You have seen quite a few trigonometric identities in the past few pages. It is convenient to have a summary of them for reference. These identities mostly refer to one angle denoted t, but there
are a few of them involving two angles, and for those, the other angle is denoted s..
More important identities
You don't have to know all the identities off the top of your head. But these you should.
Defining relations for tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine.
sin t 1 cos t
tan t = cot t = =
cos t tan t sin t
1 1
sec t = csc t =
cos t sin t
The Pythagorean formula for sines and cosines.
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
Identities expressing trig functions in terms of their complements
cos t = sin( /2 – t) sin t = cos( /2 – t)
cot t = tan( /2 – t) tan t = cot( /2 – t)
csc t = sec( /2 – t) sec t = csc( /2 – t)
Periodicity of trig functions. Sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant have period 2 while tangent and cotangent have period .
sin (t + 2 ) = sin t
cos (t + 2 ) = cos t
tan (t + ) = tan t
Identities for negative angles. Sine, tangent, cotangent, and cosecant are odd functions while cosine and secant are even functions.
sin –t = –sin t
cos –t = cos t
tan –t = –tan t
Sum formulas for sine and cosine
sin (s + t) = sin s cos t + cos s sin t
cos (s + t) = cos s cos t – sin s sin t
Double angle formulas for sine and cosine
sin 2t = 2 sin t cos t
cos 2t = cos2 t – sin2 t = 2 cos2 t – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 t
Less important identities
You should know that there are these identities, but they are not as important as those mentioned above. They can all be derived from those above, but sometimes it takes a bit of work to do so.
The Pythagorean formula for tangents and secants.
sec2 t = 1 + tan2 t
Identities expressing trig functions in terms of their supplements
sin( – t) = sin t
cos( – t) = –cos t
tan( – t) = –tan t
Difference formulas for sine and cosine
sin (s – t) = sin s cos t – cos s sin t
cos (s – t) = cos s cos t + sin s sin t
Sum, difference, and double angle formulas for tangent
tan s + tan t
tan (s + t) =
1 – tan s tan t
tan s – tan t
tan (s – t) =
1 + tan s tan t
2 tan t
tan 2t =
1 – tan2 t
Half-angle formulas
sin t/2 = ± ((1 – cos t) / 2)
cos t/2 = ± ((1 + cos t) / 2)
sin t 1 – cos t
tan t/2 = =
1 + cos t sin t
Truly obscure identities
These are just here for perversity. Yes, of course, they have some applications, but they're usually narrow applications, and they could just as well be forgotten until, if ever, needed.
Product-sum identities
s+t s–t
sin s + sin t = 2 sin cos
2 2
s+t s–t
sin s – sin t = 2 cos sin
2 2
s+t s–t
cos s + cos t = 2 cos cos
2 2
s+t s–t
cos s – cos t = –2 sin sin
2 2
Product identities
sin s cos t = sin (s + t) + sin (s – t) Aside: weirdly enough, these product identities were used before logarithms to perform multiplication. Here's how you could use the second one. If you want to
multiply xtimes y, use a table to look up the angle s whose cosine is x and the angle t whose cosine is y. Look up the cosines of the sum s + t, and the
2
cos (s + t) + cos (s –
cos s cos t = t)
difference s – t. Average those two cosines. You get the product xy! Three table look-ups, and computing a sum, a difference, and an average rather than one multiplication.
2
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), among others, used this algorithm known as prosthaphaeresis.
cos (s – t) – cos (s + t
sin s sin t = )
2
Triple angle formulas. You can easily reconstruct these from the addition and double angle formulas.
sin 3t = 3 sin t – 4 sin3 t
cos 3t = 4 cos3 t –3 cos t
3 tan t – tan3t
tan 3t =
1 – 3 tan2t
More half-angle formulas. (These are used in calculus for a particular kind of substitution in integrals sometimes called the Weierstrass t-substitution.)
