Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction among Information Center Employees

Author(s): Magid Igbaria and Tor Guimaraes

Source: Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 9, No. 4 (Spring, 1993), pp. 145-174
Published by: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
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 and Consequencesof
Antecedents
amongInformation
JobSatisfaction
CenterEmployees

MAGID IGB ARIA AND TOR GUIMARÃES

Magid Igbaria is a Professor ofMIS intheCollegeofBusinessandAdministration

atDrexelUniversity. He holdsa B.A. in statistics
andbusinessadministration andan
M.A. in information systemsand operations researchfromHebrewUniversity. He
receivedhisPh.D. in computers andinformation systems fromTel AvivUniversity.
Formerly, he lecturedat Tel AvivUniversity, HebrewUniversity, and Ben-Gurion
Universityin and
Israel, actedas theadministrativedirector
of theCenter ofManage-
mentInformation Systems(CEMIS) atTel AvivUniversity. He haspublishedarticles
on management of IS functions, economicsof computers, computerperformance
evaluation,chargingof computerservices,compumetrical approachesin IS, IS
careers,internationalIS, andmicrocomputers inbusinessinAppliedStatistics,Com-
munications of theACM, and
Computers Operations Research, Decision Sciences,
Information Systems Research,Information & Management, INFOR, International
JournalofMan-MachineStudies,JournalofEngineering and Technology Manage-
ment,Omega,MIS Quarterly, and others.His current researchinterestsfocuson
information
international systems,management ofinformation systems,careerdevel-
opmentofIS professionals, andend-user computing.

Tor Guimarães holdstheJ.E.OwenChairofExcellenceinInformation Systemsat

TennesseeTechnologicalUniversity. He has a Ph.D. in MIS fromtheUniversity of
Minnesotaand an M.B.A. fromCaliforniaStateUniversity, Los Angeles.He was a
professorand chairmanof theMIS department at St. Cloud StateUniversity, and
beforethatan assistant
professor anddirectorof theMIS Certificate
Program atCase
WesternReserveUniversity. He has spokenat numerousmeetingssponsoredby
organizations
professional including ACM, IEEE, ASM, DPMA, INFOMART,and
Sales and Marketing Executives.He has consultedon severalIS topicswithmany
leadingorganizations includingTRW, AmericanGreetings, AT&T, IBM, and the
Department of Defense. He has publishedover fiftyarticlesin leadingjournalssuch
as Communications of theACM, DecisionSciences, Information SystemsResearch,
MIS Quarterly, Omega, Computers and Operations Research, & Man-
Information
agement, andData Base.

Abstract: The determinantsand consequencesofjob satisfactionforInformation

to
despitetheirimportance
Center(IC) personnelhavereceivedverylittleattention,
and
thesuccessfulimplementation use ofcomputer in This
technology organizations.
Acknowledgment: An earlierversionof thispaperappearedin theProceedingsoftheACM
Special Groupon Computer
Interest PersonnelResearchConference, Ohio,April
Cincinnati,
1992,AssociationforComputing
5-7, 1992. Copyright Machinery, Inc.

JournalofManagement /Spring1993,Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 145-174

Systems
Information
Copyright© M.E. Sharpc,Inc.,1993
146 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

studyexplorestheantecedents andconsequences ofjob satisfaction

forIC employees.
Fivecomponents - work,supervision,
ofjob satisfaction coworkers,pay,andpromo-
tion- wereexaminedbesidesoveralljob satisfaction. - role
Two stressvariables
ambiguity -
androleconflict wereconsidered as antecedentstosatisfaction.
Organi-
zationalcommitment and intention to leave theorganization were consideredas
outcomesfromjob satisfaction. The studyalso assessedtheimportance of personal
as moderating
characteristics variablesto the relationship betweenthe two role
andjob satisfaction.
Stressors Resultsshowthatroleambiguity wasthemostdysfunc-
tionalvariableforIC employeesinrelationtojob satisfaction. Organizationaltenure
was foundto moderatethe relationships betweenrole Stressors and overalljob
and someof itscomponents.
satisfaction, In addition,therelationshipbetweenrole
ambiguity andsomecomponents ofjob satisfaction werefoundtobe education- and
age-dependent. Resultsalso confirmedthe of
importance job in
satisfaction predicting
organizationalcommitment andintention forIC management
to leave. Implications
andfuture researcharediscussed.

Key words and phrases: information

center,information infor-
centerpersonnel,
mationsystemsmanagement, intention
to leave, job satisfaction,
organizational
commitment.

The growth of end-usercomputing(EUC) represented a significant develop-

mentin theinformation systems(IS) fieldin the1980s [14,41]. This phenomenon
was drivenby manyforcessuch as sharpdecreasesin the price of computing
equipment(particularly thatofmicrocomputers), an increasein thepowerand sim-
plicityofnew software, theIS department's traditional
systems development backlog,
andimprovements intheavailability andcapability ofcommunication networks. The
resulthas beenan enormousproliferation of microcomputers amonguserswhoare
notIS professionals andthegrowth ofmainframe-based usercomputing [18,21, 51].
In the1980smuchcomputing responsibilityshiftedtoward theusercommunity, with
a trendforIS tomoveoutofitsglasshouseintotheusergroupsindifferent functional
areas.In thiscase, usershavedirectcontroloverdevelopingtheirown applications
andoperating computers tomeettheirneeds.TheroleoftheIS/ICpeopleis tosupport
theusercommunity byoffering a widerangeofservicesincluding training,consulting,
andhardware/software selectionandsupport[24].
In 1974IBM-Canadaaddressedtheneedforproviding enduserswithdirect, ready
accesstoinformation processing resourcesthrough a central [32].Information
facility
centers(IC) werecreatedtoprovidethenecessary support,suchas training,consulting,
and hardware and software support.The idea is to assistend usersto developtheir
ownapplications accessingdataon theirowntermsto solvetheirbusinessproblems
[19]. As end-usercomputing activitiesgrowand becomeincreasingly important to
organizations [39,58],so doestheneedforusersupport (e.g.,training,
coaching,help
desk).The AmericanManagement Association[4] reported that58 percentof large
companiessurveyed alreadyhada discreteunittosupport end-user computing.
In manyorganizations ICs haveevolvedovertime[38] andcontinuetochange.In
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 147

