PHYS3051 FIELDS IN PHYSICS

Laboratory - Optical Fibre Modes

March 2, 2010

STOP

These notes are NOT a step-by-step guide. Read to the next stop point
(including the theory section) before starting the experiment.

1 Introduction
The importance and ubiquity of optical fibres in modern technology, from communications infras-
tructure to medical applications and precision sensors, little needs to be stated. When choosing
a fibre for a given application, one of the most fundamental decisions is between singlemode and
multimode fibres. In this prac, you will work with three different fibres (singlemode, few mode,
and multimode) and compare the output obtained from each type. This will allow you to probe
the theory of modes in waveguides, as well as giving you practical experience coupling laser light
into fibres and measuring their properties.

2 Theory
You probably know already that optical fibres usually comprise cylindrical dielectric waveguides
for which, unlike hollow metallic waveguides, the electric field is not zero at the outer surface of
the waveguide. In other words, the boundary conditions when we solve Maxwell’s equations for
light in the fibre relate not to conductors, but to the reflection/refraction of light at a dielectric
interface, phenomena usually discussed in terms of the Fresnel reflection/refraction coefficients.
Here, we consider only the simplest optical fibre structure: the step-index fibre. All the
fibres used in this experiment take this form. In such a configuration, the fibre is composed of
a cylindrical core of uniform refractive index, surrounded by a cladding region of slightly lower
refractive index, which in turn is usually surrounded by a protective jacket of some kind. (You
can examine these different regions using the fibre scope.) The core and cladding are depicted
in Fig 1.
Although light guided down the fibre is largely concentrated in the core region, the boundary
conditions mean that the fields extend beyond the core into the cladding region, and sometimes
even further. One way to think of this is by treating the light in the fibre as bundles of rays
which must be totally internally reflected from the core-cladding interface in order to propagate
down the fibre. The field which extends into the cladding is then the evanescent field which
decays with distance from the t.i.r. interface. (Such a picture is strictly only valid when the
core diameter is much larger than the wavelength of the light in question.) This evanescent
field explains why at least two fibre regions (core and cladding) are necessary in practice, even
though the core alone would serve as a waveguide in idealised conditions. For, in practice, there
would be some other objects sufficiently close to the core-only fibre that the electric field at
those objects would be non-zero; dirt or dust on the fibre surface are a good example. As a

1
Figure 1: Step-index fibre showing simplified ray approach to propagation and refractive index
profile (core and cladding sizes not to scale).

result, energy would be lost from the guided wave; clearly not a desirable outcome. Note that
the cladding also has other practical benefits, such as adding mechanical strength to the fibre [1].
As you might expect, light in the waveguide takes the form of different modes (see especially
Ref [1]). There are three major types: guided modes, leaky modes, and radiation modes. Guided
modes are discrete modes which propagate down the fibre, of which there are only a finite
number. These modes are distinguished by the fact that their electric field distribution across
the fibre decays exponentially outside the core region, just like the evanescent field associated
with total internal reflection. Guided modes are thus essentially confined to the core. Leaky
modes, on the other hand, are only partially located in the core, and continuously radiate
energy out of the core as they propagate, by means of quantum tunnelling (Ref [2] provides
more details on this process). Finally, an infinite continuum of radiation modes exists. These
can be considered, in the ray picture, as rays which are refracted out of the core (see Fig 1);
some of them become trapped in the cladding and propagate as cladding modes, which may
then couple with higher-order guided modes.
In this experiment, we are mainly interested in guided modes. One simple means to establish
whether light entering the fibre will be guided down it is to use the fibre numerical aperture
(NA), which is usually listed in fibre specifications. It is defined

NA = nin sin θa (1)

where nin is the refractive index of the material from which the light is entering. For our
purposes, this will always be air. θa is known as the fibre’s acceptance angle and is shown in
Fig 1. It is the maximum angle (from the fibre axis) at which a light ray may enter and be
totally internally reflected from the core-cladding interface at its first reflection. Clearly, rays
at larger angles will be refracted out of the core at the first reflection, and will thus contribute
to radiation modes. Not all rays within the acceptance angle, however, will necessarily continue
in a guided mode, for this question also requires us to consider the field description of light in
the fibre.
Such theory is well understood, but too complicated to discuss in full. Here, we take the
weakly guided approximation, which applies when the difference between core and cladding
refractive indices is very small. For a circular fibre cross-section, this yields mode patterns
which are known as LP, for linearly polarised, modes. Some of the lower-order LP modes are
shown in Fig 2. Such modes are labelled LPlm , where l and m are integers, as marked on the
figure.
As with other types of waveguides, it is of great practical importance in many applications to
use singlemode fibres, i.e. those which allow only the lowest-order mode to propagate. Disper-
sion in multimode fibres is a major reason for this. In other words, different modes have different
propagation constants in the fibre, or can be thought of as travelling at different speeds. This
causes a pulse transmitted down the fibre to spread out in time, which is undesirable for commu-
nications applications. Furthermore, although modes can in theory be launched independently,
by varying the launch conditions, distortion of the fibre (like bending it) allows coupling between