2 tan t/2 1 – tan2 t/2 2 tan t/2
sin t = cos t = tan t =
1 + tan2 t/2 1 + tan2 t/2 1 – tan2 t/2
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
5 1 2√5
5 5
π 18 2π
– 72
10 5 5
4 8 8
cos (18°) = [0; 1, 9, [2, 8]]
2
tan2(18°) = [0; 9, [2,8]]
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos2(22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
√3 √3
3
π 30 = 2 3 60
π
6 4 3
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]] tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3] tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
√5 1
3 √5
+ √
π 36 4 4 = + 5 – 2√5 3π
54
5 8 8 tan2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]] 10
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π 54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
π 60 1 √3 30 π
1 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]]
3 6
= tan2(60°) = 3
2
4
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
2 – √2 4 √
8 1 + √2
3π 67· = tan(67·5) = [2; [2]]
22· π
8 5 – 5 8
2 tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
8 8
cos (67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
2
√5 1
3 √5
√
–
2π
72 4 4 = –
5 + 2√5
18
π
5 8 8 10
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]] tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π
75 4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos (75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
2
11
π
82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5
π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
The √(2 ± Phi) pattern
1
cos(
=
9°)
+ 2+Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2+Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2
18°)
+
1
cos(
=
27°)
+ 2–φ
1 1 Φ
cos( 2 2+φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2 = 2
36°)
+
1 1
2 2
cos(
= =
54°)
2
2–φ
–2 – Φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
63°)
–
1 1 φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
72°)
2
2–Φ
–2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2+Φ
81°)
–
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
3. This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
Tom Ace pointed out that there is more about this in chapter 15 of Oystein Ore's Number Theory and Its History from 1948 and now
available as a Dover book(1988). A Table of Exact Trig values
that are expressible as simple terms involving square-roots.
a b
rad deg
cos(a) tan(a) deg rad
ian ree sin(b) cot(b) ree ian
s s s s
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
1√ 5 √
05 5
+ 1 2√5
+
π 18 8 8 2π
= – 72
10 2 5 5
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos2(22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
√3 √3
3
π 30 = 2 3 60
π
6 4 3
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]] tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3] tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
√5 1
3 √5
+ √
π 36 4 4 = + 5 – 2√5 3π
54
5 8 8 tan2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]] 10
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π
54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
1
1
√3
π 60 = 2 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]] 30
π
3 4 tan2(60°) = 3 6
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
3π 67· 1 + √2 22· π
2 – √2
8 5 4 8
tan(67·5) = [2; [2]] 5 8
= tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
–
2
8 8
cos (67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
2
√5 1
3 √5
√
–
2π 72 4 4 = –
5 + 2√5
18
π
5 8 8 10
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]] tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π 75
4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos (75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
2
11
π 82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5 π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
2 2
cos(
= =
18°)
2
2+Φ
+2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
27°)
+
1 1 Φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
36°)
2
2+φ
+2 – Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2–φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2
54°)
–
1
cos(
=
63°)
– 2–φ
1 1 φ
cos( 2 2–Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2 = 2
72°)
–
1
cos(
=
81°)
– 2+Φ
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
1√ 5 √
05 5
+ 1 2√5
π 18 + = 8 8 72
2π
10 – 5 5
2
tan2(18°) = [0; 9, [2,8]]
4
cos2(18°) = [0; 1, 9, [2, 8]]
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos (22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
2
π 30 √3 √3 60 π
3
= 3
6 4 2 3
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]]
tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3]
tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
√5 1
3 √5
+ √
π 36 4 4 = + 5 – 2√5 3π
54
5 8 8 tan2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]] 10
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos (36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
2
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π
54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
1
1
√3
π 60 = 2 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]] 30
π
3 4 tan2(60°) = 3 6
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
3π 67· 1 + √2 22· π
2 – √2 √
8 5 4 8
tan(67·5) = [2; [2]] 5 8
tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
= –
2
8 8
cos2(67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
√5 1
3 √5
√
–
2π 72 4 4 = –
5 + 2√5
18
π
5 8 8 10
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]] tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π 75
4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos2(75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
11
π 82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5 π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
2 2
cos(
= =
18°)
2
2+Φ
+2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
27°)
+
1 1 Φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
36°)
2
2+φ
+2 – Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2–φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2
54°)
–
1
cos(
=
63°)
– 2–φ
1 1 φ
cos( 2 2–Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2 = 2
72°)
–
1
cos(
=
81°)
– 2+Φ
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
What angles have an exact expression for their sines, cosines and tangents? You might know that cos(60°)=1/2 and sin(60°)=√3/2 as well as
tan(45°)=1, but are 30, 45 and 60 the only angles up to 90° with a formula for their trig values? No! There are lots more but not all angles have exact
epxressions.
Which angles do? What patterns are there in these expressions? This page shows expressions for many angles and even solves the complete problem of
which angles do and which don't have exact trig expressions.