a recentsurveyofCrwthComputer Courseware[30],65 percent ofrespondents report

thattherole of theirIC is changingin someway.Respondents are evenlydivided
aboutwhethertheirIC's role is risingor decreasing.Fortypercentreportedsome
functions beingshifted to otherpartsof theorganization and thattraining, product
specialists,and applicationdevelopment are understaffed and overworked. Most
organizations (58 percent)are keepingactiveIC organizations, 6 percenthavedis-
bandedtheirIC as inappropriate to theirneeds,34 percentdo not have one and
presently have no plans for one, and 2 percentwillestablishan IC in thenearfuture
[30]. Similarly, Roberts [81] and others [53] reported thatIC activity is growing.In
thisstudy,theterm"IC" is broadlydefinedto includeall personnelwhoseprimary
function is tosupport end-user computing (coaching,helpdesk).Thesenewpersonnel
rolesmayormaynotbe performed centrally through a formalorganizational subunit
withinMIS departments.
It is widelyrecognizedthatinformation systemsemployeesrepresent a valuable
resource, criticalto thesuccessfulimplementation anduse ofsophisticated informa-
tiontechnology inorganizations [5, 18,19,25,30,55,69,78,83,92]. Majorproblems
aretherisingpersonnel costsrelativetoequipment costs[2],andhighratesofturnover
amongtheIS employeesin generalandIC staffinparticular [11,60, 79]. In a recent
the of
study, importance appropriate staffing to IC performance was emphasized.A
competent staff, good communications with end and
users, top-management support
werejudgedto be themostimportant criticalsuccessfactorsforIC managers[61].
More recently, it was reported that"ICs are understaffed and by inference, over-
worked"[30,p. 11].
Thejob satisfaction ofIS personnelhasbeenaddressedbyseveralstudies[e.g.,9,
34, 50]. One wouldhopethatmuchofthefindings willbe applicabletoIC personnel.
However, there is considerable evidence that IC personnel differ fromIS employees
on a number ofdemographic andmotivational factors[19,40, 42, 60, 74, 78]. There
is also evidencethatIC personnel facelimitedadvancement, especiallyintoseniorIS
andnon-ISpositionswithintheirorganizations. The limited advancement opportuni-
tiesand thenegativesalarydifferentials are thought to be responsibleforsomeIC
personnel dissatisfaction withtheir jobs [19,78]. Thesefindings havemajorimplica-
tionsforthe management of IC and further highlight the need to examinethe
antecedents andoutcomesofjob satisfaction forIC personnel. However,theresearch
onIC hasmainlybeenconcentrated ondescribing thegeneralconceptofIC, searching
fortheidealmodelinthefield,orexploring thecriticalsuccessfactors forIC managers
61
[18,38,45, ,93] . Some researchers may have investigated some IC personnel issues
(e.g., [39]), butnonehas focused attention on the antecedents and consequencesof
job satisfaction amongIC personnel.
Thepresent studyhastwomajorobjectives. Thefirst is toinvestigate theantecedents
as wellas theconsequencesofjob satisfaction among IC staff.Specifically, thestudy
sought to examine whether the kinds of antecedents and outcomes of job satisfaction
forIS personnelreported byBaroudi[9] arealso trueforindividuals in theIC area.
The secondmajorobjectiveis toexamineIC job satisfaction as a wholeandin terms
ofitsfivedimensions: theworkitself, supervision, coworkers, pay,andpromotion, as
148 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

bytheJobDescriptive
prescribed Index(JDI) [86]. The JDI was selectedbecauseit
is viewedby manyinvestigators as one of the mostthoroughly researchedand
developedmeasures of itskind[90], and because,in termsof bothpredictivepower
and constructvalidity,thefivecomponents of job satisfaction
have shownstrong
withotherimportant
relationships variablessuchas organizational commitment and
to leave. The modelused in thisstudy,its component
intention variables,and the
proposedrelationshipsamongthesevariablesarediscussedin thefollowing section.

A Model of Job Satisfaction

The job satisfaction of IS personnel hasbeenstudied widely[9,23,27,28,34,35,

50].Theconceptofjob satisfaction hasintrinsic value.Overalljob satisfaction wasfound
toberelated toother important factors
like turnover and performance [9,34,35,50].While
job satisfaction ispositivelyrelatedtojobperformance, itisnegatively related toturnover.
Despitetheirimportance, themultivariate linkagesamongthesevariables, inparticular
themoderating effectofpersonal variables suchas age,gender, organizational tenure, and
education, have receivedlittleattentionin the IS literature.
The modelproposedandtestedbyBaroudi[9] tostudytheturnover intention ofIS
professionals was modified slightlyfor this to
study distinguish the five components
of job satisfaction. The presentstudysoughtto extendthepreviousfindingsby
undertaking a morefine-grained analysisoftherelationships amongroleStressors, job
satisfaction,organizational commitment, andturnover intentions among IC personnel.
Additionally, thestudysoughttoassesstheroleofpersonaldifferences as moderating
variablestotherelationships betweenrolestressandjob satisfaction.
Figure1 presentsthemodelofjob satisfaction examinedin thisstudy.The model
is comprisedof fourvariablegroups:(1) tworoleStressor variables:roleambiguity
and role conflict;(2) personalcharacteristics; (3) job satisfaction; and (4) career
outcomes:organizational commitment andintention toleave.Roleambiguity hasbeen
definedas thedegreetowhichclearinformation is lackingregarding (a) the expecta-
tionsassociatedwitha role,(b) themethodsof fulfilling knownroleexpectations,
and/or (c) theconsequencesofroleperformance [36,54]. Role conflict is definedas
of the
incongruity expectations associated with a role [88]. Itreflectsthe incompatible
expectations concerningtherole. Job satisfaction refersto theprimaryaffective
reactionsof individualsto variousfacetsof thejob and to job experiences[59].
Organizational commitment reflectsone's evaluationoftheorganization as a whole,
and encompassesthreedimensions:a strongbelief in and acceptanceof the
organization's goalsandvalues,willingness toexertconsiderable effort on behalfof
theorganization, anda strong desiretomaintain membership intheorganization [76].
Intention toleaverefers totheindividual'sperceivedlikelihoodthathe orshewillbe
stayingorleavingtheemployer organization.
The modelin figure1 positsthat(1) roleStressor variableswillbe directly related
tojob satisfaction andorganizational commitment; (2) the of
relationship job satisfac-
tionto role Stressor variableswill be moderated by personalcharacteristics of IC
employees;(3) job satisfaction willdirectly affectorganizational commitment; and
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 149

frJ Organizational
I Commitment I

i
Job SatisfactionFacets:
• JOIWork
S ' V
1
Role Stressors: • Supervision
| • J[>¡ J to
intention
Role Ambiguity T+* JDI Co workers H
' lnt¿nt£nt0
L_Laaye 1
Role Conflict ' •JDIPay
1 ,
• JOIPromotion
OverallJob Satisfaction

PersonalVariables:
Gender
Ag*
OrganizationalTenure
Education

andConsequencesofJobSatisfaction
Figure1. Antecedents

(4) job satisfaction will have directand indirect effectson behavioralintentions to

leave theorganization.
The tworole-basedStressors werereported to be negatively associatedwithjob
satisfactionand organizational commitment amongIS employeesandothers[9, 12,
17, 35, 48, 50, 63, 88]. As a result of insufficient information to perform thejob
adequately, conflicting of
orunclearexpectations peers, extensive job pressures, lack
of consensuson job functions or duties,or ambiguity of performance evaluation
methods,employees feel less satisfied with their job and less committed to their
organization. Keller[56] foundthatroleconflictis inversely relatedto satisfaction
regarding and
pay,supervision, promotion but thatit is unrelated tosatisfaction with
workand/or coworkers. Keller[56] also foundthatroleambiguity is inversely related
to satisfaction withwork,but is unrelatedto satisfaction withpay, coworkers,
supervision, and promotion. Goldstein and Rockart [35] found amonga sampleof
programmers/analysts inverse correlations between role conflict and generaljob
satisfaction,satisfaction withcoworkers and with supervision. Baroudi [9] andIgbaria
[50] lookedat theoveralljob satisfaction of IS professionals and reported thatrole
ambiguity and role conflict are inversely relatedto job satisfaction and commitment.
Thesefindings andothers suggest that(1) a general measure of"jobsatisfaction" might
notsufficiently discriminate the
among potential outcomes ofroleStressors, and(2) role
Stressorsmight havedirecteffects oneachofthefivecomponents ofjob satisfaction, as
well as on overalljob satisfaction and organizational commitment Indeed,current
conceptualmodelsand empirical studies[9, 15, 17, 26] positthattheeffectof role
ambiguity and roleconflict on intention toleaveis mediated bysatisfaction andcommit-
mentThereis no evidencethatrole Stressorshave direct on
effects turnover intentions,
independent ofjob satisfaction and/or organizational commitment Itistherefore predicted
thatroleStressors arenegatively related tosatisfactionandcommitment
Stressresearchers haveproposeda number ofpersonalvariablesas moderators of
people's responses to role Stressors. Four personal variables were selected for this
studybecausetheireffect inmoderating job satisfaction hasbeenpreviously demon-
150 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

