Sampling: Creation of discrete time signal from continues time signal by defining
successive samples of continuous time signal.
2. Time reversal: To obtain the mirror image of a function of both continuous and
discrete time signal. That is if x(t) is a function then x(-t) is its mirror image.
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3. Time scaling: if x(t) is a signal (continuous/discrete) then x(αt) is the time scaled
version of x(t) where α is a constant.
4. Periodic signal: A periodic signal has a property that there is a positive value of T
such that x(t) = x(t+nT) for n = 0, 1, 2 … and T is a constant known as period.
5. Even or odd signal: From time reversal if the mirror image of the signal is same
as that of the image. That is if x(-t) = x(t) then the signal is even else if the signal
x(-t) = -x(t) then the signal is odd. Note that any signal can be broken to sum of
signal one which is even and other is odd as given below: -
Ev{x(t)}=1/2[x(t)+x(-t)]
Od{x(t)}=1/2[x(t)-x(-t)]
Systems: -
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System properties:-
1. System with and without memory: If there is a time delay then the system is
said to be having a memory and if there is no time delay then the system is
memory-less. E.g.
• y[n] = (2x[n] – x2[n])2 //memory-less
• y[n] = x[n – 1] //with memory
• y(t)=1/C∫x(τ)dτ (c = capacitance) //with memory
2. Invertibility and inverse system: If distinct input leads to distinct output then
the system is said to be invertible. If output of a system given to a second
system and if we obtain the input of first system as the output of second
system then the second system is said to be the inverse of the first one.
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Linear time-invariant system and convolution integral: They are the system that
are linear and time invariant in nature.
Convolution: if h[n] is the impulse response of the system then if x[n] is the input
and y[n] is the output then,
y[n] = x[n] * h[n] // convolution
Complex exponential
Фk(t) = eikω0t = ejk(2π/T)t k= 0, ±1, ±2…
∞ ∞
jkω0t
i.e. x(t) = Σ ak. e = Σ ak.ejk(2π/T)t
-∞ -∞
if k = 0, constant
k = ±1 fundamental frequency ω0 is the fundamental components known as first
harmonic component.
k = ±2 second harmonic component.
k ± n is nth harmonic component.
This representation is known as Fourier series representation of periodic signal.
To determine ak multiply both with e-jkω0t
∞ ∞
i.e. x(t) e-jkω0t = Σ ak. ejkω0t e-jkω0t = Σ ak.ejk(2π/T)t e-jkω0t
-∞ -∞
Integrating from 0 to T
T T ∞ ∞ T
i.e. ∫x(t) e-jkω0t = ∫ Σ ak. ejkω0t e-jkω0t = Σ ∫ak[ejk(k-n)ω0tdt]
0 0 -∞ -∞ 0
Euler’s formula:
T T
∫ak[ejk(k-n)ω0tdt] = ∫ [cos(k-n)ω0t + j sin(k-n)ω0t]dt
0 0
For k ≠ n cos(k-n) and sin(k-n) are periodic and for k=n cos(k-n)=1 and ans is T.
There for
T
i.e. ∫x(t) e-j(k-n)ω0t = T, k=n
0
0, k≠n
T
There for an = 1/T ∫x(t) e-jnω0t dt
0
T
There for a0 = 1/T ∫x(t) e-jnω0t dt
0
Dirichelets condition:
1. Over any period, x(t) must be absolutely integrable i.e. ∫|x(t)| dt < ∞
E.g. of a signal that violates this condition is as follows: -
x(t) = 1/t , 0<t≤1
2. In nay finite no. of time x(t) is of bounced variation i.e there is no more
than finite no. of max and min during a single period of time. E.g that
meets the condition 1 but not condition 2 is as follows: -
x(t) = sin(2π/t) , 0<t≤1 for this function with T = 1, ∫|x(t)| dt < 1 and
the function as infinite no. of max and min in this interval.
3. finite no of discontinuvity.