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
1√ 5 √
05 5
+ 1 2√5
+
π 18 8 8 2π
= – 72
10 2 5 5
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos2(22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
√3 √3
3
π 30 = 2 3 60
π
6 4 3
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]] tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3] tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
π 36 √5 1 √ 54 3π
+ = 3 √5 5 – 2√5
5 10
tan2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]]
4 4
8 + 8
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos (36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
2
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π 54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
1
1
√3
π 60 = 2 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]] 30
π
3 4 tan2(60°) = 3 6
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
2 – √2 4 √
8 1 + √2
3π 67· = tan(67·5) = [2; [2]]
22· π
8 5 – 5 8
2 tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
8 8
cos (67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
2
√5 1
3 √5
√
–
2π
72 4 4 = –
5 + 2√5
18
π
5 8 8 10
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]] tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π 75
4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos2(75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
11
π 82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5 π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
2 2
cos(
= =
18°)
2
2+Φ
+2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
27°)
+
1 1 Φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
36°)
2
2+φ
+2 – Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2–φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2
54°)
–
1
cos(
=
63°)
– 2–φ
1 1 φ
cos( 2 2–Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2 = 2
72°)
–
1
cos(
=
81°)
– 2+Φ
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
Tom Ace pointed out that there is more about this in chapter 15 of Oystein Ore's Number Theory and Its History from 1948 and now available as a
Dover book(1988).
What angles have an exact expression for their sines, cosines and tangents? You might know that cos(60°)=1/2 and sin(60°)=√3/2 as well as
tan(45°)=1, but are 30, 45 and 60 the only angles up to 90° with a formula for their trig values? No! There are lots more but not all angles have exact
epxressions.
Which angles do? What patterns are there in these expressions? This page shows expressions for many angles and even solves the complete problem of
which angles do and which don't have exact trig expressions.
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
1√ 5 √
05 5
+ 1 2√5
+
π 18 8 8 2π
= – 72
10 2 5 5
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos2(22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
π 30 √3 √3 60 π
3
6 3
= 2 3
4
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]] tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3] tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
√5 1
3 √5
+ √
π 36 4 4 = + 5 – 2√5 3π
54
5 8 8 tan (36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]]
2 10
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π 54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
1
1
√3
π 60 = 2 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]] 30
π
3 4 tan2(60°) = 3 6
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
2 – √2 4 √
8 1 + √2
3π 67· = tan(67·5) = [2; [2]]
22· π
8 5 – 5 8
2 tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
8 8
cos2(67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
2π 72 √5 1 √ 18 π
– 3 √5 5 + 2√5
5 = 10
4 4
8 – 8
tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π 75
4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos (75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
2
11
π 82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5 π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
2 2
cos(
= =
18°)
2
2+Φ
+2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
27°)
+
1 1 Φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
36°)
2
2+φ
+2 – Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2–φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2
54°)
–
1
cos(
=
63°)
– 2–φ
1 1 φ
cos( 2 2–Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2 = 2
72°)
–
1
cos(
=
81°)
– 2+Φ
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
Tom Ace pointed out that there is more about this in chapter 15 of Oystein Ore's Number Theory and Its History from 1948 and now available as a
Dover book(1988).
If you are printing this page and the horizontal lines of fractions or the square-roots do not appear, make sure you have the "Print Images" and "Print
Background" options checked when your browser's printing window appears.
What angles have an exact expression for their sines, cosines and tangents? You might know that cos(60°)=1/2 and sin(60°)=√3/2 as well as
tan(45°)=1, but are 30, 45 and 60 the only angles up to 90° with a formula for their trig values? No! There are lots more but not all angles have exact
epxressions.
Which angles do? What patterns are there in these expressions? This page shows expressions for many angles and even solves the complete problem of
which angles do and which don't have exact trig expressions.
0 0 1 0 90
π
2
11
π 7.5 √6 – √3 + √2 – 2 82.
