Learn English - Grammar: Above and Over

Preposition:
Learn English - Grammar

Above and Over
Above indicates a position higher than something.
 The birds flew up above the trees.

 The sun rose above the horizon.
 There is a mirror above the washbasin.
 We have rented a room above the shop.
 She is above average in intelligence.
 Your name comes above mine on the list.
Above and Over
Above and over can both mean higher than.
 The helicopter hovered above/over the building.

 The water came up above/over our knees.
Above is preferred when we want to mean that one thing is not directly over another.
 There is a small cottage above the lake. (The cottage is not directly over the lake.)
Above is also used in measurements of temperature, height, intelligence etc., where we think of a
vertical scale.
 The temperature never rose above 10 degree Celsius.
Over is preferred when one thing covers and/or touches another.
 He put on a coat over his shirt.

 There was cloud over the city.
Over is also used to talk about ages and speeds, and to mean more than.
 You have to be over 18 to see that film.

 There were over 50 fifty people at the meeting.
About
The preposition about is used for the following purposes.
To indicate movement or position
About indicates movement or position in various directions and places.
 We walked about the old city.

 The princes went riding about the country.
 Children were running about everywhere.
 Men were standing about the street corners.
To mean 'near to'
About can mean 'near to.'
 They are living somewhere about here.
To mean 'approximately'
About can mean 'a little more or less', 'a little before or after' and similar ideas.
 She is about 10 year old.

 It is about 5 o' clock.
How about, what about
How about and what about are used to seek an opinion and/or propose a plan.
 How about having a drink? (Propose a plan.)

 He is a handsome fellow, but what about his character? (Seeks an opinion.)
About and On
About and on can both mean 'in connection with'. However, there is a slight difference between
them.
Compare:
 This is a book on African history.

 This is a book for children about the festivals of India.
On used in the first sentence suggests that the book is serious or academic. It fits specialists. About
used in the second sentence suggests that the book only gives some information.
 This is a movie on the life of Gautam Buddha. (A serious work on his life)
 This is a movie about Gautam Buddha. (Only gives some information about him)
About to
About to means 'on the point of doing something'.
 We were about to go to bed when the telephone rang.

 The show was about to start when the lights went out.
'Not about to' can mean 'unwilling to'.
 I am not about to lend him my car.
Along
The preposition along means from 'one end to the other end of'. It is used with nouns referring to
things with a long thin shape like roads, river, line etc.
 He walked along the road. (He walked from one end of the road to the other, not from one
side of the road to the other.)
Into and out of
Into: a place inside
 We ran into the garden.
Into: to change into; to become
 The frog changed into a handsome prince.

 He got himself into serious trouble.
Out of
The opposite of the preposition into is out of.
 She ran out of the room.

 I took his letter out of my pocket.
 I walked out of the front door without looking back.
 He sat staring out of the window.
Out of can also be used to talk about position – the opposite of in.
 I am afraid Mr John is out of the country at the moment. He should be back next week.
Tenses
The word tense is from the Latin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in verbs. The
tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.
English has three tenses: the past, the present and the future.
The present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present tense is
marked by the suffix –s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all.
The past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the past
tense is marked by the suffix –ed, though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense.
The future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking.
Each of these three main tenses has four forms: the simple, the progressive, the perfect and the
perfect progressive.
The simple present tense
Form
Affirmative Negative Question
I write. I do not write. Do I write?
She writes. She does not write. Does she write?
You write. You do not write. Do you write?
Uses of the simple present tense
We use the simple present tense to talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen
regularly, repeatedly or all the time.
 He goes for a walk every morning.

 I get up at 6.30.
 Ann works for an insurance company.
 John writes with his left hand.
timeless truths
We use the simple present tense to express timeless truths.
 The earth revolves round the sun.

 Heat expands bodies.
 Mongooses kill snakes.
series of events
When we talk about completed actions and events that happen as we speak or write, we usually use
the simple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations and commentaries.
 The two boxers sparred for some time. Suddenly Joe Louis jumps at his opponent and with a
terrific upper cut knocks him out for the full count.
here comes … etc.
Note the structure here comes … and there goes …
 There goes the dinner bell.

 Here comes the villain of the piece.
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.
 Here she comes.

 There it goes.
talking about the future
The simple present is used to refer to future events which are time tabled.
 Her train leaves at 3 o' clock.

 The next flight is at 5 o' clock tomorrow morning.
 The match begins at 9 am.
 I start my new job tomorrow.
The simple present is often used instead of will … in subordinate clauses that refer to the future.
 I will phone you when I get home.
 The present progressive tense

I am writing. I am not writing. Am I writing?
She is writing. She is not writing. Is she writing?
You are writing. You are not writing. Are you writing?
Uses of the present progressive tense
to denote time around now
We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situations that are going on
‘around now’.
 It is raining.
 I am writing letters.
 She is having a bath at the moment.
 Hurry up! We are all waiting for you.
 What are you doing? I am doing my homework.
 The kettle is boiling.
The present progressive suggests that the action began before the moment of speaking; it is going
on at the moment of speaking and will probably go on after the moment of speaking.
developing and changing situations
The present progressive can be used to talk about developing and changing situations.
 The universe is expanding.

 It is getting darker.
 The climate is getting warmer.
 You are getting younger every day.
talking about the future
We often use the present progressive to talk about the future.
 She is leaving for Mumbai on Monday.

 What are you doing tomorrow evening?
 Janet is coming soon.
physical feelings
Verbs that refer to physical feelings (e.g. hurt, ache, feel) can often be used in simple or progressive
tenses without much difference of meaning.
 My tooth aches. OR My tooth is aching.

 How do you feel? OR How are you feeling?
verbs not used in progressive forms
There are some verbs which are never or hardly ever used in progressive forms.
Examples are: believe, love, doubt, hate, suppose, prefer, imagine, realise, understand, know, want,
remember, wish, like, need etc.
 I like his attitude. (NOT I am liking …)

 I rang her up because I needed to talk. (NOT … because I was needing to talk.)
 I have only known her for two days. (NOT I have only been knowing her …)
Some other verbs are not used in progressive forms when they have certain meanings.
Examples are: feel (= have an opinion), see (= understand), think (= have an opinion), look (= seem).
 I am seeing the doctor at eight o’clock.

