the laboratory to management board room, in personal
relationships to professional relationships. It encompasses all life stages,from childhood to adolescence
to middle and old age. Therfore it encompasses other,more limited adaptive concepts suchs as
creativity,problem solving,decision making, and attitude change that focus heavily on one or another of
the basic aspects of adaptation.

Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment:

In experiential learning theory, the transactional relationsgip between perso and the environment is
symbolized in the dual meaning of the the experience-one subjective and personal,referring to the
person’s interstate, as in “ the experience of joy and happiness” and the other objective is
environmental as in “he doesn’t have 20 years of experience ,but one year repeated 20 times” Dewey
describes the matter this way.

Experiential learning Framework: (internet based Experiential learning)

The need to integrate the development of real world skills and abilities have generated interst in
experiential learning techniques. There are many characteristics which makes experiential leanring
different. It have been summarized by Burnard(1989), Joplin(1981) and Kolb(1984) that :

It is active, rather than passive, learning

It leads to subjective experience and personal growth.

It is based on perception rather than theory based

It is not memorization learning rather it is participative based learning

Inductive rather than deductive

It is application based
Rise of technology have impacted majorly the way we communicate interact and transact our business
but more importantly the way in which we develop skills. Internet forms a major part of this technology.
So internet based experiential learning is a massive combination which can led to effective experiential
learning.

Entrepreneurial Decision making

Decision making consists of making a choice between two or more available options after an evaluation
of the outcomes to be expected from each options .In some cases the outcomes are known but for new
budding entrepreneurs outcome of their decision is always uncertain. Most Entrepreneurs have multiple
objectives,some may be openly discussed and other that may be held confidential.

It is always possible for two different entrepreneurs to take different decision for the same problem.
Decision making is always influenced by experience , judgment and beliefs.

Conditions under which decision are made:

Decisions under condition of certainity:

Definition: Decision are regarded as being made under condition of certainity when there is seen to be
only one consequence or outcomes of each of the options available to the decision maker.But this is a
very unlikely condition in this uncertain world.

Decision under risk:

Definition: Decisions are said to be taken under risk when there is more than one possible payoffs
resulting from the selection of the options and decision maker is assumed to know the chances of
occurrences of each of these payoffs.

Decisions under uncertainity:

Definition: IT is a type of decision in which neither the number of possible future states of nature nor
their probability of occurrences are known to the decision maker
 Experiential gaming model

There is a need to form a model that can be used in designing and analysing educational games.

Amory and Seagram (2003) have tried to integrate educational theory and game design aspects but

the models that they have presented are too superficial and do not take gameplay and flow theory

into account. In this section, an experiential gaming model (Fig. 3) is presented. The main purpose

of the model is to link gameplay with experiential learning in order to facilitate flow experience. The

model describes learning as a cyclic process through direct experience in the game world. Both

constructivist (Phillips, 1995) and pragmatist (Kivinen & Ristela ¨, 2003) views of learning are

adopted. The model stresses that activity that is necessary for learning is not merely cognitive but

also behavioural. Thus, learning is defined as a construction of cognitive structures through action or

practice in the game world. The model is not concerned with the role of social interaction in

learning.

The experiential gaming model consists of an ideation loop, an experience loop and a challenge

bank. The operational principle of the model can be derived from the human blood-vascular system.

The challenges based on educational objectives form the heart of the model. The task of the heart is to

sustain the motivation and engagement of the player by pumping appropriate challenges to him or her.

To overcome the challenges, a player generates solutions in the ideation loop reflecting lesser

circulation. Generation of solutions is divided into a preinvative idea generation (Finke, Ward, &

Smith, 1992) and idea generation. Preinvative idea generation refers to primary creativity (Maslow,

1963) and can be described as an unstructured and chaotic phase resembling the play of children.