π
24 (√2 – 1)(√3 – √2) 5
24
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
+ 3 12 2 – √3
π 15 5π
4 4 = + = + tan(15°) = [0; 3, [1, 2]] 75
12 tan2(15°) = [0; 13, [1, 12]] 12
2 4 8 8
cos2(15°) = [0; 1, 13, [1, 12]]
1√ 5 √
05 5
+ 1 2√5
π 18 + = 8 8 72
2π
10 – 5 5
2
tan2(18°) = [0; 9, [2,8]]
4
cos2(18°) = [0; 1, 9, [2, 8]]
2 + √2 4 √
8 √2 – 1
π 22· 67· 3π
= + tan(22·5) = [0; [2]]
8 5 2 5 8
tan2(22·5) = [0; 5, [1,4]]
8 8
cos (22·5°) = [0; 1, 5, [1, 4]]
2
π 30 √3 √3 60 π
3
= 3
6 4 2 3
cos(30°) = [0; 1, 6, [2, 6]]
tan(30°) = [0; 1, [1,2]]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3]
tan2(30°) = [0; 3]
√5 1
3 √5
+ √
π 36 4 4 = + 5 – 2√5 3π
54
5 8 8 tan2(36°) = [0; 1, 1, [8, 2]] 10
cos(36°) = [0; 1, [4]]
cos (36°) = [0; 1, 1, 1, [8, 2]]
2
5π 37. √6 + √3 – √2 – 2 52. 7π
24 5 (√2 + 1)(√3 – √2) 5 24
1
2
π 45 = √2 1 45
π
4 4 2
cos(45°) = [0; 1, [2]]
cos2(45°) = [0; 2]
5
7π 52. √6 – √3 – √2 + 2 52.
π
24 5 (√2 – 1)(√3 + √2) 5
24
1√ 5 √
05 5
– 1 2√5
–
3π
54 = 8 8 36
π
10 + 5 5
2
tan2(54°) = [1; 1, [8, 2]]
4
cos2(54°) = [0; 2, 1, [8, 2]]
1
1
√3
π 60 = 2 tan(60°) = [1; [1,2]] 30
π
3 4 tan2(60°) = 3 6
cos(60°) = [0; 2]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
3π 67· 1 + √2 22· π
2 – √2 √
8 5 4 8
tan(67·5) = [2; [2]] 5 8
tan2(67·5) = [5; [1,4]]
= –
2
8 8
cos2(67·5) = [0; 6, [1, 4]]
√5 1
3 √5
√
–
2π 72 4 4 = –
5 + 2√5
18
π
5 8 8 10
cos(72°) = [0; 3, [4]] tan2(72°) = [9; [2, 8]]
cos2(72°) = [0; 10, [2, 8] ]
√6 √2
1 √ 4 √
– 3 12 2 + √3
5π 75
4 4 = = tan(75°) = [3; [1, 2]] 15
π
12 – – 12
tan2(75°) = [13; [1,12]]
2 4 8 8
cos2(75°) = [0; 14, [1, 12]]
11
π 82. √6 + √3 + √2 + 2
7.5 π
5 (√2 + 1)(√3 + √2) 24
24
π 90 0 Infinity 0 0
2
The values in the table are those angles of the form n° or n/2 or n/3 for a whole number n, between 0 and 90° whose sin or cosine is rational, or whose
continued fraction is periodic or the square of the trig value has a periodic continued fraction.
1
Continued fraction [a; b,c,d,...] means a +
1
b+
1
c+
d
+ ...
and the periodic continued fraction [a;b, c, d, e, d, e, d, e, d, e,...] is written as [a; b, c, [d, e]].
Trig functions of Angles <0 or >90°
Top of Form
To find the trig. values of all angles including those bigger than 90 degrees and negative angles:
1. select a trig function
2. type the angle in the box and then
3. click on the button
to find which angle in the range 0-90° has the same value:
Select a trig function:
( °)
Degrees-Radians Converter
To convert between DEGREES and RADIANS:
1. enter the angle as a number in one box leaving the other empty
2. then click the button to do the conversion
You can use Pi in the radians box and * for multiplication e.g. 3*Pi/2:
degrees radians
Bottom of Form
Patterns
The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest of the sines (cosines):
Angl sine Angl
e cosine e
√4
90 = 1 0
2
√3
60 30
2
√2 = 1
45 45
2 √2
√1 = 1
30 60
2 2
√0
0 =0 90
2
2 2
cos(
= =
18°)
2
2+Φ
+2 + φ
1
cos( 2
= 2 2–φ
27°)
+
1 1 Φ
2 2 2
cos(
= = =
36°)
2
2+φ
+2 – Φ
1 1
cos( 2 2–φ
= 2 2–Φ = 2
54°)
–
1
cos(
=
63°)
– 2–φ
1 1 φ
cos( 2 2–Φ
= 2 2+φ = 2 = 2
72°)
–
1
cos(
=
81°)
– 2+Φ
This pattern uses the identities
phi = φ = √2 – Φ and Phi = Φ = √2 + φ
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of
4.5°, 13.5°, etc.