strated[13,72,85,88]. Schuler[84]reported thatemployees* ability(operationalized

as educationand/orlengthof servicein theorganization) is a significantmoderator
fortherelationship betweenrolestressandjob satisfaction. Based on thisevidence,
we proposethateducationand organizational tenurewillmoderaterelationships of
thetworoleStressors withjob satisfaction.
Genderis thethirdpersonalvariableused as moderator in thiscase. Empirical
researchtodaterevealsinconclusive resultsconcerning therelationship ofemployee
gender to rolestress and job satisfaction.Tung [87] reported that women experienced
lowerlevels of job-relatedstressthanmen.However,othershave foundhigher
prevalenceofroleambiguity amongwomenthanmen[73,94]. Otherstudiesfound
nodifferences betweenmalesandfemalesinexperiencing roleconflict andjob-related
strain[46,72,73]. Someoftheinconsistent findings may partly tothefactthat
be due
male and femalesubjectswerenotmatchedby job level. The highpercentage of
womenamongIC employees[19] and thefinding thatwomenworkingin ICs felt
significantly betterabout theircareerprospectsthantheirmale colleagues [78]
suggests gendershouldbe examined.Therefore,
that we proposeemployeegenderas
thethirdmoderating variable.
Finally, proposeemployeeage as thefourth
we moderating variablefortherelation-
ship between role stress andjob satisfaction[88].
Several studieshave focusedon the relationship betweenjob satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Moderate zero-order correlations in therange of0.30 to
0.62 betweenjob satisfaction (particularlyoveralljob satisfaction orsatisfactionwith
theworkitself)andorganizational commitment havebeenobservedrepeatedly inthe
IS fieldas wellas inotherfields[9, 10,17,20,71]. Furthermore, BriefandAldag[16]
have proposedthefivefacetsof job satisfaction as antecedents of organizational
commitment. Therefore, we expectthatjob satisfaction willhavea directrelationship
toemployeecommitment to theorganization.
The importance ofjob satisfaction as a keyattitudinal variableleadingtointention
toleave is also welldocumented intheliterature[1, 8, 9, 15,33,62, 77]. In a similar
fashion,a numberof empiricalstudiesalso confirm theimportant roleof organiza-
tionalcommitment as a determinant ofintention toleave[9, 15,47,71,76].Moreover,
theintuitive notionthatjob satisfaction affects intention toleaveprimarily through its
effecton organizational commitment is contradicted byfindings thatbothjob satis-
factionandorganizational commitment directlycontribute toturnover intentions[33,
62]. Therefore, we predictthatjob satisfaction willhavedirectandindirect effectson
IC personnel'sintention toleave.

Method

Sample and Procedure

Thirty-eightcompanieswith operations in the state of Ohio and knownto
in thisstudy.Each of the
IC activitieswereasked to participate
have significant
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 151

companieshada minimum offiveyearsofend-user computingexperience. Twenty-

to
eightcompaniesagreed participate in thisstudy.Among them 14 companieswere
in manufacturing, 6 in multi-industry, 2 in insurance, and theremaining included
such
utilities as banks, and others.The IS directorsof these
companies weretheentry
pointandintroduced theresearchers toIC personnel in thestudy.
participating
Ninety-two IC employeesfromthetwenty-eight companieswereaskedto partici-
patein thestudyandreceivedthesurveyquestionnaire fromtheresearchers.
directly
In thiscase,IC employeesweredefinedas thosewhoseprimary dutiesaretosupport
and manageend-usercomputing activitiesin theorganization.
Theirprimary duties
werecoaching,training, equipment demonstration, andtechnicalsupport. Participa-
tionwasvoluntary, andparticipants wereassuredthattheirindividual responseswould
be treated as confidential. IC
Seventy-six professionals the
completed questionnaire
(82.6percent responserate).Sixty-nine ofthemcompleted thesurvey onsiteandseven
returned itthrough themail.
Of the76 respondents, 36 (47.4 percent)weremenand 40 (52.6 percent)were
women.The age of theparticipants rangedfrom21 to46, withan averageof 32.16
years.Theiraveragelength of service in thecurrent organization (organizational
tenure)was 5.18 years.Because organizational tenureand age are exponentially
distributed,a logarithmic transformation hasbeenused[89].Table 1presents descrip-
tiveinformation on theparticipants. educationallevel of theIC professionals
The
includesthosewhohavecompleted highschool(21.1 percent), havea collegedegree
(69.7 percent), and have a master degree(9.2 percent).

Measures

Variables
Personal/Demographic
tenure,and educationwere includedin theanalysis.
Gender,age, organizational
Genderwas assessedwitha fixed-responseitem(1 = female;2 = male). Age was
in
measured years.Educationconsisted
offour levelsfrom(1) highschoolto(4) Ph.D.
tenure
degree.Organizational was measuredbythenumber ofyearsan individualhad
beenemployedinhisorhercurrent organization.

Role Stressors

Role ambiguity androleconflict wereoperationalized by usingsix andeightitems,

respectively,fromthescales developedby Rizzo, House,and Lirtzman[80]. Each
scale was scoredusinga seven-point scaleranging from(1) "veryfalse"to(7) "very
and
true," byaveraging acrossthe relevantitems. Bothroleconflictandroleambiguity
were scoredso thatthe greaterthe score,the greaterthe perceivedstress.The
homogeneity of theitemswithineach measurewas establishedby computing their
internalconsistency coefficient
reliability alpha) applyingtheformula
(coefficient
recommended by Cronbach [29]. This formula is widelyusedas a measureofinternal
152 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

Table 1 (N = 76)
ProfileofRespondents

Age: Mean = 32. 16 Median = 31 .00 Range = 21-46 S.D. = 5.64

Gender: Female = 52.6% Male = 47.4%
Education:
Completed high school 21.1%

College graduate 69.7%

Master's degree 9.2%

Organizational Tenure:
Mean = 5.18 Median = 4.00 Range = 1-23 S.O. = 4.10

andrepresents
consistency a conservative
estimate ofa scale [6]. The
ofthereliability
internal forthemeasuresofroleambiguity
(alphacoefficient)
reliability
consistency
were0.81 and0.71,respectively.
androleconflict

JobSatisfaction

Satisfaction wasassessedthrough theJobDescriptive Index(JDI)developedbyS mith

et al. [86]. The JDI was chosenbecauseof itsobviousbenefits: itprovidesreliable
and validassessments withgeneralapplicability, thusaffordingcomparableresults
acrossstudies.It is thebestmeasureofjob satisfaction currentlyavailable[67]. As
mentioned earlier,theJDImeasuressatisfaction withfivefacetsofthejob: thework
itself,supervision, coworkers, and
pay, promotion. Eachofthefirstthreefacets(work,
supervision, andcoworkers) of
consists eighteen items andeach oftheremaining two
facets(payandpromotion) consistsofnineitems.Thethree-point JDIresponseswere
definedso thata negative to a
response("yes" negative item or"no" toa positiveitem)
was scored0. A positiveresponsewas scored3, and"I don'tknow"responses("?")
werescored1. Thecoefficients ofreliability (Cronbach'salpha)foreachofthefive
subscalesare: work(alpha= 0.63), supervision (alpha= 0.68), coworkers(alpha=
0.61),pay(alpha= 0.75),andpromotion (alpha= 0.88). Therelatively lowreliabilities
forsomeofthescalescanbe partly attributed totherelativelysmallsamplesize; thus
futureresearchshoulduse a largersampleof IC employeesforgreaterstatistical
power.The itemswithineach of thesefiveJDI components wereaveragedto form
submeasures ofjob satisfaction. Since mostof theIS researchhas beenfocusedon
overalljob satisfaction, a second-order factoranalysis[70] was conductedto testfor
underlying homogeneity in thefive subscales The resultsshowed
ofjob satisfaction.
a singlefactorsolution(eigenvalueof 2.78), whichexplained55.6 percentof the
explainedvariance.Therefore, thefivesubscaleswereaggregated and averagedto
createa compositemeasureofoveralljob satisfaction. The itemswererecordedsuch
thathigh scores reflecteda highlevel of job satisfaction. The alpha reliability
coefficient fortheoveralljob satisfaction scale was 0.85.
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 153

