1.

Introduction

Reverse Engineering
Reverse engineering is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device object or
system through analysis of its structure function and operation. It often involves taking something (e.g
mechanical device electronic component or software program) apart and analysing how it works. For
example if a processor manufacturer wants to see how a competitor's processor works they can purchase
a competitor's processor disassemble it and then make a processor similar to it. However this process is
illegal in many countries. [1]
In other words, it is a process in which an already engineered product is redesigned from its actual form
that is by measuring the actual physical model and created again mainly for the following reasons:
1. straight forward copying a product
2. improvising an existing products
3. producing replaceable parts during maintenance [1]

Reverse engineering is a often used by military. It was often used during the Second World War and
Cold War.[2]

Reverse Engineering of machines

As computer-aided design (CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable
method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD, CAM, CAE or
other software.[5] The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object and then
reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured using 3D scanning technologies
likeCMMs, laser scanners, structured light digitizers or Industrial CT Scanning (computed tomography).
The measured data alone, usually represented as a point cloud, lacks topological information and is
therefore often processed and modeled into a more usable format such as a triangular-faced mesh, a set
of NURBS surfaces or a CAD model.[3]

Materials
1. Alloys (Metals): The term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent
is a metal. The primary metal is called the base. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms, not
counting impurities, such as a copper-nickel alloy, then it is called a binary alloy. If there are three
different types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called
a ternary alloy. An alloy with four constituents is a quaternary alloy, while a five part alloy is termed
a quinary alloy. Since the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire
range of possible variations is called a system. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy
containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a binary system, while all of the
different alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium,
is called a ternary system. [4]
2. Polymers: A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units.
These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is
sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class of natural and synthetic
materials with a wide variety of properties. Because of the extraordinary range of properties of
polymeric materials, they play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. This role ranges from
familiar synthetic plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as nucleic acids and proteins that
are essential for life.[4]
3. Ceramics: A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent
cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may
be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic
is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non-crystalline glasses.
4. Composites: composites, are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate

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 and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure.The most visible
applications is pavement in roadways in the form of either steel and aggregate reinforced Portland
cement or asphalt concrete. Those composites closest to our personal hygiene form our shower stalls
and bathtubs made of fibreglass. Imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops are widely
used. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding environments.[4]
5. Glasses: Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material. Glasses are typically brittle, and often
optically transparent.The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows and drinking
vessels, is soda-lime glass, made of about 75% silica (SiO2) plus Na2O, CaO, and several minor
additives. Often, the term glass is used in a restricted sense to refer to this specific use.In science,
however, the term glass is usually defined in a much wider sense, including every solid that possesses a
non-crystalline (i.e. amorphous) structure and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the
liquid state. In this wider sense, glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: metallic
alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications
(bottles, eyewear) polymer glasses (acrylic glass,polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to
traditional silica glasses.[4]
6. Elastomers: An elastomer is a polymer with the property of viscoelasticity (colloquially "elasticity"),
generally having notably low Young's modulus and high yield strain compared with other materials. The
term, which is derived from elastic polymer, is often used interchangeably with the term rubber,
although the latter is preferred when referring to vulcanisates. Each of the monomers which link to form
the polymer is usually made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and/or silicon. Elastomers
are amorphous polymers existing above their glass transition temperature, so that considerable
segmental motion is possible. At ambient temperatures rubbers are thus relatively soft (E~3MPa) and
deformable. Their primary uses are for seals, adhesives and molded flexible parts.[4]

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Manufacturing Processes
Material processing has been defined as the science and technology by which a material is converted
into useful shape with a stricture and properties that are optimized for the proposed service
environment.
The manufacture of any product or component involves not only design and material selection but also
the selection of the process or processes involved in obtaining the desired shape and achieving.[5]

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2. Case Study One - Bicycle Bottom Bracket

Purpose and Concept:

The crankset is the component of a bicycle that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into
rotational motion used to drive the chain, which in turn drives the rear wheel. It is connected to the rider
by the pedals, to the bicycle frame by the bottom bracket, and to the rear
sprocket, cassette or freewheel via the chain.[6]
So, basically, the bottom bracket is the main bearing position on a bicycle that connects the crankset to
the bicycle and allows the crankset to rotate freely.[7]

Principles of Operation:
The bottom bracket contains a spindle to which the crankset is attached and the bearings that allow the
spindle and cranks to rotate. The chainrings and pedals are attached to the cranks. The bottom bracket
fits inside the bottom bracket shell, which connects the seat tube, down tube and chain stays as part of
the bicycle frame. There is some disagreement as to whether "axle" or "spindle" should be used in
particular contexts. The distinction is based on whether the axle/spindle is stationary, as that in a hub, or
rotates, as that in a bottom bracket.[7]

Specifications and component parts

There are three common types of bottom brackets.