 I see (= understand) what you mean. (NOT I am seeing what …)
 I am feeling fine. OR I fell fine.
 I feel (= have an opinion) we shouldn’t do it. (NOT I am feeling we shouldn’t do it.)
 I think (= have an opinion) she is right. (NOT I am thinking …)
 The present perfect tense

I have written I have not written. Have I written?
She has written. She has not written. Has she written?
You have written. You have not written. Have you written?
Uses of the present perfect tense
past events connected with the present
We can use the present perfect tense to say that a finished action or event is connected with the
present in some way.
 He has broken his leg. (His leg is broken now.)

 Somebody has let the cat in. (The cat is in now.)
 Our dog has died. (Our dog is dead.)
recent events
We normally use the present perfect for giving news of recent events.
And here are the main points of the news again. The rupee has fallen against the dollar. The number
of unemployed has reached ten million. There has been a plane crash …
Note that after using the present perfect to announce a piece of news, we usually change to simple or
progressive tenses to give the details.
The present perfect is not used to talk about a finished event, if we say when it happened.
Compare:
 There has been a plane crash near Tokyo.

 There was a plane crash near Tokyo last night.
 I have had a word with the boss.
 I had a word with the boss today.
with indefinite time adverbs
We often use the present perfect tense for past events when we are thinking of a period of time
continuing up to the present – for example when we use indefinite time adverbs like ever, before,
never, yet and already.
 I am sure we have met before.
 Have you ever seen a ghost?
 Has he come yet?
With more definite expressions of ‘time up to now’ (e.g. today, this week) we usually prefer a simple
past tense in affirmative clauses. In questions and negatives, we use the present perfect.
 I have spoken to him about my holiday.

 I spoke to him today about my holiday. (more natural than I have spoken to him today ...)
 Have you seen Alice this week?
 I haven’t seen Alice this week.
 I saw Alice this week. (more natural than I have seen Alice this week)
past events that cannot be attributed to a definite time
The present perfect is used to talk about past events that cannot be attributed to a definite time.
 I have visited Africa and Latin America.

 He has done a lot for me.
 I have never known him to be angry.
 I have been to Europe twice.
continuation up to now
We often use the present perfect to talk about how long present situations have lasted.
 We have known each other for ten years.

 We have lived in this city since 1995.
 I have studied hard for years.
present perfect and simple past: differences
We do not use the present perfect with expressions that refer to a completely finished period of time,
like yesterday, last week, when, then, five years ago, in 1995. The simple past is used with this
meaning.
 I saw Alice yesterday. (NOT I have seen Alice yesterday.)

 I was born in 1979.
 She died three years ago.
 John left ten minutes ago.
American English
In American English, the simple past is often used to give news.
 Did you hear? France declared/has declared war on Britain.

 (GB Have you heard? France has declared war on Britain.)
 Lucy just called. (GB Lucy has just called.)
 Honey, I lost/ have lost the keys. (GB Honey, I have lost the keys.)
this is the first time etc.
We use a present perfect tense in sentences constructed with this/it/that is the

first/second/third/only/best/worst/etc.
 This is the fifth time you have asked me the same question.
 It is one of the most interesting books I have ever read.
 This is the first time I have heard her sing.
 The present perfect progressive tense

I have been writing I have not been writing. Have I been writing?
She has been writing. She has not been Has she been writing?
writing.
You have been You have not been Have you been
writing. writing. writing?
Uses of the present perfect progressive tense
We use the present perfect progressive to talk about situations which started in the past and are
still going on, or which have just stopped and have present results.
 I have seen reading since morning.

 We have been waiting for ages.
 ‘You look exhausted.’ ‘Yes, I have been running. ’
We cannot use the present perfect progressive with expressions that refer to a finished period of
time.
present progressive and present perfect progressive: differences
Both the present perfect progressive and present progressive can be used to talk about situations
which started in the past and are still going on. The difference is that the present perfect
progressive has an ‘up to now’ focus. It is common when we are talking about how long a situation
has lasted.
 It is raining again.
 It has been raining since Christmas. (NOT It is raining since Christmas.)
 I am learning English.
 I have been learning English for two years. (NOT I am learning English for two years.)
present perfect and present perfect progressive: differences
Both the present perfect and present perfect progressive can be used to talk about recent actions
and situations that have present results. There is an important difference. The present perfect
progressive focuses on the idea of continuity. The present perfect, on the other hand, looks more at
the ideas of completion.
 I have been painting the house. (focus on continuous activity)

 I have painted two rooms since lunchtime.
 I have been reading your book. (focus on continuous activity)
 I have read your book. (focus on completion)
temporary and permanent
We prefer the present perfect progressive to talk about more temporary actions and situations;
when we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we often use the present perfect.
 He has been standing at the gate all day.

 For 1000 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.
 I have been living in Mumbai for the last month.
 My parents have lived in Chennai all their lives.
Present tenses to talk about the future
When we talk about future events which have already been planned or decided, or which we can see
are on the way, we often use present tenses.
the present progressive
The present progressive is used mostly to talk about personal arrangements and fixed plans,
especially when the time and place have been decided.
 What are you doing this weekend?

 I am seeing Alice tomorrow.
 What are we having for dinner?
the simple present
The simple present can be used to talk about future events which are part of a timetable.
 The train leaves at half past six tomorrow morning.

 What time does the bus arrive in Chennai?
 The summer term starts on April 10th.
be going + infinitive
The structure be going to can be used to talk about plans, especially in an informal style. Going to
puts an emphasis on the idea of intention.
 When are you going to get a job?

 We are going to buy a new home.
 John says he is going to call in this evening.
The going to structure can also be used to predict the future on the basis of present evidence.
 She is going to have a baby in June.

 Look at the sky. It is going to rain.
present progressive and be going to: differences
The present progressive emphasises the idea of fixed arrangement; going to emphasises the idea
of intention or previous decision.
 I am getting a new job. (It is already arranged.)
 I am going to get a new job. (I have decided to.)
 Who is cooking lunch? (asking about arrangements)
 Who is going to cook lunch? (asking about a decision)
We do not normally use the present progressive to make predictions about events that are outside
people’s control.
 It is going to rain. (NOT It is raining.)