According to Finke et al. (1992) the generation of preinvative structures may be successfully

undertaken without considering the constraints of the system and hopefully lead to innovative

solutions. After the preinvative phase a player further develops solutions by considering the

constraints and available resources of the game world. The ideation process is most fruitful if it is

performed in groups
After the ideation phase the player tests solutions in the experience loop reflecting greater

circulation and observes the outcomes of actions. Game should be usable and provide clear goals and

appropriate feedback to the player in order to facilitate flow experience. Additionally, according to

Hoffman and Novak (1996), focused attention is an important factor that contributes to the flow

experience. The reflective observation of the feedback may lead to the construction of schemata and

enable the discovery of new and better solutions to the problems. In online learning environments

reflection has been facilitated for example with conversation tools, intelligent tutorials (Seale &

Cann, 2000) and computer-based tutors (Aleven & Koedinger, 2002) that can be utilized also in

educational games. While testing solutions a player’s skill level increases and he or she may achieve

control over the game and the subject matter. If the performance of the player is based on only one

particular solution, the gaming strengthens only those schemata that are related to this solution. As a

result of one-sided activity in the game world the heart may become exhausted, leading to a

reduction in the player’s motivation in the long run. From a creative problem solving and

comprehensive learning point of view it is important that the player endeavours to test different kind

of solutions in order to expand knowledge on the subject matter. Generally, the task of the ideation

loop is to cleanse the experience loop of old solutions by feeding it with fresh creative solutions to

be tested and reflected.

From a motivation and learning point of view, the operation of the heart is essential. The heart

should provide a player with challenges that are matched to his or her skill level in order to increase

the likelihood of experience flow. Additionally, the tempo of challenges should be balanced with the

player’s characteristics. The trick of the games is to keep the player in a flow state by increasing the

skill level of the game while the skill level of the player increases. However, it is impossible to predict

how quickly a player’s skills develop while gaming which makes the designing of games hard. On

solution is to develop games that adapt to a player’s behaviour. For example, Ketamo (2002)

developed an adaptive geometry game that observes a player’s behaviour in order to provide the

player with appropriate problems. The evaluation results of the game showed that particularly players

whose knowledge level of geometry was low benefited from adaptation. However, there are some

aspects that should be considered when designing adaptive games. First of all, adaptation should be

transparent to the player in order to ensure that the player does not change his or her normal

behaviour in the game world. For example, if the player notices that the game becomes easier if she

performs worse than he or she is capable of performing, the game has failed to provide meaningful

challenges to the player. Secondly, adaptation should not change the user interface of the game. If the

conceptual model of the game changes as a result of adaptation it may lead to usability problems. In

summary, bad usability, inappropriate challenges and objects that break the harmony in the game

world decrease the likelihood of experience flow.

Business Simulation Game

Business Simulation games are often presented as tools that enhance learning. The pedagogical and,
more recently, the assessment value of gaming has been recognized and accepted in many circles. Many
functional and total enterprise gaming exercises have been used in various business courses.Over the
year, as technology has improved, simulation exercises have become more sophisticated and user
friendly. The student can now concentrate on the content and learning in the gaming exercise without
getting too diverted by the mechanics of playing the game.
With the advent of the Internet an added dimension of convenience is now available. Using the World
Wide Web (WWW) is a natural extension of making simulation games more powerful and the access
more convenient. Due to the ubiquitous nature of the World Wide Web, which is accessible today from
any home computer connected to the Internet, it behooves academics to explore and take advantage of
this technology.

Business gaming simulations have been classified in many ways, such as by discipline (e.g., accounting,
marketing, strategy, entrepreneurship, and international business), industry (e.g., advertising,
aerospace, and banking) (Graham & Gray, 1969),scope (functional, total enterprise, and total economy)
(Cohen & Rhenman, 1961;Keys, 1987; Thavikulwat, 1990), difficulty (simple and complex) (Raia,
1966;Wolfe,1978), and dependence (independent and dependent across firms) (Thavikulwat 1989)