1. Three piece bottom bracket- Cartridge type: Bikes made the last few years tend to come with a
"cartridge" bottom bracket. For the most part, these are unserviceable, and the entire unit is
simply removed and replaced when they wear out. They cannot be greased or adjusted before
that time. Some brands use common industrial bearings, just like ones found in cars, pumps,
electrical motors, etc. Generally, the bearings are intended to be used until they wear out. With
most brands, the entire unit including the spindle is replaced.[8]

2. Three piece bottom bracket- Adjustable type: These usually contain four major pieces: lockring,
adjustable cup, spindle, and fixed cup. The left side lockring has notched rings, and the
adjustable cup may have holes for a pin spanner, or notches for a wrench. The right side cup
will have wrench flats, but no lockring. Cups may be removed and replaced separately, and the
spindle may be replaced separately. A set of round ball bearings are found in each cup, typically
eleven ball per side of 1/4-inch diameter. This type of bottom bracket may be cleaned, greased,
and adjusted.[8]

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3. One-piece or "Ashtabula" bottom brackets: These are found on some older Schwinns, juvenile
bikes, some BMX bikes and on many department store-type bikes. One piece of steel forms the
crankarms and goes from the pedal, through the bottom bracket, to the other pedal. [8]

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 Materials, manufacturing and assembly methods:
Component Sizes (mm)
Frame Seat Post Tube - 36mm external
Member diameter tube, 1.5mm wall
thickness
Chain Stays - 17mm diameter
tubes, 1.5mm wall thickness
Bottom Bracket Shell - 39mm
external diameter tube, 3mm
wall thickness - (threaded at
either end to accept bearing
cups).
The thread appears to be
ISO/English or BSA with a
Nominal Thread of 1.37 in x 24,
Down tube – 35mm diameter
tube, 1.5mm wall thickness.
Side Stand bracket 65mm long,
45mm wide, 3mm thick.
Cranks (x2) 190mm long, 15mm wide, 10m
thick.
Materials Manufacturing process
Mild Steel plate and Fabricated element.
tube. The Bottom Bracket Tube
plate is formed by
bending that plate into a
tube and then welding
along the seam. The Seat
Tube, the Downtube and
the Chain Stays are
welded to the Bottom
Bracket Shell.
The Side Stand bracket is
welded to the Rear Fork
Tubes.
Mild Steel bar. The pedal cranks are drop
forged.
The spindle hole is drilled
and the cotter pin hole is
drilled.
A hole is drilled and
tapped with a thread for
the pedal. The left hand
pedal has a left hand
thread to prevent it
undoing in use.
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Assembly Method Function
Welded. To hold the pedal axle between
Spray painted to 2 ball bearing races to allow the
prevent corrosion. linear motion of the riders legs
to be converted into rotational
motion for transmission via a
chain to the rear wheel sprocket.
Chrome plated to To connect the pedals to the
prevent corrosion. chainwheel/axle assembly.
The right hand crank
is attached to the
Chainwheel using a
mechanical friction
fit.
Each crank is
attached to the
spindle using a cotter
pin.
Pedals 80mm wide, 90mm long, 25mm Thermoplastic body. Axle assembly placed in Modular unit. For the rider to place their feet
thick. Steel axle pin. thermoplastic Screwed into pedal on to apply downward pressure.
9/16" x 20 tpi threads. Steel bearings and injection mould and pedal crank.
bearing holders. body injected around the
outside.
Chain Wheel 190mm diameter, 2mm thick. Mild steel plate. Steel pressing. Attached to pedal To hold chain for transfer of
Ribbed for extra crank using a rotational motion to rear wheel.
strengthening. mechanical
interference fit.
Chrome plated to
prevent corrosion.
Axle (Spindle) 13.5mm diameter, 145mm long Mild Steel bar. Drop forged. Held in place To hold pedal cranks in place at
Bearing surfaces turned between ball races right angles to the plane of
onto bar held in bearing cups. rotation.
and cotter pin ledges
ground into bar.
Cotterpins 10mm diameter, 45mm long. Mild Steel bar. Turned, threaded and Inserted into hole on To hold crank onto axle in
M8 securing nut with washer. taper for pedal crank. predetermined position.
cotter pin ground on Taper fit to prevent
shank. movement of pedal
crank moving on
axle.
Secured using nut
and washer.
Zinc plated to
prevent corrosion.
Bearing Cup Steel Steel bar Milled to accept bearings. Screwed into axle To hold the pedal axle between
Threaded to screw into holder. ball bearing races.
axle holder.
Bearing Cup Steel Steel plate Steel pressing. Screwed onto To secure the bearing cup in a
locking ring English/ISO 1.29" x 24 TPI Threaded internally. bearing cup. position that allows correct
Outside surface knurled clearance
and keyed. between bearings and axle
allowing the axle to freely
rotate.