Commitment
Organizational

Organizational commitment wasoperationalized usingthefifteen-item

scaleofPorter
etal. [76] tomeasuretheextenttowhichtheindividual identifies
withorganizational
goals,is willingtoexertefforton behalfoftheorganization, andintendstoremaina
member oftheorganization [65]. Thereliability
andvalidity
ofthefifteen-item scale
havebeenpreviously demonstrated [66].Usinga seven-point
Likert-typeformat, the
responsecategories foreachitemrangedfrom(1) "strongly disagree"to(7) "strongly
agree.*'Theresponses foreachitemwereaveragedtoyielda measureoforganizational
commitment =
(alpha 0.92).

toLeave
Intention

Employees'intention to leave theorganization

was measuredvia threeitemsdevel-
oped by Mobley, Horner, and Hollingsworth[64]. Responsesto each itemwere
recorded ona five-point scale
Likert-type ranging from(1) "veryunlikely" to(5) "very
likely."The threeitemswereaveragedtoformtheintention to leave index(alpha=
0.91).

Data Analysis

Multipleregression analysisusinga hierarchical technique[22] was performed to

assessthemaineffects ofeachoftheroleStressors onjob satisfaction. Itwas also used
to assess thedirectand indirect effectsof theindependent variableson successive
variables.The maineffectsof job satisfaction on organizational commitment and
intention to leave,andthemaineffect oforganizational commitment on intentionto
leave werealso assessedwiththehierarchical technique. In order to testthe main
effectsofroleStressors onjob satisfaction, thejob satisfaction facetsandoveralljob
satisfaction were each regressedon role Stressors(i.e., role ambiguityand role
conflict).In ordertotestthemaineffects ofoveralljob satisfaction on organizational
commitment, organizational commitment was regressedon personalvariables(i.e.,
gender,age,organizational tenure,and education) in step1,withroleStressors (both
roleambiguity androleconflict) addedinstep2, andoveralljob satisfaction addedin
step3. Similarly, totestthemaineffects ofthefivefacetson organizational commit-
ment,organizational commitment was regressed on thepersonalvariablesin step1,
withrole Stressors added in step 2, and the fivefacets(satisfaction withwork,
supervision, coworkers, and
pay, promotion) added in step3. The main effects
ofjob
satisfaction and organizational commitment on intention to leave were tested by
regressing intention to leave on thepersonalvariablesin step1, withroleStressors
added in step 2, overalljob satisfaction or its five facetsadded in step 3, and
organizational commitment added in step4.
In eachanalysis,thesignificance ofthebetaweightsforthehypothesized indepen-
dentvariablewas examinedto determine supportforthehypothesis. The finalbeta
weight,calculatedafterall theindependent variables(includingthemediatorvari-
154 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

ables)enteredtheanalysis,represents thedirecteffect ofthevariableintheequation.

Indirect effectsare estimated by theproducts of directeffects(formoredetails,see
[22]). The totaleffectis calculatedbythesumofboththedirectandindirect effects
ofthevariableon thedependent variable[3, 82].
Moderated multipleregression analysisusingthehierarchical technique [22,68,95]
wasperformed toassessthemoderating effect ofpersonalvariablesontheemployees'
reactionstoeachofthetworoleStressors. Thistechnique hasbeenrecommended as
preferable to subgroupanalysisfortesting moderator effectsbecauseitmakesmore
completeuseofthedataandpermits thedetermination ofboththeindependent effects
ofthemoderating variableanditsinteraction effect withthepredictor variableon the
dependent variable[75,95]. First,each of thejob satisfaction facetsand overalljob
satisfaction wereregressed oneachofthetworoleStressors. Each ofthefourpersonal
variableswasaddedtotheregression equationseparately, andtheincrement inR2and
thelevelsofsignificance associatedwiththechangewerecomputed. The increments
inR2rather thanthemagnitude ofthecoefficients wereusedtodetermine therelative
importance of each role Stressorsand personalvariablesin explainingvariationin
overalljob satisfaction and itsfivefacets[7, 22, 31]. The interaction ofeach of the
fourpersonalvariablesandeach of theroleStressors (each of thepersonalvariables
x roleambiguity orroleconflict productterm)was added,and theincrements inR2
andassociatedsignificance levelsweredetermined. Thisprocedure makesthemost
conservative possibleestimateof moderating effectsas it "assignsto theadditive
effects all variancethatcannotbe unequivocally attributed totheinteraction effects"
[57,p. 209]. To avoid theproblemsassociatedwithsubgroupcorrelational analysis
andtocompletethemoderator modelanalyses[7,75],slopecoefficients (unstandard-
ized betacoefficients) and plotswereused to examinethenatureof thesignificant
interactions. Furthermore, todetermine whether slopecoefficients varyas a function
oftheinteraction, thesignificance ofthedifferences betweenrespective slopecoeffi-
cientsobtainedforthetwogroups(lowandhigh)weretestedbyapplying theformula
proposedbyArnold[7].

Results
The means, standard deviations, and the matric of intercorrelations
amongthestudyvariablesarepresented inTable2. Thecorrelations revealthatboth
roleambiguityandroleconflict arecorrelated withoveralljob satisfactionandall five
ofitsfacets/components (elevenoutofthetwelvecorrelations arestatistically
signif-
icant,thecorrelation
betweenroleconflict andJDIpayis theonlyinsignificant) and
organizationalcommitment. Table 2 also indicatesthatoverall job satisfactionand
fourofitscomponents (work,supervision, pay,andpromotion) arepositively corre-
latedwithorganizationalcommitment. Finally,overalljob satisfaction,
itsfivefacets,
and organizationalcommitment are negatively correlatedwithintention to leave.
Multipleregressionanalysis was employed toassess theeffectof both roleStressors
on thefivefacetsofjob satisfaction
andoveralljob satisfaction. Table 3 presents the
resultsofhierarchical
regressionanalysistesting theeffectofbothroleambiguity and
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 155