The √(2 ± √u) pattern
Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:
An cosine An An cosine An
gle sine gle gle sine gle
√2 – √4 = √2 – Phi
90 0 72 18
0
2 2
√2 – √3 √2 – phi
75 15 54 36
2 2
√2 – √1 1 √2 + Phi
60 = 30 18 72
2 2 2
√2 – √0 1
45 = 45
2 √2
√2 + √1 √3
30 = 60
2 2
22. √2 + √2 67.
5 5
2
√2 + √3
15 75
2
√2 + √4 =
0 90
1
2
The table on the right has values of u that are Phi2 = 2.618033.. and phi2 = 0.381966..
Proofs
30° 45° and 60°
Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length √2. This Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of length 2,
gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. then when we cut it in half as shown, the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles with a side of length 1
and a hypotenuse of length 2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we can read off the sin cos and
tan of both 30° and 60°.
The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.
The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)
For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1) = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2
Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator. Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a
to make two right-angled triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the
sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:
Ailles Rectangle
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school
teacher). It is easy to remember because it is two (green) 45° right-angled triangles stuck onto the sides of a (white) 30-60-90
triangle and the rectangle completed with a (yellow) 15-75-90 triangle on the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle as shown here.
The 30-60-90 sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45-45-90 triangles, it is quite easy to see that x is √3/√2 and
y is 1/√2 from which we can read off the sines and cosines of 15° and 75°.
Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such as:
sin(x) = cos(90° – x) sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1
ta sin(x) co 1 cos(x)
n( t(x
x) =
)= tan(x) sin(x)
= cos(x)
tan 1 cot2(x 1
sin(x) = a / h 2(x )+1
cos(x) = b / ) + =
h 1 sin2(x)
cos2(x)
tan(x) = a / b =
cot(x) = b / a
If we know the value of a trig function on two angles A and B, we can determine the trig function values of their sum and difference using the following
identities:
sin( A + B ) = sin(A)cos(B) + cos(A)sin(B) tan(A) + tan(B)
tan(A + B) =
sin( A – B ) = sin(A)cos(B) – cos(A)sin(B) 1 – tan(A) tan(B)
cos( A + B ) = cos(A)cos(B) – sin(A)sin(B) tan(A) – tan(B)
tan(A – B) =
cos( A – B ) = cos(A)cos(B) + sin(A)sin(B) 1 + tan(A) tan(B)
If the two angles are the same (i.e. A=B) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle. Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or
cosine of half an angle:
sin( 2A ) = 2 sin(A) cos(A) A
cos( 2A ) = 1 – 2 sin2(A) si 1 – cos(A)
cos( 2A ) = cos2(A) – sin2(A) n =
cos( 2A ) = 2 cos2(A) – 1 2 2
A
c 1 + cos(A)
o
=
s 2 2
ta 2 tan(A) A sin(A) 1 – cos(A)
n
( 2 1 + cos(A) sin(A)
2
A
) 1 – tan2(A)
t
a = =
n
Use the above theorem to find three points on the circle ABOVE this Things To Do section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°
2
√
co 2√2√
s
16 2
= + +
2
√
co √
s 2 2√
32 2√
2
= +++
2
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand on this except to say that it shows how we can
always find an exact expression for the sine (or cosine) of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ..., 1/2 , ... of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.
n
Superimposing
If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre, construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each
having one vertex in common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each having a vertex in common with the red triangle and
the regular 15-gon appears in yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-gon (if P and Q have no factors in common
otherwise more than one vertex of each will coincide).
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
Tom Ace pointed out that there is more about this in chapter 15 of Oystein Ore's Number Theory and Its History from 1948 and now available as a
Dover book(1988).
If you are printing this page and the horizontal lines of fractions or the square-roots do not appear, make sure you have the "Print Images" and "Print
Background" options checked when your browser's printing window appears.
ll this was known in Euclid's time, around the year 300 BC. So what about 7ths and 9ths? Is it possible to find sines and cosines of all the multiples of 1/7
and 1/9 of a turn in exact terms (using square roots)? What about 11ths and 12ths etc.?