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Ball Bearings Steel Steel bar Steel pressing. Held between To assist in low friction rotation
in Cage Mounted in mild steel bearing cup and axle. of axle in axle holder.
cage for ease of use. Clearance between
axle and bearing cup
regulated by the
bearing cups.

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 Costs:
The selling price of bottom brackets varies according to the type of bracket and the materials used for
manufacturing. However, the selling price could range between £12 and £230.
The following figure shows us the percentage of costs and profit of a product. We could use this figure to estimate
the costs of different bottom brackets.

Reliability:
Bottom brackets should usually be able to be used thousands of miles without needing an overhaul. If the
equipment sees little wet-weather riding, then an appropriate maintenance cycle would be 2000–3000 miles in
most cases. This short cycle may be surprising. It is commonly thought that cartridge-bearing bottom brackets are
maintenance-free because they are “sealed.” The seals are effective for keeping dirt out and increase the longevity
of the grease by minimizing exposure to air that dries out grease. The seals are no guarantee that water will not
get in the bearings and they do not prevent internal wear from contaminating the grease with microscopic abrasive
particles of metal. If a lot of wet-condition riding is done, then the maintenance might need to be as often as every
750–1000 miles. Parts rust whether being ridden or not, so another factor is how long the bike may be sitting
before it will be used again.[9]

Other considerations:
When installing the bottom bracket to the shell it must be considered that the bracket is not over-tightened since
this may affect its performance. Maintenance should also be done every now and then, as previously mentioned,
in order to increase the life time of the bracket and to prevent failure.
Potential improvements:
Bottom bracket producers always try to develop new brackets which provide smoother running and ensure that
the rider uses significantly less energy.
For high performance applications in premium racing bicycles, heavy duty steel for the bearing rings, ceramic
rolling elements, improved ball raceway geometry and a new low friction seal design, all work together to provide
important technical advantages, including smoother operation and much improved reliability. Compared to
conventional rolling bearings, resistance to corrosion and rating life are also much higher. The weight of the
bearing is also reduced.

3. Case Study Two - Foot Pump

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Purpose and concept:
A foot pump is an instrument in general used for the inflation of the tires of vehicles, though they may be used
for other purposes, such as the inflation of air-beds, toy balls and other articles. Foot pumps are portable and field
operable where electric drives may not be available. These pumps are often not specifically designed for bicycle
use. They do not generate very high pressures so don't work well for narrow road-bike tires, but are fine for large
low-pressure tires as found on mountain bikes.Because they are designed for cars they fit schrader valves. If the
bicycle has presta valves a small brass reducer is required in order to use the pump.[10]

Principles of operation:
Foot pumps are manually operated pumps that are driven by foot via a lever. This manual external force actuates
an internal mechanism, which increases pressure for moving fluids such as gas, chemicals, or water. Foot pedals
are pushed down to begin the pump cycle, often requiring one stroke to draw the fluid and another stroke to
discharge it, as is typical in many displacement pumps. [10]

Specifications and component parts:

A foot pump comprises a base member and an operating member pivotally connected to the base member. A
piston-and-cylinder assembly is connected between the members. In use the operating member is depressed by
foot, thereby causing air to be compressed in and expelled from said assembly. A return spring incorporated in
said assembly returns the operating member to its raised position. The assembly can be disconnected from the
base member and connected to the base member again, at will, and the whole is so arranged that when the
assembly is disconnected from the base member the pump can assume a storage position in which the operating
member is in a depressed position and the return spring is not loaded, or at least not significantly loaded. A gage
is often attached to hand pumps to measure pressure.[11]