 Look out! We are going to crash. (NOT we are crashing.)
 Things are going to get better soon. (NOT Things are getting better soon.)
The present progressive and be going to can both be used to insist that people do things or do not
do things.
 She is taking/going to take that medicine whether she likes it or not.

 You are not wearing/going to wear that skirt to school.
 You are not coming/going to come with me.
simple future and present progressive: differences
Often shall/will and present-tense forms are possible with similar meanings.
 What will you do next year?

 What are you doing next year?
 What are you going to do next year?
We prefer present tenses when we are talking about future events that have already been arranged.
 I am seeing Alice on Wednesday. (The arrangement exits now.)
In predictions, we use going to when we have outside evidence for what we say. We prefer will when
we are talking about what we know, or believe or have calculated.
 Look out. He is going to fall. (There is outside evidence.)

 Don't lend him your car. He is a terrible driver. He will crash it. (the speaker's opinion)
The simple past tense
I wrote. I did not write. Did I write?

She wrote. She did not write. Did she write?
You wrote. You did not write. Did you write?
Uses of the simple past tense
We use the simple past tense to talk about many kinds of past events: short, quickly finished
actions, longer situations, and repeated events.
 I spent all my childhood in Canada.

 I visited my grandfather yesterday.
 John left 10 minutes ago.
The simple past is common in story-telling.
 Once upon a time there lived a rich man. One day, he met a beautiful princess and …
The simple past is often used with references to finished periods and time expressions.
 He died last year.

 I met her yesterday morning.
 The past progressive tense

I was writing. I was not writing. Was I writing?
She was writing. She was not writing. Was she writing?
You were writing. You were not writing. Were you writing?
use
to talk about past events in progress
The past progressive is used to talk about events that were in progress around a particular past
time.
 ‘What were you doing yesterday evening?’

 ‘I was watching TV.’
 At 7 am this morning, I was doing my homework.
The past progressive is also used to stress that an activity was in progress at every moment during
a period of time.
 I was resting all day yesterday.
past progressive and simple past
We often use the past progressive together with a simple past tense. The past progressive refers
to a longer background action or situation; the simple past refers to a shorter action or event that
happened in the middle of the longer action.
 I was having a bath when the telephone rang.

 As I was driving down the street, I saw Peter.
 They were sleeping when the thieves broke in.
past progressive and simple past: differences
Duration
The past progressive is used to talk about temporary actions or situations. For longer, more
permanent situations we use the simple past.
 It happened while I was living in Mumbai last year.

 I lived in Chennai for ten years while I was a child.
repeated actions
We do not normally use the past progressive to talk about repeated or habitual past actions. The
simple past is used with this meaning.
 I phoned him four times. (NOT I was phoning four times.)

 I rang the bell seven times. (NOT I was ringing the bell seven times.)
However, the past progressive can be used with always, continually and similar words to talk about
things that happened repeatedly and unexpectedly.
 He was always bringing us nice gifts.

 I didn’t like him - he was continually making troubles.
 The past perfect tense

I had written. I had not written. Had I written?
She had written. She had not written. Had she written?
You had written. You had not written. Had you written?
Uses of the past perfect tense
to refer to the ‘earlier past’
The past perfect tense denotes an action completed at some point in the past before some other
past action commenced. When two actions in the past have to be referred to, the past perfect is
used for the earlier action and the simple past for the later one.
 I had seen him twice before he left for New York.

 The train had left before I reached the station.
 The patient had died before the doctor came.
 She had left before I reached home.
Note that we can use time conjunctions (e.g. after, before, as soon as) to talk about two actions or
events that happen one after the other. Usually the past perfect is not necessary in these cases,
though it can be used.
 After he (had) finished his exam, he went to London.

 As soon as I (had) put the phone down, it rang again.
to talk about unrealized hopes and wishes
The past perfect can be used to talk about an unrealized hope, wish etc.
 I had hoped that Ann would be a doctor, but she wasn't good at science.
to talk about past events that did not happen
After if, wish and would rather, the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that did not
happen.
 If I had gone to university, I would have studied science.

 I wish you had told me the truth.
The past perfect progressive tense

I had been writing. I had not been writing. Had I been writing?
She had been She had not been Had she been
You had been You had not been Had you been
use
We use the past perfect progressive to talk about longer actions or situations which had continued
up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it.
 The President had been speaking for about half an hour when trouble started.
 When I found Ann, I could see that she had been crying.
 I had been reading the novel for hours when the lights suddenly went out.
past perfect and past perfect progressive: differences
The perfect progressive tenses are often used to talk about more temporary actions and situations;
when we talk about longer-standing or permanent situations we prefer perfect tenses.
 My legs were stiff because I had been standing still for a long time.
 They lived in a castle which had stood on a hill above the village for 1000 years.
Past verb forms with present or future meaning
A past verb form does not always have a past meaning. Verbs like I had, you went and I was
wondering are often used to talk about the present or the future.
after if, unless, supposing etc.
After if, unless and words with similar meanings, we often use past verb forms to refer to the present
or the future.
 If I had the money now I would buy a car.

 You look as if you were just about to scream.
after it’s time, would rather and wish
After these expressions, past verb forms can have present or future meanings.
 I wish I had a better memory.

 Ten o’clock – it is time you went home.
distancing in questions, requests etc.
We can make questions, requests and offers more polite by using past tenses. Common expressions
are I wondered, I thought, I hoped, did you want.
 I thought you might like some coffee.

 I wondered if you were free this evening.
modal auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries would, should, could and might usually have present or future meanings.
 Would you lend me some money?

 Could you help with me for a moment?
 She should be here soon.
Past verb forms with present or future meaning
A past verb form does not always have a past meaning. Verbs like I had, you went and I was
wondering are often used to talk about the present or the future.
after if, unless, supposing etc.
After if, unless and words with similar meanings, we often use past verb forms to refer to the present
or the future.
 If I had the money now I would buy a car.

