Introduction

Let G b a group and let H be a

subgroup of G.
If H is the kernel of a group
homomorphisms   G  G’
then the left cosets of H will be
elements of a group whose binary
operation is derived from the
group operation of G.
Introduction (cont.)
See Tables
+ 0 3 1 4 2 5 K B M

0 0 3 1 4 2 5

3 3 0 4 1 5 2 K K B M

1 1 4 2 5 3 0
B B M K
4 4 1 5 2 0 3

2 2 5 3 0 4 1
M M K B

5 5 2 0 3 1 4
Introduction (Cont.)
Let   G  G’ be a group
homomorphisms with kernel H.
For a  G,
 1   a   x  G |   x     a 

is the left coset aH of H and is also the right

coset Ha of H.
Introduction (Cont.)
Since these left and right cosets of H coincide,
we will simply refer to them as cosets of H.

Now  G  is a group (Property of

Homomorphisms). We associate with each
y  G  the coset  1
 y   x  G |   x     a  .
By renaming y  G  by the name of the
associate coset, that is, by  y  , we can
 1

consider the cosets to form a group.

Introduction (Cont.)
This group will be isomorphic to  G  since it
is just  G  renamed.
In summary, the cosets of the kernel of a
group homomorphisms  : G  G ' form a group
isomorphic to the subgroup  G  of G '.
The binary operation on the cosets can be
computed in terms of the group operation of G .'
This group of cosets is the factor group of G
modulo H, and is denoted by G/H.
Theorem
Let  : G  G ' be a group homomorphisms
with kernel H. Then the cosets of H form a
group, G/H, whose binary operation
defines the product (aH)(bH) of two cosets
by choosing elements a and b from the
cosets, and letting
(aH)(bH) = (ab)H.
Also, the map  : G / H   G  defined by
  aH     a 
is an isomorphisms.
Proof
The first thing we have to worry about is
the definition (aH)(bH) = (ab)H for the
product of two cosets in G/H.

The product is compued by choosing an

lement from each of the cosets aH and bH,
and b finding the coset containing their
product ab.
Proof (cont.)
Any time the definition of something involves
making choices, we should show that the end
result is independent of the choices made.

We say that a thing is well defined if it is

independent of any choices made in its
computation.
Proof (cont.)
Thus we start by showing that
(aH)(bH) = (ab)H
gives a well-defined operation on G/H.

Suppose that ah1  aH and bh2  bH

are two other representative elements from
these cosets.
Proof (cont.)
We must show that  ab  H   ah1bh2  H
that is, that ab and ah1bh2 lie in the same coset
of G/H.

We need only show that

  ab     ah1bh2  .

Recall that   h   e ' for all h  H

Proof (cont.)
Thus
  ah1bh2     a   h1  b   h2 
   a  e '  b  e '
   a   b 
   ab  .

Thus we do indeed have a well-defined

binary operation on G/H.
Proof (cont.)
We now check the group axioms for G/H.
Associative
 aH  bH  cH    aH  bc  H 
  a  bc  H 
  ab  cH 
  ab  H   cH 
  aH  bH   cH  .
Proof (cont.)
Indentity

 aH  eH    ae  H
 aH
  ea  H

  eH  aH  .

So H = eH acts as indentity coset in G/H.

Proof (cont.)
Inverses

     aH 
a 1
H aH  a 1

 eH
  aa 1  H
  aH   a 1 H  .
1
So H is the inverse of aH in G/H.
a
Proof (cont.)
Homomorphisms

   aH  bH       ab  H 
   ab 
   a   b 
   aH    bH  .
Proof (cont.)
One to one
Suppose   aH     bH  . Then   a     b  ,
so that aH and bH are the same coset.

Onto
Let y  G . Then y    x  for some x  G
and   xH     x   y.
Example
Considered the map  :   4

where   m  is the remainder when m is

devided by 4 in accordance with the division
algoritm.

We know that  is a homomorphisms.

Of courses ker    4
Example (cont.)
Considered the map
4  , 8, 4,0,4,8,

1 4  , 7, 3,1,5,9,
2  4  , 6, 2,2,6,10,

3  4  , 5, 1,3,7,11,

We know that  :  / 4  4 is a
isomorphisms.
Example (cont.)

 :  / 4  4
4 0
1  4 1
2  4 2
3  4 3