roleconflict on overalljob satisfaction anditscomponents. The datainTable 3 show

thatbothrole ambiguityand role conflictare negativelyrelatedto overalljob
satisfaction and itscomponents. Role conflictis significantly relatedto each of the
fivefacetsas well as to theoveralljob satisfaction. Role ambiguity is significantly
relatedtoonlythreeofthefivefacets(work,supervision, andpromotion) andoverall
job satisfaction. Furthermore, the results of the regression analyses shown inTable 3
indicatethatbothroleambiguity androleconflict collectively explained26, 39, 20,
11, and 26 percentof thevariancein thedifferent components ofjob satisfaction:
work,supervision, coworkers, pay, and promotion, respectively. Theyalso account
for47 percent ofthevarianceinoveralljob satisfaction. In thesecasesthesignificance
levelis 0.01 orbetter. As expected, roleconflict (ß = -0.38, -0.45,-0.39,-0.29,-0.42,
and -0.50) and roleambiguity =
(ß -0.27, -0.34, -0.14, -0.07, -0.21, and -0.38),
separately andrespectively, weregenerally associatedwithdecreasesin satisfaction
withwork,supervision, coworkers, pay,promotion, andoverallsatisfaction. All the
associationsweresignificant at the 0.05 level,except the association between role
ambiguity andsatisfaction withcoworkers andpay.
Themoderated regression results forpersonalvariables arepresented inTable4. The
increment in/?2, rather than the magnitude of the beta coefficients, is used todetermine
therelativecontribution ofcorrelated independent variablesforexplainingvariation
in the dependentvariables.The data in Table 4 show that,comparedwithrole
ambiguity, roleconflict explainedthelargerportion ofthevarianceinfourofthefive
facets(work,supervision, coworkers, andpromotion) andoveralljob satisfaction. Age
hasa significant maineffect onJDIcoworkers, overandabovethatofroleambiguity
(A/?2= 0.07,p < 0.05). Age also hasmaineffects onJDIwork(AR2= 0.06,p < 0.05),
JDIsupervision = <
(AR2 0.04,/> 0.05), JDI coworkers (AR2= 0.10,p < 0.01), andon
overalljob satisfaction = <
(AR2 0.05,p 0.05), overand above thatof roleconflict.
Similarly,genderhas a maineffecton coworkers (AR2= 0.04,p < 0.05), overand
abovethatofroleconflictFinally,amongthepersonalvariables, organizational tenure
hasmaineffects onJDIsupervision (AR2 = 0.07 and AR2 = 0.04, both at <
p 0.05),JDI
promotion =
(AR2 0.10,p < 0.01 and AR2 = <
0.07,p 0.05), and overall job satisfaction
= <
(AR2 0.08,p 0.01 and AR2 = <
0.04,p 0.05), over and above that of roleambiguity
androleconflict, respectively. The zero-order correlations reported in Table 2 show
thatage is positively correlated withJDI work,supervision, coworkers, and overall
job satisfaction.In addition, gender is correlated with JDI coworkers, and organiza-
tionaltenureis correlated withJDI supervision, promotion, and overall job satisfac-
tion.
Age demonstrated significant interaction effectson therelationship betweenrole
ambiguity and overalljob satisfaction = <
(AR2 0.12,p 0.001), and four of itsfive
= <
facets:work(AR2 0.04,p 0.05), supervision (AR2 0.06,p 0.05), pay (AR2=
= <
0.10,p < 0.01),andpromotion (AR2= 0.05,p < 0.05). Table4 also showssignificant
interactions oforganizational tenurewithroleambiguity (AR2= 0.04,p < 0.05) and
=
role conflict(AR2 0.05,p 0.05) < on JDI supervision. Finally,Table 4 showsa
significant interaction effectforeducationwithrole ambiguity on JDI supervision
(AR2 = 0.08, p < 0.01), JDI promotion (AÄ2 = 0.16, p < 0.001), and overalljob
156

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 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 157

Table 3 ofRole Stressors

Relationships (N = 76)
withJobSatisfaction

The Standardized Beta Coefficients

Role JDI JDI JDI JDI JDI Overall
Stress Work Supervision Coworkers Pay PromotionJobSatisfaction

Role Ambiguity -.27- -.34- -.14 -.07 -.21* -.38-

Role Conflict -.38~ -.45- -.39- -.29~ -.42** -.50-

TotalR2 .26- .39- .20- .11- .26- .47-

*
p < .05
-
p<.01
-
p < .001

satisfaction
(A/?2 = 0.10,p < 0.01). Notethat,contrary toexpectations, genderdidnot
moderateanyof therelationships of roleStressors withjob satisfaction (overalljob
anditsfivefacets).Also,age andeducationdidnotmoderateanyofthe
satisfaction
ofroleconflict
relationships withjob satisfaction.
However, ageshowedsignificant main
effectsontherelationship between roleambiguity andsatisfaction withcoworkers.
Usinga procedure described in[49],thesignificant interaction effectsnotedinTable
4 wereanalyzedfurther todetermine thenatureofthepersonalvariablesmoderating
effectsontherelationship ofroleStressors withjob satisfaction. Thepersonalvariables
(age, organizational tenure,and education) measures were dichotomized at theme-
dian, and the outcome variables (job satisfaction) were regressed on the respective
role Stressorsunderconditionsof low and high age, organizational tenureand
education.As notedby severalresearchers [49, 75], an infinitenumberof slope
coefficients(unstandardized coefficients) be computedwithina moderated
can mul-
tipleregression model. Peters and Champoux[75] recommended that the slope
coefficientsbe usedforanalysisbecausethey"suggestthedifferential impactswhich
are likelyto occurfrominterventions targeted at alternative groupsand alternative
variables"(p. 91). Followingtheprocedure used by Hunt et al. [49],valuesforeach
of themoderator variables(age, organizational tenure, and education)fallingabove
orbelowthemedianvaluewereusedtoobtaintwoequations.The equations,onefor
thelow(belowthemedian)valuesandtheotherforthehigh(abovethemedian)values
ofeachmoderator variable,wereusedtoregresstheroleStressors (roleambiguity or
roleconflict) on each ofthedependent variables(overallsatisfaction andeach of its
fivefacets).
Table 5 presents theresultsoftheseanalyses.Forty-one andthirty-five cases were
analyzed for low and highage, respectively. Thirty and forty-six cases for low and
highorganizational tenure, and sixteen and fifty-three cases were analyzedforlow
andhigheducation, respectively. that
Table5 shows although the directions forall the
independent variablesaffecting thedependent variableare similarforlow and high
or
age,education, organizational tenure, thestrengths oftheeffect Thelowand
differ.
158 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

Table4 Results:
ModeratedMultipleRegression
on
JobSatisfaction Role Stressors

The IncrementIn R2 (AR2)

Role JDI JDI JDI JDI JDI Overall
Stress Work Supervision Coworkers Pay PromotionJobSatisfaction

RoleAmbiguity
(RA) .13- .20- .06* .10- .09- .24-
+ Gender .01 .01 .04 .00 .02 .02
+ Age .02 .01 .07* .00 .02 .00
+ OT .01 .07* .00 .01 .10- .08-
+ ED .02 .01 .00 .01 .01 .00

+ RA* Gender .02 .00 .00 .02 .00 .01

+ RA* Age .04* .06* .02 .10* .05* .12-
+ RA*OT .01 .04* .00 .01 .00 .01
+ RA* ED .03 .08- .02 .01 .16- .10-

TotalR2 .29- .48- .21* .26* .45- .58-

RoleConflict
(RC) .19- .28- .18- .02 .22- .34-
+ Gender .01 .01 .04# .00 .02 .02
+ Age .06* .04* .10- .02 .00 .05*
+ OT .00 .04* .01 .01 .07* .04*
+ ED .01 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00

+ RC* Gender .00 .01 .00 .01 .02 .01

+ RC*Age .01 .01 .00 .01 .02 .00
+ RC*OT .01 .05* .01 .00 .00 .01
+ RC*ED .02 .00 .01 .01 .01 .01

TotalR2 .31- .44- .35- .11 .36- .48-

Note. OT = Organizational
tenure;ED = Education
Age and organizational
tenureare represented
bythelogoftheiroriginal
values.

p < .05
-
p<.01
-
p < .001

highgroupsofagediffered withrespecttolevelsofemployeesatisfaction
significantly
withsupervision, pay, and overall experiencedin relationto role
job satisfaction
ambiguity.These results
confirm the strengthof the effectsfoundin the
interaction
moderatedregression analysis.Notethattheabsenceoftheeffects maybe duetothe
powerobtainedin thissample.
lowerstatistical
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 159

forRole StressonJobSatisfaction:
Table 5 Slope Coefficients
A ModeratedModel
IndependentVariable Dependent Variable ModeratorVariable Slope
Low* High*

Role Ambiguity JDIWork Age -.12* -.05

Role Ambiguity JDI Supervision Age -.22*** -.04a
Role Ambiguity JDI Pay Age -.28~ -.01a
Role Ambiguity JDI Promotion Age -.24* -.14
Role Ambiguity Overall Job Satisfaction Age -.18*** -.05a
Role Ambiguity JDI Supervision Education -.26" -.15**
Role Ambiguity JDI Promotion Education -.17 -.31"*
Role Ambiguity Overall Job Satisfaction Education -.19** -.17"*
Role Ambiguity JDI Supervision OrganizationalTenure -.14* -.15**