 You look as if you were just about to scream.
after it’s time, would rather and wish
After these expressions, past verb forms can have present or future meanings.
 I wish I had a better memory.

 Ten o’clock – it is time you went home.
distancing in questions, requests etc.
We can make questions, requests and offers more polite by using past tenses. Common expressions
are I wondered, I thought, I hoped, did you want.
 I thought you might like some coffee.

 I wondered if you were free this evening.
modal auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries would, should, could and might usually have present or future meanings.
 Would you lend me some money?

 Could you help with me for a moment?
 She should be here soon.
 The future progressive tense

I shall/will be writing. I shall/will not be writing. Shall/will I be writing?
She will be writing. She will not be writing. Will she be writing?
You will be writing. You will not be writing. Will you be writing?
use
We use the future progressive to say that an activity will be in progress at a particular moment in the
future.
 This time tomorrow I will be lying on the beach.
The future progressive is also used to talk about future events which are fixed or arranged. It does
not suggest the idea of personal intention.
 We shall be visiting Darjeeling in the summer.

 I will be seeing you one of these days, I think.
 He will be having a nap in the afternoon.
predicting the present
The future progressive can also be used to say what we think or guess is probably happening now.
 Don’t phone now – they will be having lunch.
polite enquiries
The future progressive can be used to make polite enquiries about people's plans.
Compare:
 Will you be coming with me? (a polite enquiry about what has been arranged)
 Are you coming with me? (pressing for a decision)
 Will you come with me? (an instruction or order.)
The future perfect tense

I shall/will have I shall/will not have Shall/will I have
written. written. written?
She will have written. She will not have written. Will she have written?
You will not not have
You will have written. written. Will you have written?
We use the future perfect tense to say that something will have been done, completed or achieved
by a certain time in the future.
 We will have completed half the course by Christmas.

 The builders say they will have finished the roof by Monday.
If Clauses
If clauses are usually used to talk about uncertain events and situations. They often refer to a
condition - something which must happen first, so that something else can happen.
 If you love me, I will love you.
 If you study well, you will pass the exam.
 If you marry me, I will make you my queen.
 If you don't hurry up, you will be late.
Clauses of this kind are often called conditional clauses. There are four main types of conditional
clauses in English. They are:
1. Zero conditional
2. Type 1 conditional
Position of an if clause
An if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause begins a sentence,
we use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
Compare:
 I will phone you if I have time.

 If I have time, I will phone you.
Leaving out If
In a formal or literary style if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject. This is
common with had, should and were.
 Were I you I would accept the offer. (= If I were you I would accept the offer.)
 Had he not received her help he wouldn't have become a millionaire. (= If he had not
received...)
Zero Conditional
Here we use a simple present in both clauses.
 If you give respect, you get respect.

 If you heat ice, it melts.
 If I am late, my father takes me to school.
 If he comes to town, we have dinner together.
The Zero Conditional is used to talk about situations that are always true if something happens.
They are also used to talk about general truths.
In most cases, it is possible to replace a zero conditional by a time clause using when.
 When you heat ice, it melts.

 When I am late, my father takes me to school.
 When he comes to town, we have dinner together.
 When you give respect, you get respect.
The Type 1 Conditional
Here we use a simple present in the if-clause and a simple future in the result clause.
 If you want, I will talk to him.
 If I see her, I will give her your love.
 If you finish on time, we will go to the movies.
 If it rains, the match will be cancelled.
 You will be late if you don't hurry up.
 I will buy a car if I get my rise.
The Type 1 conditional refers to the present or future time. Here the situation is real and possible. It
is used to talk about a possible condition and its probable result.
The Type 1 Conditional - Alternate forms
Future in both clauses
Sometimes we use a future tense in both clauses. This is particularly common in polite requests.
 If you will marry me, I will love you forever. (More polite than 'If you marry me…')
 If you will wait for me, I will come with you.
 If you will help us, we will be grateful.
Here will means ' is/are willing to'. In more polite requests we can use would.
 If you would help us, we will be extremely grateful.

 If you would come this way, I will take you to the theatre.
Going to in result clause
Going to often replaces will in the type 1 conditional. This is done to emphasize a certain result.
 If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.

 If you don't mend your ways, you are going to land in trouble.
Going to can be used in the if-clause to mean 'intend to'.
 If you are going to skip school, you certainly won't pass your exams.
Present perfect in if-clause
Sometimes we use a present perfect, instead of a simple present, in the if-clause. This is to put an
extra focus on the completion of an action.
Compare:
 We will go to the movies if you have finished your work. (There is a focus on the completion
of the action.)
 We will go to the movies if you finish your work. (There is no focus on the completion of the
action.)
Should in if-clause
Should is sometimes used in the if-clause to imply that something is possible, but not very likely.
 If he should arrive, we will invite him along to dinner. (He will probably not come. But if he
comes, we will invite him to dinner.)
This use of should in the type 1 conditional is stronger than the type 2 conditional in which an
imaginary or unreal situation is presented.
Compare:
 If he arrives, we will invite him along to dinner. (Type 1 conditional - He is likely to come.
And if he comes we will invite him to dinner.)
 If he arrived, we would invite him to dinner. (Type 2 conditional - I am sure he will not
come.)
 If he studied, he would pass the exam. (Type 2 Conditional - I am sure the student will not
pass.)
 If he studies, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional - He will probably study. And if he
does he will pass.)
 If he should study, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional with should - The student will
probably not study. But if he does he will pass.)
Happen to/ should happen to
We sometimes use happen to or should happen to in If- clauses. It suggests that something is
unlikely, but if it happens, something else will happen.
 If they happen to come to town, we will meet them. (= They are unlikely to come. But if they
come, we will meet them.)
Should happen to has a similar meaning.
 If he should happen to get stuck in that town, he will be able to find a good hotel.
Modals in result clauses
We can use modals in result clauses to talk about future possibilities, permission and advice.
 If you finish your work, you can go out and play.

 You should see a doctor if you continue to feel bad.
 If I arrive early, I might give him a call.
Provided (that), as long as
Provided that and as long as can be used instead of if to say that a particular condition must be met
in order for something to happen.
 Provided (that) he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.