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Page
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 Materials, manufacturing and assembly methods:
Component Sizes (mm) Materials Manufacturing Assembly Function
process Method
Frame Member Framework - 3mm thick, 15mm Mild Steel bar. Fabricated element. Riveted and To hold the Cylinder Assembly in
wide. Frame 280mm long. Spring Steel bolted place and to remain stable in use
Nut and Bolt 5mm Diameter, Spray painted to when being pressed down by foot.
80mm long. prevent
Foot pad 3mm thick, 80 wide, corrosion.
60mm long.
Spring 2.5mm diameter
Cylinder 54mm – external diameter, Mild Steel. Cylinder was pressed. Tube mount To connect act as compression
52,5mm internal diameter, 135mm Tube mount fabricated pressed using chamber in conjunction with Piston
long. from steel bar. interference fit assembly.
15mm diameter, 20mm flexible into closed end
tube mount on closed end. of cylinder.
Spray painted to
prevent
corrosion.
Cylinder Cap 56mm – external diameter, 54mm Mild Steel. Pressed. Press fit onto To hold piston centrally inside
internal diameter. Non-bright metal cylinder. cylinder bore.
plated It has two 3mm diameter air holes
in it to allow air to enter.
Piston Rod 7mm diameter, 145mm long. Mild steel bar. One end has been Connected to To connect piston to end journal on
turned in a lathe and Piston plate the frame.
threaded to using an
accommodate adhesive.
retaining nut. Bolted to frame.
Piston plate 52.5mm diameter, 12mm thick. Thermoplastic. Thermoplastic Connected to To hold Piston sealing ring in place
injection moulding. Piston rod using to ensure adequate compression
an adhesive. qualities.
Piston Sealing Ring 4mm cross section, 53mm Neoprene/Synthetic Injection moulded. Held in place on To create a seal between the piston
diameter. Rubber. a groove on the plate and the cylinder.
piston plate by
elastic action.

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12
Pressure Gauge Case - 51.5mm Diameter, 25mm Thermoplastic Case and face are Attached to To register air pressure.
thick. case, clear plastic thermoplastic cylinder by zinc
Face – 50mm Diameter thin sheet. face, painted steel injection mouldings. alloy fitting.
Internals (Bordon Tube) 12mm dial marked in bar Internals of gauge are
wide, 2mm thick. and lbs/in2. fabricated pieces.
Various other screws etc Bordon Tube made Bordon Tube was a
of Brass. fabricated item.
Flexible Tube. 545mm long, 10mm external Neoprene/Synthetic Extruded. Push fit onto To transfer air under pressure from
diameter, 5mm internal diameter. Rubber. pressure gauge the cylinder to the nozzle valve.
and nozzle
valve.
Crimped at
either end using
a steel fitting
Nozzle valve 15mm diameter with a 5mm spigot Zinc alloy and Die Casting. Push fit onto To connect to Schrader type valve.
to fit flexible tube/ 25mm long injection moulded Flexible tube..
with plastic valve fittings. thermoplastic.

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13
Cost:
The selling price of foot pumps vary according to the number of cylinders (one or two) and the
materials used for manufacturing. These prices vary between £5 and £35.
The figure used in case study one could be used in order to determine the other costs of the foot pump.

Reliability:
Foot pumps are portable and field operable. They are not heavy, can be easily transported and can be
stored anywhere. Although using electric pumps could save effort and time, foot pumps could be very
handy in situations where electric drives are not available.

Other considerations:
When using the foot pump it should be put in mind not exceed the pressure that the tire could handle in
order to achieve maximum performance by the tire since exceeding the pressure could result in higher
friction with the breaks (in the case of bicycles).

Potential improvements:
There are no potential improvements in the field of foot pumps since they are really cheap and have not
seen any developments since the 80s. However there are potential improvements in other fields of
pumps that are commonly and widely used than foot pumps.

4. Summary:

This report covers a short introduction on reverse engineering, some materials and manufacturing
processes used for two case studies. These case studies are bicycle bottom bracket and foot pump.
First, the purposes of reverse engineering are straight forward copying a product, improvising an
existing products and producing replaceable parts during maintenance.
Second, the two case studies are usually built from materials such as alloys, polymers, ceramics,
composites, glasses and elastomers. The processes they go through are mainly casting, material
removal, deformation processes and consolidation processes.
The bicycle bottom bracket is a part of the crankset that transfers the motion done by the cyclist’s legs
into rotational motion. There are different types of bottom brackets , however the most common used
type is the cartridge type. Bottom brackets are built out of different parts that go through different
manufacturing processes before being assembled together. The prices of the bracket bottoms vary
according to their materials and manufacturing processes, however they could last for a long time if
used in dry conditions.
Foot pumps are devices used to pump air in tires by applying pressure on the paddle by foot. It operates
using basic simple rules and parts. Different materials and manufacturing process are used to construct
the parts of the foot pump. Nevertheless it is very cheap and handy in case of absence of electrical
devices.

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5. References

[1] http://www.geekinterview.com/question_details/72442

[2] http://www.engineersedge.com/reverse_engineering/reverse_engineering.htm

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science

[5] http://www.engineersedge.com/manufacturing_design.shtml

[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankset

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_bracket

[8] http://www.parktool.com/blog/repair-help/adjustable-type-bottom-bracket-
service

[9] http://www.bbinstitute.com/dl/dx_demo_chapter_13.pdf

[10]
http://www.globalspec.com/LearnMore/Flow_Transfer_Control/Pumps/Hand_Pumps

[11] http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4242060.html

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