Role Conflict JDI Supervision OrganizationalTenure -.28*** -.19*

Two equations were obtained: one forthe low (below the median) moderatorgroup
and the otherforthe high(above the median) moderatorgroup.
a
Slope coefficients(unstandardizedbeta weights)forlow and high are significantly
(p < .0.05).
different
Note. Age and organizationaltenureare representedby the log of theiroriginalvalues.
p < .05
p<.01
***
p < .001

The graphicrepresentation oftheresultsinfigure2a-2e showsthatwhenthelevel

ofroleambiguity low, employeeswhoarerelatively
was IC younger reportedhigher
levelsofjob satisfaction
(work,supervision, pay,promotion, andoveralljob satisfac-
tion)thanthosewhoarerelatively older.Forhighlevelsofroleambiguity, however,
IC employeeswhoarerelatively youngreported lower levelsof satisfaction.
Higher
levelsofroleambiguity areassociatedwithlowerlevelsofjob satisfaction forall IC
employees,however,therelationship is muchstronger forthosewhoare relatively
young.As roleambiguity increases, thelevelofsatisfaction is significantly
lowerfor
relatively IC
younger employees, but it remains unchanged olderIC
virtually for
personnel.
Figure2falso showsthatIC employeesatisfaction withtheirsupervision declines
muchfaster forlesseducatedemployeesthanforthosewithhigher levelsofeducation
(b = -0.26 versusb = -0.15). On theotherhand,satisfaction withpromotion (figure
2g) decreasedmuchfasterforthosewho are moreeducated(b = -0.31 versusb =
-0.17). The effectof roleambiguity (figure2h) on overalljob satisfaction remains
similarforbothgroups(b = -0.19 versus b = -0.17). Both role ambiguity role
and
conflictwerefoundtobe inversely relatedto satisfactionwithsupervision (figure2i
and 2j) forbothgroups,withlow and highorganizational tenure.The effectofrole
160 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

vs JDIWork
RoleAmbiguity

2.5
y
Low

o 1.5 ^^^:::::ä

^ 1
Age
0.5

0J ' '
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(a)

RoleAmbiguityvs JDI
Supervision
2.5
j

E 15 Hi8ho ~^^___
v '~ D
3 1 '
►-i Age ■

oJ
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(b)

2. Interactions
F/gKre andJobSatisfaction
betweenRole Stressors
 JOBSATISFACTION
AMONGIC EMPLOYEES 161

vs JDIPay
RoleAmbiguity

4 T
3.5
3
£2.5
2 LOW■.
S
^1-5 "^ D
High ^-

0.5 AS6^^^.
'
0
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(õ

vs JDIPromotion
Ro/gAmbiguity

2.5 T
Low .
c 2 "'
§ ,1.5. High d^'
E ^-^'
2
1 ^^^^
5 Age ^^a
"*
0.5

o -I
1 7
Role Ambiguity
~~
(d)

Figure2. Continued.
162 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

RoleAmbiguity
vs OverallJob
Satisfaction
2 y Low -

1-5 High q^'

ii ^^-^ *
«3.2
> *s
O cw 0.5 A8e

0J
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(e)

RoleAmbiguityvs ]D1
Supervision
2.5 y
Low
2
| HighSX
E: 1.5 ^x-

Q 0.5 Education ^^B

0J
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(f)
Figure2. Continued
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 163

vs JDIPromotion
RoleAmbiguity

2.5 T
High
.2 Low '
õ is- *'X
o ^x^
£ l >-^

Education n^
oJ
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(g)

RoleAbiguityvs OverallJob
Satisfaction
Low
2
j HigtL

•8 § 15 ^%^

> 15 Education
O cd 0.5

o J
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(h)
Figure2. Continued
164 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

RoleAmbiguity
vs JDISupervsion
High
2 T
1.8- Low^.

;S 1.4 ^^'^
& i ^^S
5 0.8
»* 0.6 Tenure
Organizational
►-«0.4
0.2
0J -
1 7
Role Ambiguity

(i)

Role Conflictvs JDISupervision

3T High
C2.5
o Low ^ ^^v.

t '. ^'
O, 1.5- '. ^^
^
1 ^'
O '

Tenure
Organizational
1 7
Role Conflict

m
Figure!. Continued
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 165

ambiguity on thelevelofsatisfaction withsupervision is also similarforbothgroups

(b = -0. 14versus b = -0. 1 5) . The level ofsatisfaction with supervision is morestrongly
affected by role conflict IC
amonginexperienced employees than experienced ones
(figure2j). However,note thatonly threeof thesesdifferences are statistically
significant (see Table 5).
The bivariateresultsin Table 2 showthatroleambiguity is negatively correlated
withage and organizational tenureand positivelycorrelated witheducation.Role
conflictis negatively correlated withorganizational tenure.Overalljob satisfaction
andsatisfaction withsupervision arepositively correlated withage andorganizational
tenure.Satisfaction withworkandcoworkers is positively relatedto age, and satis-
factionwithpromotion is positively relatedtoorganizational tenure. Finally,satisfac-
tionwithcoworkers tendstobe lowerforfemaleemployees.
Multipleregression analysiswas also usedto assess thedirectand indirect effects
of role Stressors on organizational commitment, theeffectof job satisfaction on
organizational commitment and intention to leave, and the effect of organizational
commitment on intention toleave.Theresultsofthehierarchical regression analysis
withorganizational commitment and intention to leave as dependent variables,are
presentedin Table 6. The role Stressors and overalljob satisfaction explained27
in
percentofthevariance organizational commitment The role Stressors andthefive
facetsof job satisfaction cumulatively explained29 percentof the variancein
organizational commitment. The predictors of intention to leave and the control
variablesexplained40 and4 1percent ofthevarianceinintention toleavewhenoverall
job satisfaction orthefivefacetswereincludedas independent variables, respectively.
Inconsistent withour expectations, bothrole Stressorshad no directeffectson
organizational commitment, butshowedstrong indirect effects (ß = -0.19 and-0.25,
forroleambiguity androleconflict, respectively) through job satisfaction. Further,
roleambiguity androleconflict hadstronger indirect effects (ß = 0.21 and ß = 0.32,
respectively) thandirecteffects onintention toleavetheorganization. Theincremental
contributions of theroleStressors combinedin explainingthevariancein organiza-
tionalcommitment andintention toleavetheorganization are 12percent(AR2= 0. 12,
^
p 0.05) in both cases. Personal variables had no significant impacton theseresults.
As expected,Table 6 showsthatoveralljob satisfaction hada strongdirecteffect
on organizational commitment (ß = 0.55,p < 0.001),anddirect(ß = -0.47,p < 0.01)
and indirect effects(ß = -0.12) through organizational commitment on intention to
leave theorganization. Furthermore, overalljob satisfaction accountedfora signifi-
cantportion ofthevarianceinorganizational commitment (AR2= 0.15,p < 0.001) and
intention toleave (AR2= 0.17,p ^ 0.001). Consistent withourexpectations, organi-
zationalcommitment hada significant directeffecton intention to leave (ß ■ -0.23,
p £0.05) andaccountedfor4 percent (AR2= 0.04,/?£ 0.05) ofthevarianceinintention
to leave.
Whensatisfaction withthefiveJDIfacetsofjob satisfaction wereadded,satisfaction
withpromotion is foundto havea directeffecton organizational commitment (ß =
< =
0.35,p 0.05), and direct(ß -0.25, p 0.05) < and indirect =
(ß -0.07) effects on
intention toleave through organizational commitment. The incremental contribution
166 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

Table 6 Predictors Commitment

ofOrganizational andIntention
toLeave:
ResultsofHierarchical Analysis
MultipleRegression
Predictor OrganizationalCommitment Intentionto Leave
Variables Direct Total (AR2) Direct Total (AR2)