(= If he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.)
 As long as you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year. (= If you pay
off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year.)
Future in both clauses
Sometimes we use a future tense in both clauses. This is particularly common in polite requests.
 If you will marry me, I will love you forever. (More polite than 'If you marry me…')
 If you will wait for me, I will come with you.
 If you will help us, we will be grateful.
Here will means ' is/are willing to'. In more polite requests we can use would.
 If you would help us, we will be extremely grateful.

 If you would come this way, I will take you to the theatre.
Going to in result clause
Going to often replaces will in the type 1 conditional. This is done to emphasize a certain result.
 If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.

 If you don't mend your ways, you are going to land in trouble.
Going to can be used in the if-clause to mean 'intend to'.
 If you are going to skip school, you certainly won't pass your exams.
Present perfect in if-clause
Sometimes we use a present perfect, instead of a simple present, in the if-clause. This is to put an
extra focus on the completion of an action.
Compare:
 We will go to the movies if you have finished your work. (There is a focus on the completion
of the action.)
 We will go to the movies if you finish your work. (There is no focus on the completion of the
action.)
Should in if-clause
Should is sometimes used in the if-clause to imply that something is possible, but not very likely.
 If he should arrive, we will invite him along to dinner. (He will probably not come. But if he
comes, we will invite him to dinner.)
This use of should in the type 1 conditional is stronger than the type 2 conditional in which an
imaginary or unreal situation is presented.
Compare:
 If he arrives, we will invite him along to dinner. (Type 1 conditional - He is likely to come.
And if he comes we will invite him to dinner.)
 If he arrived, we would invite him to dinner. (Type 2 conditional - I am sure he will not
come.)
 If he studied, he would pass the exam. (Type 2 Conditional - I am sure the student will not
pass.)
 If he studies, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional - He will probably study. And if he
does he will pass.)
 If he should study, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional with should - The student will
probably not study. But if he does he will pass.)
Happen to/ should happen to

We sometimes use happen to or should happen to in If- clauses. It suggests that something is
unlikely, but if it happens, something else will happen.
 If they happen to come to town, we will meet them. (= They are unlikely to come. But if they
come, we will meet them.)
Should happen to has a similar meaning.
 If he should happen to get stuck in that town, he will be able to find a good hotel.
Modals in result clauses
We can use modals in result clauses to talk about future possibilities, permission and advice.
 If you finish your work, you can go out and play.

 You should see a doctor if you continue to feel bad.
 If I arrive early, I might give him a call.
Provided (that), as long as
Provided that and as long as can be used instead of if to say that a particular condition must be met
in order for something to happen.
 Provided (that) he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.

(= If he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.)
 As long as you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year. (= If you pay
off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year.)
 Here we use a simple past in the if-clause and would + infinitive (bare form of the verb) in
the result clause.
 If you asked, they would help you.

 If it rained, you would get wet.
 If you loved her, she would love you.
 If I had more money, I would buy a new car.
 If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
 If I were the President, I would lower taxes.
The type 2 conditional refers to present and future situations. It is used to talk about unreal -
impossible, improbable or imaginary - situations. It refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and
its probable result.
Type 1 or type 2 - What to use?
Real and imaginary situations
The type 1 conditional is often called the real conditional. It is used for real and possible situations.
The type 2 conditional is used for unreal - impossible, improbable or imaginary - situations.
Compare:
 If I become the President, I will give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a candidate, who
may win the election - Type 1)
 If I win this race, I will... (- Said by the fastest runner - Type 1)
 If I became the President, I would give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a child - Type 2)
 If I won this race, I would... (- Said by the slowest runner - Type 2)
Direct requests and suggestions
In direct request or suggestions we use type 1 conditional. To make a request or suggestion more
polite, we use type 2 conditional.
Compare:
 I will be grateful if you lend me some money. (direct request - Type 1)

 It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1)
 It would be nice if you helped me. (less direct, more polite request - Type 2)
 I would be grateful if you lent me some money. (more polite request - Type 2)
Modals in the result clause
We can use could in the result clause to mean would be able to.
 If you were more serious about your work, you could finish it in time. (= You would be able
to finish it in time.)
 If I had more money, I could buy a new car. (= I would be able to buy a new car.)
 If you spoke a foreign language, you could get a better job. (= You would be able to get a
better job.)
Might can be used in the result clause to mean would perhaps or would possibly.
 If you requested them more politely, they might help you. (= They would perhaps help
you.)
Were to
If can be followed by 'subject + were to' to suggest that we are talking about an imaginary condition.
 If I were to buy a new car, what would you say?

 If you were to lose your job, what would you do?
 If you were to win, what would you give me?
If it were not for
This structure is used to say that one event depends on another for completion.
 If it weren't for his dedication, this company wouldn't exist.

 If it weren't for your timely help, I wouldn't be alive today.
 If it weren't for his wife's money, he wouldn't be a millionaire.
Supposing
Supposing is used in place of if to emphasize the imaginary. It is more commonly used in everyday
speech.
 Supposing he came to visit you, what would you do? (= If he came to visit you, what would
you do?)
 Supposing I became the Miss World, what would you say?
Were to
If can be followed by 'subject + were to' to suggest that we are talking about an imaginary condition.
 If I were to buy a new car, what would you say?

 If you were to lose your job, what would you do?
 If you were to win, what would you give me?
If it were not for
This structure is used to say that one event depends on another for completion.
 If it weren't for his dedication, this company wouldn't exist.

 If it weren't for your timely help, I wouldn't be alive today.
 If it weren't for his wife's money, he wouldn't be a millionaire.
Supposing
Supposing is used in place of if to emphasize the imaginary. It is more commonly used in everyday
speech.
 Supposing he came to visit you, what would you do? (= If he came to visit you, what would
you do?)
 Supposing I became the Miss World, what would you say?
Here we use a past perfect in the if-clause and would have + past participle in the result clause.
 If I had won that award, my life would have changed.

