' $

Z-transforms
Computation of the Z-transform for discrete-time signals:
• Enables analysis of the signal in the frequency domain.
• Z - Transform takes the form of a polynomial.
• Enables interpretation of the signal in terms of the roots of the
polynomial.
• z −1 corresponds to a delay of one unit in the signal.
The Z - Transform of a discrete time signal x[n] is defined as

X
+∞
X(z) = x[n].z −n (1)
n=−∞

where z = r.ejω

& %
' $

The discrete-time Fourier Transform (DTFT) is obtained by

evaluating Z-Transform at z = ejω .

or
The DTFT is obtained by evaluating the Z-transform on the unit
circle in the z-plane.

The Z-transform converges if the sum in equation 1 converges

& %
' $
Region of Convergence(RoC)
Region of Convergence for a discrete time signal x[n] is defined as a
continuous region in z plane where the Z-Transform converges.
In order to determine RoC, it is convenient to represent the
Z-Transform as:a

P (z)
X(z) =
Q(z)

• The roots of the equation P (z) = 0 correspond to the ’zeros’ of

X(z)
• The roots of the equation Q(z) = 0 correspond to the ’poles’ of
X(z)
• The RoC of the Z-transform depends on the convergence of the

& %
a Here we assume that the Z-transform is rational
' $

polynomials P (z) and Q(z),

• Right-handed Z-Transform
– Let x[n] be causal signal given by

x[n] = an u[n]
– The Z - Transform of x[n] is given by

& %
' $

X
+∞
X(z) = x[n]z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞
= an u[n]z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞
= an z −n
n=0
X
+∞
= (az −1 )n
n=0

1
=
1 − az −1
z
=
z−a

& %
– The ROC is defined by |az −1 | < 1 or |z| > |a|.
' $
– The RoC for x[n] is the entire region outside the circle
z = aejω as shown in Figure 1.

RoC |z| > |a|

z−plane

Figure 1: RoC(green region) for a causal signal

& %
• Left-handed Z-Transform
' $

– Let x[n] be an anti-causal signal given by

y[n] = −bn u[−n − 1]

– The Z - Transform of y[n] is given by

& %
' $

X
+∞
Y (z) = y[n]z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞
= −bn u[−n − 1]z −n
n=−∞

X
−1
= −bn z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞
= −(b−1 z)n + 1
n=0

1
= z +1
1− b

z
=
z−b
& %
' $
– Y (z) converges when |b−1 z < 1 or |z| < |b|.
– The RoC for y[n] is the entire region inside the circle
z = bejω as shown in Figure 2

RoC |z| < |a|

z−plane

Figure 2: RoC(green region) for an anti-causal signal

& %
' $

• Two-sided Z-Transform
– Let y[n] be a two sided signal given by

y[n] = an u[n] − bn u[−n − 1]

where, b > a

– The Z - Transform of y[n] is given by

& %
' $

X
+∞
Y (z) = y[n]z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞
= (an u[n] − bn u[−n − 1])z −n
n=−∞

X
+∞ X
−1
= an z −n − bn z −n
n=0 n=−∞

X
+∞ X
+∞
= (az−1)n − (b−1 z)n
n=0 n=1

1 1
= . z +1
1 − az −1 1 − b

z z
= .
z−a z−b
& %
' $
– Y (z) converges for |b−1 z| < 1 and |az −1 | < 1 or |z| < |b| and
|z| > |a| . Hence, for the signal
– The ROC for y[n] is the intersection of the circle z = bejω
and the circle z = aejω as shown in Figure 3

RoC |a| < |z| < |b|

a b

z−plane

Figure 3: RoC(pink region) for a two sided Z Transform

& %
' $
• Transfer function H(z)
– Consider the system shown in Figure 4.

x[n] y[n] = x[n]*y[n]

h[n]
X(z) Y(z) = X(z)H(z)

H(z)

Figure 4: signal - system representation

– x[n] is the input and y[n] is the output

– h[n] is the impulse response of the system. Mathematically,
this signal-system interaction can be represented as follows

y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n]

& %
' $
– In frequency domain this relation can be written as

Y (z) = X(z).H(z)

or

Y (z)
H(z) =
X(z)

H(z) is called ’Transfer function’ of the given system.

In the time domain if x[n] = δ[n] then y[n] = h[n],
h[n] is called the ’impulse response’ of the system.
Hence, we can say that
h[n] ←→ H(z)
& %
' $

Some Examples: Z-transforms

• Delta function

Z(δ[n]) = 1
Z(δ[n − n0 ]) = z −n0

• Unit Step function

x[n] = 1, n ≥ 0
= 0, otherwise
x[n]
1
X(z) = , |z| > 1
1−z −1

The Z-transform has a real pole at the z = 1.

& %
' $

• Finite length sequence

x[n] = 1, 0 ≤ n ≥ N
x[n] = 0, otherwise
1 − z −N
X(z) =
1 − z −1
N
N −1 z − 1
= z , |z| > 1
z−1
The roots of the numerator polynomial are given by:

z = 0, N zeros at the origin

and the nth roots of unity:

j2πk
z=e N , k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , N − 1 (2)

& %
' $

• Causal sequences
1 n 1 n
x[n] = ( ) u[n] − ( ) u[n − 1]
3 2
1 1 1
X(z) = − z −1
, |z| >
1 − 13 z −1 1 − 12 z −1 3

The Discrete time Fourier transform can be obtained by setting

z = ejω Figure 5 shows the Discrete Fourier transform for the
rectangular function.

& %
' $

−N +N −4π −2π 2π 4π
2 2 Ν+1 Ν+1 Ν+1 Ν+1

Figure 5: Discrete Fourier transform for the rectangular function

& %
' $

Some Problems
Find the Z-transform (assume causal sequences):
2 3
a a
1. 1, 1! , 2! , a3! , · · ·
a3 a5 a7
2. 0, a, 0, − 3! , 0, 5! , 0, − 7! , · · ·
a2 a4 a6
3. 0, a, 0, − 2! , 0, 4! , 0, − 6! , · · ·
Hint: Observe that the series is similar to that of the exponential
series.

& %