Personal Variables:
Gender .10 .04 -.14 -.10
Age -.12 -.02 -.17 -.26*
OrganizationalTenure -.16 .02 .28* .14
Education .03 -.03 .00 -.12 -.06 .07
Role Stressors:
Role Ambiguity -.08 -.27* .10 .31-
Role Conflict .05 -.20 .12# -.06 .26* .12*
Overall Job Satisfaction .55- .55- .15- -.47- -.59- .17-
OrganizationalCommitment -.23* -.23* .04*

Total R2 27- .40-

Personal Variables:
Gender .11 .04 -.14 -.10
Age -.07 -.02 -.15 -.26*
OrganizationalTenure -.20 .02 .27* .14
Education .03 -.03 .00 -.11 -.06 .07
Role Stressors:
Role Ambiguity -.08 -.27* .10 .31-
Role Conflict .06 -.20 .12* -.04 .26* .12-
Job Satisfaction
JDIWork .02 .02 -.18 -.18
JDI Supervision .22 .22 -.10 -.14
JDI Coworkers .09 .09 -.14 -.16
JDI Pay .12 .12 -.12 -.14
JDI Promotion .35* .35* .17- -.25* -.32* .18-
OrganizationalCommitment -.24- -.24- .04*

-
Total R2 .29- .41

Note. Age and organizationaltenureare representedby the log of theiroriginalvalues.

p < .05
p<.01
-
p < .001

of thefivejob satisfaction componentscombinedforexplainingthevariancein

organizationalcommitment was 0.17 (p < 0.01). Similarly,theywere able to
18
explain percent of the variance to leave (AR2= 0.18, p < 0.001).
in intention
Last, personalvariablesaccountedfora negligibleportionof the variancein
intentionto leave (Afi2= 0.07,NS).
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 167

DiscussionandConclusions
The results fromthis studyindicate that job satisfaction amongIC employ-
ees is theproductofcomplexlinkagesamongpersonal/demographic characteristics
androleStressors (e.g.,role ambiguity and role conflict).The latter are considered to
be theantecedent variablesforpredicting job satisfaction in
and, turn, organizational
commitment and intention to leave are theoutcomevariables.The resultsconfirm
previousfindingsconcerningtheefficacyof role ambiguity and role conflictin
predicting job satisfaction. Theyalso confirm thedirectrelationship ofjob satisfaction
toorganizational commitment, and itsinverse with
relationship employeeintention to
the
leave organization [9]. As expected, role conflictwas found to be inversely related
to overalljob satisfaction and to all fiveof its facets(i.e., satisfaction withwork,
supervision, coworkers, pay, and promotion). Further, theinverse relationship ofrole
ambiguity with overall job satisfaction and three ofits fivefacets (work,supervision,
andpromotion) also metexpectations.
The hypothesis thatdifferent personalvariableswouldmoderatetherelationship
betweenroleStressors andjob satisfaction was onlypartially confirmed. Of the48
possibleinteraction effectstested,only ten were significant. Amongthem,nine
interaction effects wereassociatedwithroleambiguity (outoftwenty-four interactions
and
examined) only one with role conflict. The main finding in this area was thatage
the
moderates relationships between role ambiguity and overall job satisfaction and
fourof its five facets(work,supervision, pay, and promotion).The significant
interaction effects ofeducationand roleambiguity on satisfaction withsupervision,
promotion, and overalljob satisfaction indicatethat while among well-educated
the
IC employeesroleambiguity strongly affects satisfactionwithpromotion, itstrongly
affects satisfaction withsupervision among theless-educated IC employees. Thismay
be duepartly toincreasedsocialization andtheresulting increasedexpectations. Ithas
beenproposedthatless-educated people are socialized to develop different (lower)
job-related expectations thanmore-educated employees[88]. Forexample,more-ed-
ucatedpeoplemayexpectmuchhigherlevelsofsuccess,particularly promotion, ina
specificoccupation.Higherlevels of ambiguityin job activitiesand tasks,and
uncertainty aboutwhatis expected,tendto heighten dissatisfaction withpromotion.
On the otherhand, one may speculate that the less-educated employeesexpect
supervisors toprovidea morecleardefinition oftasksandpriorities relatedtothejob,
and thattheirunmetexpectations will contribute to theirdissatisfaction withtheir
supervisors.
Organizational tenuremoderates therelationshipofbothroleStressors (roleambi-
with
guityand roleconflict)and satisfaction supervision. This tojob
susceptibility
dissatisfactionassociatedwithnewarrivalstotheorganization notice-
is particularly
able, giventhe directrelationships foundamongage, organizational tenure,and
overalljob satisfaction, includingsome of its fivefacets.This suggeststhatIC
employees who areyoung,inexperienced, andhighly educatedtendtoexperience high
levels of role ambiguity. inexperienced employeestendto reporthigh
Further, IC
and satisfaction
low levels of overalljob satisfaction,
levels of role conflict, with
168 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

supervision andpromotion. Similarly, youngIC employeestendtoreportlow levels

ofoveralljob satisfaction, satisfaction withwork,supervision, andcoworkers. Com-
binedwiththemoderator these
effects, findings indicate in
that, general, young,highly
educated,and inexperienced IC employeestendtobe moresusceptible tojob dissat-
isfaction,andthatis aggravated byhigherlevelsofroleconflict androleambiguity.
Thisemphasizestheimportance forIC managers tounderstand andaddressthesources
of job dissatisfaction amongthisgroup.It behoovesIC managersto pay special
attentiontotheneedsofnewIC employees.Researchinotherareashasindicatedthe
significance of providingrealisticjob previewsto recruitsso thattheyenterthe
organization withan accuratepictureoftheirdutiesandresponsibilities [91]. More-
over,providing sufficientjob challenge[43] andperformance feedback[37] to new
employeescan helpreduceroleconflict andambiguity andbolsterpositiveattitudes
towardthejob and theorganization, andhelpforestall intention to leave theorgani-
zation.IC management shouldidentify theparticular concerns oftheyoungandnewly
hiredIC employeesinordertohelpthemunderstand theirjobs andresponsibilities.
Theresultsconfirm Baroudi's[9] findings concerning theeffect ofroleStressors on
job satisfaction.Bothroleambiguity androleconflict havedirecteffects on overall
job satisfaction, suggesting thatIC employeeswho experiencehighlevels of role
ambiguity and role conflict tend tobe dissatisfied withtheir jobs. However,ourresults
showthatroleconflicthad a stronger effecton overalljob satisfaction and itsfive
components thanrole ambiguity. Baroudi[9] foundthatroleambiguity amongIS
employees had a stronger direct effect on satisfaction than role conflict.Since IC
employees support different departments andcrossdepartmental boundaries moreoften
thanIS employees, theyarelikelytofacemoreiole conflict thanIS employees, andthat,
inturn, may cause more stress and more dissatisfaction IC
among employees [40].
Role ambiguity affectsorganizational commitment mainlyindirectly through job
satisfaction.
Italso hasa strong indirecteffect on intention toleavethrough organiza-
tionalcommitment andjob satisfaction. Similarly, roleconflict hasan indirect effect
on organizational commitment through satisfaction, and on intention to leave via
commitment and satisfaction. No directeffects ofroleStressors on commitment and
intentionto leave were observed.IC employeesexperiencing high levels of role
ambiguity androleconflicttendtobe dissatisfied withtheirjobs, less committed to
theirorganizations, and moreinterested in leavingtheirorganizations. Again, this
suggeststhatbothroleambiguity androleconflict areparticularly important forIC
personnel management IC managers cansubstantially increase job satisfactionlevels,
increaseemployeecommitment, andreducetheirintention to leave theorganization
by assuringthat:(1) IC jobs are clearlydefined,(2) IC employeesunderstand the
objectivesand the reasons for a
performingparticular task,(3) IC employees under-
standtheprocedures by whicha particular taskshouldbe performed and have the
necessarytraining andinformation toperform taskswell,and(4) jobs do notinclude
conflictingtasksandrequireincompatible behavior.
To reduceroleconflict, IC managersmightencouragetheirsubordinates toattend
orientation sessionsregardingorganizational structure, policies, and procedures,
resourceallocationguidelines,and commonly encountered conflictsituations.The
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 169