Properties of continuous time Fourier series: -
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1. Linearity: Let x(t) and y(t) has the same period T and let their fourier series
coefficient be ak and bk respectively then since x(t) and y(t) are of same period
T it is followed that the combination of both the signal will be also periodic
with period T. i.e.
x(t) ↔ ak (with period T), y(t) ↔ bk (with period T) then
z(t) = Ax(t) + By(t) ↔ Ck = Aak + Bbk with period T
2. Time shifting:
x(t) ↔ ak then x(t-t0) ↔ ejkωoto.ak
i.e. magnitude of the Fourier series coefficient remains unaltered.
3. Time reversal:
x(t) ↔ ak (with period T), then x(-t) ↔ a-k (with period T) if x(t) is even then
Fourier series coefficient is also even and if x(t) is odd then the Fourier series
coefficient is also odd.
4. Time scaling : It changes the period. If x(t) has a period T then x(αt) will have
a period P = T/α and the Fourier series coefficient will not change.
5. Multiplication: x(t) ↔ ak (with period T), y(t) ↔ bk (with period T) then
∞
x(t).y(t) ↔ hk = Σ aL.bk-L with period T
k=-∞
Complex exponential
Фk[n] = eikω0n = ejk(2π/N)n k= 0, ±1, ±2…
Фk[n] = Фk+N[n]
i.e. Ф0[n] = ФN[n], Ф1[n] = ФN+1[n]
x[0] = Σ ak., x[1] = Σ ak. ejk(2π/N)
k=<N> k=<N>
jkω0n
i.e. x[n] = Σ ak. e = Σ ak.ejk(2π/N)n
k=<N> k=<N>
11. Conjugate symmetry for real signals: i.e. if x[n] is real then ak = *ak, re{ ak }
=re{ a-k },im{ ak }= -im{ a-k }, | ak |=| a-k | and
12. Real and even: If x[n] is real and even then their coefficient is also real and
even.
13. Real and odd: If x[n] is real and odd then the coefficient is purely imaginary
and odd.
14. Decomposition of real signal: xe[n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] is real] then coefficient
Re{ ak }and xo[n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] is real] then coefficient is Im{ ak }
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Paseval’s relation:
1. Continuous time periodic signal:
∞
1/T ∫ |x(t}|2 dt = Σ | ak |2 where ak is Fourier series coefficient and T is the time
T k=-∞
5. Conjugate and conjugate symmetry: x(t) ↔ X(jω) (with period T), then
x*(t) ↔ X*(-jω) (with period T) where ‘*’ represents complex
conjugate. X(-jω) = X*(jω) if x(t) is real.
6. Frequency shifting: i.e. multiplication with e-jmω0t = x(t). e-jω0t the Fourier
transforms will be X(j(ω- ω0))
7. Convolution: If y(t) = x(t) * h(t) (where * represents convolution) then
Y(jω)= X(jω) ×H(jω).
8. Differentiation: dx(t)/dt ↔ jω X(jω)
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13. Real and even: If x(t) is real and even then X(jω) is also real and even.
14. Real and odd: If x(t) is real and odd then X(jω) is purely imaginary and odd.
15. Decomposition of real signal: xe(t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) is real] then
Fs=Re{ X(jω) }and xo(t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) is real] then Fs= Im{ X(jω) }
16. Time reversal: x(-t) ↔ X(-jω)
5. Conjugate and conjugate symmetry: x[n] ↔ X[ejω] (with period N), then
x*[n] ↔ X*[e-jω] (with period T) where ‘*’ represents complex
conjugate.
6. Frequency shifting: i.e. multiplication with e-jω0n => x[n]. e-jω0n the Fourier
transforms will be X[ej(ω-ω0)]
7. Convolution: If y[n] = x[n] * h[t] (where * represents convolution) then
Y[ejω]= X[ejω] ×H[ejω].