 If she had studied science, she would have found a better job.
The Type 3 Conditional is used to talk about past situations that did not happen.
 If you had invited them they would have come. (You did not invite them and therefore they
did not come.)
 If you had worked harder you would have passed the exam. (You did not work hard and
therefore you did not pass.)

did not come.)
did not come.)

did not come.)
English Sentences
A sentence is a group of words that express a complete thought. It has two main parts: a subject and
a predicate. The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The
predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. Here are some examples of
complete sentences.
 You stop!
 New York City is called the ‘Big Apple'.
 Alice is my friend.
 She is a doctor.
 The milk turned sour.
To be a sentence, a group of words must have a subject and a predicate. It must also express a
complete thought.
Being able to recognize the subject and the verb in a sentence will help you make sure that your
sentences are complete and clear. Remember that in most sentences, the subject will come before
the verb. Not so with questions. In a question, the verb often comes before the subject. Here are
some examples.
 Is the cat on the roof? (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’)

 Are you coming with us? (The subject of the sentence is ‘you.’
It can be tricky to find the subject in sentences that start with here or there. Remember that here or
there never function as the subject of a sentence.
For example:
 Here is your cat. (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’)
Types of Sentences
There are four different types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has one main clause. That means it has one subject and one verb. In addition, a
simple sentence can have adjectives and adverbs. Note that a simple sentence can't have another
main clause or any subordinate clauses.
Example are given below.
 Man is mortal.
 Alice is a beautiful girl.
 I have two kids.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses. The clauses can be joined with a
coordinating conjunction (e.g. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a semicolon (;). As with a simple
sentence, a compound sentence can't have any subordinate clauses.
 Mike smokes but Peter doesn’t.

 Alice wrote the letters and Peter posted them.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. These
sentences use subordinating conjunctions to link ideas.
 Parallel lines never meet (main) until (subordinating conjunction) you bend one of them
(subordinate clause).
 Alice said (main clause) that she would come (subordinate clause).
 You may stay (main clause) as long as you want (subordinate clause).
 Will you wait (main clause) till I return (subordinate clause)?
 If you eat too much (subordinate clause) you will fall ill (main clause).
Compound-Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence has at least two main clauses and at least one subordinating
clause. The dependent clause can be part of the independent clause.
 After she left university (subordinate), Alice moved to London (main) and her boyfriend
followed her (main).
Sentence functions
Sentences can be classified according to their functions. There are four sentence functions in English:
declarative, exclamatory, interrogative and imperative.
Declarative
Declarative sentences state an idea. They end with a full stop.

Examples are:
 Susie smokes.
 The war is over.
 Three students failed to sit the examination.
 I am not ready yet.
Exclamatory
Exclamatory sentences express strong emotions. They end with an exclamation mark. Examples
are:
 What a lovely day it is!

 I can’t believe this!
 What a mess this room is!
 How beautiful it is!
Interrogative
Interrogative sentences ask a question. They end with a question mark.
Examples are:
 Is Susie drinking tea?

 What is Susie drinking?
 Who are you?
Imperative
Imperative sentences give orders or directions. They end with a period or an exclamation mark.
Examples are:
 Wash your hands.

 Do your homework!
 Sit down and listen!
An imperative sentence usually has no expressed subject (though you is understood as its subject).
Common Idioms and Phrases with Get
Get about - spread (of news etc.)
Word soon got about that he was going to be dismissed
Get about - travel, move from place to place
They get about quite a bit.

The Delhi Metro is the best way to get about the city.
Get something across - cause people to understand or accept it

Though he tried hard, he couldn’t get the new idea across.
He could get the message across without much difficulty.
Get after - pursue; attack
Though they got after the thieves, the policemen failed to arrest them.
Get along - live sociably with somebody; manage; make progress
I don’t understand how he manages to get along with her.
Get at - reach; find out
Though he tried hard, the hungry fox couldn’t get at the bunch of grapes.
They are trying to get at the truth.
Get away (with) - leave; escape; avoid the penalty of
The rich lad probably believed that he would be able to get away with the murder, but he was proved
wrong.
Get off - start
We got off in the morning.
Get off - escape punishment
The accused couldn’t get off.

The thief got off after bribing the policeman.
Get over -overcome
He could get over the financial difficulties easily.
Get round somebody - persuade somebody to do what is desired; outwit; influence
A pretty young wife easily gets round an old husband.
Get (down) to - start
It is high time we got down to work.
Get to know - reach the stage of knowing; become familiar with
He is a nice guy when you get to know him.
Common Idioms and Phrases with Break
Break away – run away, escape
The horse broke away from the stable.
Break down – fail to work, go wrong; prove to be wrong.

The machine broke down.
Break down – be overcome by emotion
She broke down in the middle of her speech.
Break into – get into by force
The police broke into the building to capture the thieves.
Break in – train
We need a trainer to break our pony in.
Break off – stop abruptly, as in talking
He broke off in the middle of his speech.
Break out – appear suddenly
Plague has broken out in the city.
Break up – (of a meeting, school term etc.) end
The meeting broke up at 10 pm.
Break up – disperse
The police used tear gas to break up the mob
Common Idioms and Phrases with Come
Come about – happen
Nobody knows how these things came about.
Come across – find by accident
On my way to market, I came across an old beggar.
Come upon – find by accident
Come of – have as a result
What came of the discussion? (= What happened afterwards? What was the result?)
Come off – happen; take place
The prize distribution ceremony will come off next week.
Come to – happen to
How did you come to hear of it?