In the next 2000 years no one found an exact geometric method for 7-gons or 9-gons but also no one had proved it was impossible to construct such
regular polygons.
Then C F Gauss completely solved the problem while he was a student at Göttingen between 1795 and 1798. Gauss found the conditions on n and its the
prime factors to solve two equivalent problems:
• drawing a regular n-sided polygon using only a straight edge and compass and
• expressing the cos and sin of 360/n° using only square roots.
If we factor n as 2ap1bp2c..., i.e. a, b, c, ... are the powers of n's prime factors: 2, p1, p2, ... (the prime's power is 0 if it is not a factor of n) then both of
the problems are solvable when
• b,c,... and all the powers except a, the power of 2, must be 1, and
• the primes>2 that are factors of n (that is p1, p2, ...) must be of the form 22 +1 for some number k.
k
Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.
Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the form 22 +1 begins
k k
However not every number of the form 22 + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must have as factors of n.
k
The next one, 22 + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know if there are any more primes of this form
5
17 16
wher√ an √
e S 34 – 2√17 d T 34 + 2√17
= =
Things to do
1. From the five 'starting values' above: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537 we can multiply these and also double any number to get a constructible polygon or an angle with a sine which
involves nothing more than square-roots. Don't forget that we can double 2 to get 4 (a square), 8 (octagon), 16, etc too but we cannot use any of the 5 odd primes more than
once in any product (so 3x3=9 and 5x5=25 are not in the list but 3x5x7 is). A complete list will involve these five numbers of course together with their products 3x5=15,
3x17=51, ... and you can double any of these any number of times:
2x3=6, 2x15=30 as well as 2x6=12, 2x12=24,... .
a. What are the first 12 values in the list that starts 3, 4, 5, ...?
b. Check that there are 24 values (excluding 1 and 2) less than 100.
c. Is 100 in the list?
2. From the five known values: 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537, there are a finite number of odd numbers n for which sin(360/n°) can be written with square-roots alone i.e. products of
these 5 numbers where no number can be used more than once.
How many odd numbers (excluding 1) can you make using these 5 no more than once in each product?
This is the total number of known polygons we can construct with ruler and compass or which have a sine (cosine) formed from nothing more than square-roots.
With thanks to Richard Duffy for suggesting this puzzle
3. Pythagorean Identities
4.
5.
6. Addition Formulas
7.
8.
9. Subtraction formulas
10.
11.
15.Half-Angle Formulas
16.
17.
18.Product Formulas
19.
20.
21.Factoring Formulas
22.
23.The following two formulas are of only limited use:
24.
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
Angle addition formulas express trigonometric functions of sums of angles in terms of functions of and . The fundamental formulas of angle addition in trigonometry are given by
(1
(2
(3
(4
(5
)
(6
The first four of these are known as the prosthaphaeresis formulas, or sometimes as Simpson's formulas.
The sine and cosine angle addition identities can be compactly summarized by the matrix equation
(7
These formulas can be simply derived using complex exponentials and the Euler formula as follows.
(8)
(9)
(10
(11
Equating real and imaginary parts then gives (1) and (3), and (2) and (4) follow immediately by substituting for .
Taking the ratio of (1) and (3) gives the tangent angle addition formula
(12
(13
(14
)
(15
(16
(17
(18
(19
)
(20
(21
(22
(23
(24
(25
The angle addition formulas can also be derived purely algebraically without the use of complex numbers. Consider the small right triangle in the figure above, which gives
(26
(27
Now, the usual trigonometric definitions applied to the large right triangle give
(28
(29
)
(30
(31
Solving these two equations simultaneously for the variables and then immediately gives
(32
(33
These can be put into the familiar forms with the aid of the trigonometric identities
(34
and
(35
(36
(37
(38
which can be verified by direct multiplication. Plugging (◇) into (◇) and (38) into (◇) then gives
(39
(40
as before.
A similar proof due to Smiley and Smiley uses the left figure above to obtain
(41
(42
(43
so
(44
Similar diagrams can be used to prove the angle subtraction formulas (Smiley 1999, Smiley and Smiley). In the figure at left,
(45
(46
(47
giving
(48
(49
(50
)
(51
giving
(52
A more complex diagram can be used to obtain a proof from the identity (Ren 1999). In the above figure, let . Then
(53
An interesting identity relating the sum and difference tangent formulas is given by
(54
(55