8. Difference in time: x[n]-x[n-1] ↔ (1- ejω)X(ejω)
9. Difference in frequency: nx[n] ↔ jdX[ejω]/dω
N ∞
10. Accumulation: Σ x[k] ↔ 1/(1- e-jω)X[ejω] + πX[ejθ] Σ δ[ω-2πk]
k=-∞ k=-∞
11. Conjugate symmetry for real signals: i.e. if x[n] is real then
Y[ejω] = X*[ e-jω], re{Y[ejω]}=re{ X[e-jω] },im{ Y[ejω] }= -im{ X[e-jω]},
| Y[ejω] |=| X[e-jω] | and
12. Real and even: If x[n] is real and even then X[ejω] is also real and even.
13. Real and odd: If x[n] is real and odd then X[ejω] is purely imaginary and odd.
14. Decomposition of real signal: xe[t] = Ev{x[n]} (x[n] is real) then
Fs=Re{ X[ejω] }and xo[t] = Od{x[n]} (x[n] is real) then Fs= Im{ Y[ejω] }
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Paseval’s relation:
If x[n] and X[ejω] are Fourier transform pair then ,
∞
Σ | x[n] |2 = 1/2π ∫ | X[ejω]|2 dω
n=-∞ 2π
Duality:
For discrete time signal the Fourier transform and its inverse are more or just same:
x[n] = 1/2π ∫ X[ejω] ejωn dω
2π
∞
X[ejω] = Σ x[n] e-jωn
n=-∞
∞
x(t) = 1/2π ∫ X(jω). e-jωt dω
-∞
Sampling theorem:
It states that the sampling frequency should be more than or equal to twice the
max frequency component of the message signal (base band)
fs ≥ 2 fm
Laplace transform
Laplace transforms exist only if ∫ x(t). e-st dt exist. I.e. |∫ x(t). e-st dt| < ∞
ROC of Laplace transform: ROC (region of convergence) of Laplace transform is
the region in the x-y plane where Laplace transform is ROC. For e.g. X(s) = 1/s+a is
Valid if s > -a in the x- y plane. If there are more than one root the overlapping area is
the ROC. For e.g. X(s) = 1/((s+a)(s+b)) where |a| > |b| say then,
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t
I.e. ∫ x(τ)d(τ) = 1/s . X(s)
-∞
Z-transform definition:
If x(t) is the signal then its z transform X(z) is defined as follows: -
∞
X(z) = Σ x[n]. z-n
n=-∞
Note: Every transform is of the form ∫x(t).k(s,t)dt. For example of discrete Fourier
transforms ∞ ∞
X(rejω) = Σ x[n].(r.ejω)-n = Σ x[n].e-jωn.r-n
n=-∞ n=-∞
∞
If r = 1 then, X(rejω) = Σ x[n].e-jωn
n=-∞
Properties of Z transform:
If x[n], x1[n], and x2[n] are three signals and X(z), X1(z), X2(z) are their Z
transform respectively and a, b are some constant then,
1. Linearity: ax1[n] + bx2[n] = aX1(z) + bX2(z)
2. Time shifting: x[n-n0] = z-no.X(z)
3. Shifting in z domain: ejωonx[n] = X(e-jωoz), Z0n.x[n] = X(z/z0), an.x[n] = X(a-1z)
4. Time reversal: x[-n] = x[z-1]
5. Conjugation: x*[n] = X*(z*)
6. Convolution: x1[n]*x2[n] = X1(z).X2(z)
7. First difference: x[n] – x[n-1] = (1-z-1)X(z)
8. Differential in z domain: nx[n] = -z.dX(z)/dz
9. Accumulation: ∞
Σx[n] = 1/|1-z-1| . X(z)
n=-∞
Initial value theorem: If x[n] = 0 for n < 0 then x[0] = Limz->∞ X(z)
Application of Z-transform:
1. A discrete time LTI system is causal if and only if the ROC of its system is the
exterior of the circle including ∞.
2. A discrete time LTI system is stable if the function H(z) include the unit circle |z|
= 1.