English Vocabulary
Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part I
Idioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of
idioms derived from the parts of the body.
Arm
Keep at arms length (If you keep somebody at arms length, you avoid being too friendly with that
person.)
 He is very quarrelsome, so I keep him at arms length.
With open arms (with great affection and enthusiasm)
 He welcomed his friends with open arms.
Back
Break the back of something (finish the hardest part of a work)
 Since my colleagues had already broken the back of it, I could finish the work easily.
Put one’s back into something (work at something with all one’s energy)
 You have to finish this work by tomorrow, so put your back into it.
Put someone’s back up (make a person angry)
 His offensive manner put my back up.
With one’s back against/to the wall (be forced to defend oneself in a difficult situation)
 Since there was no one to help him, he had to fight alone with his back against/to the wall.
Be on somebody’s back (keep asking someone to do something, or keep criticizing someone in a

way that annoys them)
 He's still on my back about those ten pounds he lent me.
Behind somebody's back (if you do something behind someone's back, you do it without them
knowing)
 I don't want to talk about it behind his back.
Stab somebody in the back (do something harmful to someone who trusted you)
 He was stabbed in the back by people he thought were his friends.
Turn your back on somebody (refuse to help someone)

 I appealed for help, but they turned their back on me.
Back to square one (If you are back to square one, you have to start working on something from the
beginning because your previous attempt failed.)
 We thought everything was settled, but now they say they're not happy with the deal, so we're
back to square one again.
Words confused owing to faulty pronunciation
Certain words cause confusion due to faulty pronunciation. A few of them are given below. Note that
the correct pronunciation is indicated by adding a well-known word in brackets which rhymes with the
word whose pronunciation is often confused.
Floor (noun) [door] - part of the building on which one walks

Flour (noun) [shower] - finely ground cereal grains
Flower (noun) [shower] - coloured part of plants
 She sat on the floor.

 Biscuit is made of wheat flour.
Weak (adjective) [leak] - not strong or fit

Week (noun) [leak] - a period of seven days
Wick (noun) [sick] - a string or piece of fabric that draws fuel to the flame in a candle or oil lamp
 A candle needs a wick.

 He was too weak to stand up.
 There are fifty-two weeks in a year.
Heir (noun) [air] - legal inheritor of something

Hair (noun) [care] - fine flexible strands growing on the head or body
Hare (noun) [care] - a fast running animal that resembles a rabbit
 He is the heir to the throne.

 Hair grows on our heads
 A hare looks like a big rabbit.
Wonder (noun) [plunder] - amazed admiration, something marvelous

Wander (verb) [yonder] - travel without destination, leave a fixed path
 Gypsies wander over the country.

 I wonder why I failed to pass.
Advice (noun) [nice] - recommendation about action

Advise (verb) [eyes] - offer advice
 I am tired of listening to advice.

 The doctor advised him to quit smoking.
Leave (verb) [deceive] - depart

Live (verb) [give] - reside in a particular place
 I leave home for work at 9 o'clock.

 My parents live abroad.
Quite (adverb) [white] - entirely
Quiet (adjective or noun) [diet] - peaceful, making little noise, free from trouble
 You are quite right.

 I would like to lead a quiet life.
 A sick man needs a quiet room.
Price (noun) [nice] - cost of something bought or sold

Prize (noun) [eyes] - award for winner
 What is the price of that bag?

 She got this bag as a prize.
Lose (verb) [choose] - fail to win, have something taken away

Loose (verb) [goose] - free, not fastened
Loose (adjective) [goose] - not tight or fitting
 You will lose your dog, if you don't tie it up.

 When he loosed his dog it ran away.
 This knot is loose and it will soon come undone.
Taste (verb) [waste]

Test (verb) [nest]
 The fish tasted awful.

 He tested the food in the science laboratory.
Pore (noun) [door] - tiny openings in the skin through which sweat passes.
Pour (verb) [door]

Poor (adjective) [tour] - not rich
 Many people in Africa are very poor.

 He poured oil into the fire.
 Holes in your skin are called pores.
Latter (adjective) [matter] - the second of two already named

Later (adverb) [waiter] - after a particular period of time
Letter (noun) [better]
 A is tall, and B is short but the latter is stronger.

 I will see you later.
 The Post Office handles letters.
Bath (noun) [path]

Bathe (verb) [lathe]
 We have a bath to clean our bodies.

 We bathe to enjoy ourselves with no thought of cleanliness.
Prepositional phrases
Following is a list of idiomatic prepositional phrases and examples. Always use these prepositional
phrases as units; don't substitute other prepositions.
accuse somebody of something

She accused me of stealing her purse.
acquainted with
Peter is acquainted with my cousin John.
afraid of
I am afraid of cockroaches.
agree on (a plan)
They finally agreed on a plan.
agree to (someone else's proposal)

Did Betty agree to their demands?
angry with (sometimes at) a person for doing something

She was angry with him for lying to her.
angry at/about (a thing)

The commuters are angry about the fare hike.
anxious about (=worried about)

I am getting anxious about money.
anxious for (=eager to have)

We are all anxious for an end to this misunderstanding.
approve of
Did she approve of the vacation plan?
arrive at/in
What time do we arrive at Tokyo?
bad at
She is very bad at cooking.
belong on/in (= go, fit, have its place in/on)

Those glasses belong on the top shelf.
belong to (= be a member of)

I belong to a local athletics club.
congratulate/congratulations on something
I must congratulate you on your exam results.
contrast with
The red shirt contrasts with the pink pants.
convenient for
Is Monday convenient for you?
deal with
How do you deal with that awful child?
depend on/ dependent on

He doesn’t want to be dependent on his parents.
die of /from
A week after the accident he died of/from his injuries.
differ from (something)

The airplane differs from the train.
differ with (a person)

I differ with your argument.
disappointed with somebody

She never showed whether she was disappointed with him.
disappointed with/at/about something

You must be pretty disappointed with/at/about your exam results.
explain something to somebody

Could you explain this rule to me?
get on (to) and off a train, plane, bus, ship, motor bike or horse
We will be getting off the train in ten minutes.
ill with
He has been ill with flu this week.
impressed with/by
I am very impressed with/by your work.
independent of
She got a job so that she could be independent of her parents.
insist on
She insisted on coming with us.
interested in
Not many people are interested in grammar.
interfere with
Homework can interfere with your social life.
kind to
Be kind to others.
be lacking in
She is lacking in tact.
laugh at
I hate being laughed at.
listen to
If you don’t listen to people they won’t listen to you.
look after (=take care of)

Thanks for looking after me when I was ill.
look for (=try to find)

Can you help me look for my keys?
operate on a patient
They operated on her last night.
pay for something that is bought

I will pay for the drink.
proof of
I want proof of your love. Lend me some money.
reason for
Nobody knows the reason for the accident.
reason with
You can't reason with a two-year-old.
responsible for
Who is responsible for the shopping this week?
rude to
He is rude to everybody.
shocked at/by
We are shocked at your hair color!
sorry for/about something one has done