organization shouldensurethatreporting relationshipsare clearand thattheroleof

IC andend-user personnel arewelldefined. IC management shouldprovidea support-
iveenvironment whereconflicts canbe discussedopenlyandresolvedeffectively. For
example,coordination meetings couldbe heldtohelpIC employeesresolveconflict-
ingdemandsfromendusersand theMIS department. Also,sinceitis possiblethat
roleconflictandroleambiguity may to some extentbe inherent intheIC environment,
management shouldpay specialattention to recruitingemployeeswho have a rela-
tivelyhightolerance forroleambiguity andwhoarecapableofdealingwithinterper-
sonalconflicts. Thereare severalwaystoaccomplishthis:(1) byclearlyspecifying
to prospectiveemployeesthatabilityto deal withrole ambiguity/conflict is an
importantrequirement forthejob; (2) byrecruiting peoplewhohavedevelopeda track
recordin positionswheretheyhave to deal withdifferent people understressful
conditions,thatis, wheretherehas been highrole ambiguity/conflict; and (3) by
establishingsomething likean internship program where new employeestryoutfor
a positionforsix months or one year.Last,IC managersmustensurethatthelevels
of role conflictand ambiguityare not raised unnecessarily as a resultof poor
management practicesandpolicieswithin theIC function. Thiscanbe accomplished
by,amongotherthings, ensuring thatjob definitions,taskresponsibility assignments,
taskpriorities, and proceduresto perform tasksare clearlydefined.Policies and
management practices mustsupport andpromote theitemsabove,as wellas theother
recommendations in
presented thissectiontoreduceroleambiguity andconflict.
The resultsofthisstudysupport ourexpectations thatoveralljob satisfaction is an
importantpredictor ofIC employeeorganizational commitment andintention toleave
theorganization. In turn,IC employees'organizational commitment also showeda
directeffecton theirintention to leave theorganization. The observedimpactofjob
satisfactionon organizational commitment, and propensity to leave, carriesrather
straightforward The
implications. findings confirm the expectations thatbothjob
satisfactionand organizational commitment have inverserelationships withtheIC
employees'intention toleavetheorganization [9, 10,33, 62].
Information Centeremployeesatisfaction/dissatisfaction withperceivedpromotion
opportunitiesis the main motivator foremployees' commitment totheIC organization
and intention to leave. Therefore, organizations can favorably reduceIC personnel
attrition
byproperly managing themajorcomponents ofjob satisfaction, particularly
in thearea of promotion. Satisfaction withfuture for
opportunities promotion may
affectIC employees'decisionto staymorestrongly thantheirlevel of satisfaction
withotherfacetsof thejob. Moreover,sincelateralmovescan providefeelingsof
challengeandgrowth[44],organizations shouldprovideIC employeeswithflexible
alternativesto thetraditional emphasis verticalmobility.
on Organizations should
developcreativewaysto increasetheinternal mobility andcareerpathopportunities
of IC employees, perhapsbyallowing alternativecareer paths.Some of thesepaths
can be technicalor managerialwithintheIC or IS department, or withintheuser
department. Themulticareer pathapproach(technical, IC orIS management, orwithin
userdepartments/business) canprovideimportant incentives andcareeradvancement
opportunities totechnical IC personnel. Thatis morelikelytoencouragethemtostay
170 IGBARIA AND GUIMARÃES

withtheirorganization. IC employeeswhowishto entera managerial pathmustbe

assistedwithcareerplanning, andcareerdevelopment
training, experiencesto make
an effectivetransition intomanagerial positions.
IC management mustmonitor employeeattitudes on an ongoingbasisandattempt
tobetterunderstand thefactors tothedevelopment
contributing ofpositiveornegative
workattitudes (i.e.,satisfaction,
commitment, intentiontoleave).Theperiodicadmin-
istration
ofattitude surveys wouldhelpIC managers gaugecurrent workattitudes and
tracechangesin employeeworkattitudesover time.The administration of such
surveys, however, must be accompaniedby management commitment to consider
changessuggestedby theresultsof thesurveys.Factorsthought to influencework
attitudes(e.g.,characteristics ofthecurrent job, fairnessof therewardsystem)must
also be assessed so thatareas forimprovement in theworkenvironment can be
properly identified.

StudyLimitations
andDirectionsforFutureResearch
This study has several limitations. First,additionalresearchencompassing a
widersampleofIC employeesis neededtoensuretheapplicability ofthefindings to
thegeneralpopulationof IC employees,to achievegreaterstatistical power,and to
increasethereliability coefficientsof ourmeasures.The readeris reminded thatthe
nonsignificant pathsfoundforsomeof thevariablescall forcautionin interpreting
theresults.
Second,although theresultsindicateplausibilityofthecausallinksproposed,they
do notprovecausality[52]. It is possiblethatalternative linkagesexistamongthe
variablesin themodel(therelationships betweenpersonalvariables,roleStressors,
satisfaction,
commitment, andintentiontoleave).Moreresearchis neededtoanswer
theimportant questionsregarding causal relationships amongthevariablesin this
study.
Third,thedecomposition of thepathcoefficients intodirectand indirecteffects
indicatesonlya moderate levelofcorrespondence betweensomeofthereconstructed
andoriginalcorrelations. Forexample,thecorrelation ofJDIworkwithorganizational
commitment (r = 0.20 and totaleffect= 0.02) suggeststhatpartof theoriginal
relationshipwas spurious;thatis, partof theoriginalzeroordercorrelation was the
resultofthejointeffect ofpriorcausalvariables[82]. Otherpossibleexplanations are
theexistenceof unmeasured variables[52] or marginalreliability of some of the
measuresused.
Manyvariablesnotincludedin thisstudymaybe relevantto understanding varia-
tionsinjob satisfaction and shouldbe incorporated in an extendedmodel,suchas
careeropportunities, salaryand pay, and job characteristics (variety,autonomy,
feedback,andtasksignificance). Thosevariablesmightbe examinedas antecedents
ofjob satisfaction [67].Futureresearchshouldalso takeintoconsideration economic
conditions (e.g.,thisstudyhasbeenconductedduringa recession),companyprofit-
abilityand dependency on computer technology in general,end-usercomputing in
andvariablessuchas thedifferent
particular, stagesofIC organizations [61],including
 JOB SATISFACTION AMONG IC EMPLOYEES 171

newICs, whichweredeliberately excludedfromthisstudy.OtherIC characteristics

thatarelikelytohavesignificance tothestudyofIC employeesatisfaction, organiza-
tioncommitment, and turnover intention include:thenumber ofemployees;whether
theIC is locatedwithin theIS department, within a userdepartment,oritis a separate
department; and the levelof support provided to the end-user community [58],Many
oftheseorganizational variablesmaymoderate theeffect ofroleStressorson satisfac-
tion,commitment, andintention toleave.
Finally,since role ambiguity and role conflictshowedeffectson satisfaction,
quasi-experimental research should be conducted todetermine whether actualchanges
in job dutiesand role characteristics have an impacton the satisfaction of IC
For
employees. example, theresults of thepresent study would that
suggest employees
whosejobs areredesigned to decreaselevelsof roleambiguity and conflictshould
reporthigher levelsofsatisfaction. Theultimate practical testofanymodelis itsability
to producedesiredchangesin an appliedsetting. Researchprograms thatcombine
theoreticallyoriented studies ofa job satisfaction
model withfield-basedinterventions
shouldprovidemaximuminsights of botha theoretical and practicalnature.While
theseworthwhile researchobjectiveshavebeenplacedbeyondtheobjectivesofthis
study,ithasprovidedimportant insights fora better understandingoftheantecedents
andconsequencesofjob satisfaction amongIC employees.

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