I am sorry for/about breaking your window.
sorry for a person

I feel sorry for her.
speak to; speak with

Could I speak to/with John for a moment?
specialize in
The hairdresser must specialize in humour.
trip over
He tripped over the cat and fell downstairs.
typical of
The wine is typical of the region.
wrong with
What is wrong with you?
One word substitutes

One word may often express the idea of a phrase. Here are some common one word substitutes.
Egoist (also Egotist): a person who is selfish, self absorbed and self centered
Epitaph: inscription on a tombstone
Fatalist: one who believes in the philosophical doctrine of fatalism
Aristocracy: people of noble families or the highest social class. Also, government of a country by a
small group of people, especially hereditary nobility
Atheist: a person who does not believe in God or deities
Amphibian: a land animal that breeds in water
Ambiguity: an expression or statement that has more than one meaning
Autobiography: an account of somebody's life written by that person
Biography: an account of somebody's life written by another person
Cannibal: somebody who eats human flesh
Mercenary: somebody who works or serves only for personal profit. Also, a professional soldier paid
to fight for an army other than that of his or her country
Misogynist: a person who hates women
Misogamist: a person who does not believe in the institution of marriage
Soporific: a drug or other substance that induces sleep
Omniscient: a person who knows everything
Omnivorous: an animal or a human being that eats any kind of food
Omnipotent: a person who has power over all
Panacea: a supposed cure for all diseases or problems
Parasite: a person supported by another and giving him/her nothing in return
Impervious: a person who remains unmoved and unaffected by other people's opinions, arguments
or suggestions
Illiterate: a person who cannot read or write
Infallible: incapable of making a mistake
Infanticide: the killing of an infant
Honorary: holding an office awarded as an honour and receiving no payment for services provided in
that office
Idolatry: the worship of idols or false gods

Inflammable: something that is quickly and easily set on fire and burned
Epicure: somebody who is dedicated to sensual pleasure and luxury
Epidemic: an outbreak of a disease that spreads among a group of people quickly and extensively
Fanatic: somebody who has extreme and sometimes irrational enthusiasms or beliefs, especially in
religion or politics
Feminist: a believer in women's rights
Herbivorous: an animal that eats only grass or other plants
Fratricide: the crime in which somebody kills his or her own brother
Matricide: the act of murdering one's own mother
Patricide: the act of murdering one's own father
Convalescence: the gradual return to good health after a period or illness or medical treatment
Endemic: a disease that occurs within a specified area, region or locale
Anarchist: a person who rejects the need for a system of government in society and proposes its
abolition
Ambidextrous: a person who is able to use both hands with equal skill
Alimony: financial support to ex-wife
Amateur: a person who does something for pleasure rather than for pay
Aborigines: original inhabitants of a place
Circumlocution: the indirect way of saying something
Arbitrator: somebody designated to hear both sides of a dispute and make a judgment
Autocracy: rule by one person who holds unlimited power
Edible: fit for eating
Potable: fit for drinking
Belligerents: nations engaged in war
Fastidious: a person who is concerned that even the smallest details should be just right
Somnambulism: sleepwalking
Stoic: a person who is unaffected by emotions
Theist: a person who believes in the existence of God

Transparent: a substance that allows light to pass through with little or no interruption so that objects
on the other side can be clearly seen
Verbatim: corresponding word for word translation
Prosecute: take legal action against somebody
Pugnacity: inclined to fight or be aggressive
Valetudinarian: somebody who is excessively concerned with his or her own health
Widower: a man whose wife has died
Widow: a woman whose husband has died
Polygamy: the custom of having more than one spouse at the same time
Polyandry: the custom of having more than one husband at the same time
Triennial: taking place once every three years
Usurer: somebody who loans money to other people and charges them exorbitant or unlawful interest
on it
Usurper: a person who seize something without the right to do so
Philanthropist: a person who helps others, especially those who are poor and in trouble
Plutocracy: the rule of a society by its wealthiest people
Words confused owing to faulty pronunciation
Certain words cause confusion due to faulty pronunciation. A few of them are given below. Note that
the correct pronunciation is indicated by adding a well-known word in brackets which rhymes with the
word whose pronunciation is often confused.

Learn English - Grammar: Above and Over

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Learn English - Grammar: Above and Over

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Above indicates a position higher than something.

 The birds flew up above the trees.

Above and Over

Above and over can both mean higher than.

 The helicopter hovered above/over the building.

 The temperature never rose above 10 degree Celsius.

Over is preferred when one thing covers and/or touches another.

 He put on a coat over his shirt.

 You have to be over 18 to see that film.

The preposition about is used for the following purposes.

To indicate movement or position

About indicates movement or position in various directions and places.

 We walked about the old city.

To mean 'near to'

About can mean 'near to.'

 They are living somewhere about here.

 She is about 10 year old.

How about, what about

 How about having a drink? (Propose a plan.)

 This is a book on African history.

About to means 'on the point of doing something'.

 We were about to go to bed when the telephone rang.

'Not about to' can mean 'unwilling to'.

 I am not about to lend him my car.

Into and out of

Into: a place inside

 We ran into the garden.

Into: to change into; to become

 The frog changed into a handsome prince.

The opposite of the preposition into is out of.

 She ran out of the room.

The simple present tense

Uses of the simple present tense

 He goes for a walk every morning.

We use the simple present tense to express timeless truths.

 The earth revolves round the sun.

here comes … etc.

Note the structure here comes … and there goes …

 There goes the dinner bell.

Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.

 Here she comes.

talking about the future

 Her train leaves at 3 o' clock.

Affirmative Negative Question

Uses of the present progressive tense

to denote time around now

developing and changing situations

 The universe is expanding.

talking about the future

We often use the present progressive to talk about the future.

 She is leaving for Mumbai on Monday.

 My tooth aches. OR My tooth is aching.

verbs not used in progressive forms

 I like his attitude. (NOT I am liking …)

 I am seeing the doctor at eight o’clock.

Affirmative Negative Question

Uses of the present perfect tense

past events connected with the present

 He has broken his leg. (His leg is broken now.)

 There has been a plane crash near Tokyo.

 I am sure we have met before.