2
Figure 2: Low-order LP modes. Pale and dark shading indicates regions out of phase with each
other. (From [3])

modes, so that a signal launched in one mode could interfere with that in another mode. In
practice, mode coupling will occur in multimode fibres. It is not always detrimental, however,
as it can serve to ‘fill out’ the NA of the fibre by exciting additional modes, when those modes
are not initially excited by an input beam having a lower NA than that of the fibre. Finally,
the lowest order mode has a smooth Gaussian (to very good approximation) profile, which is
desirable in many research and sensing applications. We typically characterise the number of
allowed modes in a given fibre at a given input wavelength through the V-number (also known
as the normalised frequency),

V = kin aNA (2)

where kin is the wavenumber of the incident light and a is the radius of the fibre core. If
V ≤ 2.405, only the lowest-order mode can propagate; in practice, this constraint means that
singlemode fibres tend to have much smaller core sizes, on the order of 5 µm diameter, than mul-
timode fibres, with core diameters of 50 µm up to hundreds of microns. They also often exhibit
less difference between the refractive indices of the core and cladding. As can be seen in Fig 3,
as the V-number of a fibre increases, so too does the number of propagating modes, although
this increase is slow at low V-numbers. Multimode fibres can have V-numbers around 50 or
higher; in the case of large V-number, the number of modes in the fibre is given approximately
by

V2
M≈ (3)
2

3 Experiment
3.1 Multimode Fibre
In this section, you will measure the NA of the multimode fibre, calculate its V-number, and
estimate the number of modes present in the fibre.

3.1.1 Examining the Fibre

All fibres used in this prac are connectorised fibres known as patchcords; they have what are
called FC connectors on each end, with the fibre end face polished to a smooth finish perpen-
dicular to the fibre axis. Such ‘plug and play’ fibre patchcords are commonly used in testing
and telecommunications applications as they are much simpler to handle than bare fibre. The
fibre end can be examined using the handheld fibre microscope. Examine the fibre end and try

3
Figure 3: Plot of the normalised propagation constant against the V number for low order LP
modes. (Taken from [1, p. 2254])

to identify the core and cladding regions, as well as any additional protective layers outside the
cladding.
You should also examine all fibres before use to check for potential dust/dirt on the fibre
end. This can be removed by lightly brushing with a lens cleaning tissue. Do not rub the
fibre end as you may damage it. If serious dirt persists, ask a tutor for help.

3.1.2 Coupling Light into the Fibre

Before measuring the NA, we need to couple light into the fibre; this should be simpler with
a multimode than a singlemode fibre due to the larger core size. The aim is to maximise the
amount of laser power transmitted down the fibre. We use a fixed-focus coupler which consists
of an aspheric lens optimised for use at 633 nm. This lens focuses laser light to a tight focus
8 mm from the lens. Often, coupling involves moving the fibre relative to this focus so that
the focal spot falls on the fibre axis, and aligning the fibre end relative to the focus so that the
cone of light emerging from the focus overlaps the fibre’s acceptance cone. In this experiment,
these principles apply; however, in our case, the fibre end position is fixed by the connector
attached to the aspheric lens. Coupling thus involves adjusting the position of the lens relative
to the incoming laser beam, until a maximum of output light is obtained. For this reason, the
coupler is mounted on a two-axis kinematic mount, which you can also adjust in height. Height
and rotation are coarse adjustments, while the knobs on the mount provide fine adjustment of
vertical and horizontal tilt.

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Tips for achieving good coupling

• Ensure that the laser beam is travelling parallel to the surface of the optical breadboard
and parallel to the lines marked out by the holes in the breadboard. This will make your
job easier.

• Leave some space between the laser and the coupler. Later, you may wish to add com-
ponents in between the two, and leaving space now means you won’t have to re-do the
coupling.

• Don’t attach the fibre to the coupler just yet. It is good practice to block the laser
beam while inserting optical components in the beam path in order to avoid uncontrolled
reflections which are potentially damaging. Position the coupler so that the laser spot is
as close to the centre of the lens as possible. For this it may be useful to look at the light
emerging behind the lens. Also adjust the tilt of the coupler so that the front surface is
normal to the laser beam; looking at any back reflection from the lens surface is a good
way to do this.

• Now attach the fibre to the coupler. Examine the light output from the fibre using a piece
of paper. If you can’t see anything, you can look straight at the fibre output end, taking
care not to stare at it; this lets you see very faint light emerging from the fibre. Adjust
the fine controls to maximise the light output; once it is possible to see this on a screen,
stop looking directly at the fibre end. Consult a tutor if you are concerned about whether
it is safe to examine the fibre end directly.

• Coupling into fibres can be frustrating; persevere and try to establish a method in your
adjustments; this will make things easier in the long run. Once you are happy, fix the fibre
output end into the mount provided.

3.1.3 Measuring the NA, V-number and Number of Modes

The fibre NA can be measured by examining the output light on a screen. You should pho-
tograph the output light using the webcam (see tips below). Spend some time determining a
good method for measuring the fibre NA, one which minimises uncertainty. You may have to
adjust the coupling conditions in order to see an output spot which clearly shows the boundary
between light inside the acceptance angle, and that failing to totally internally reflect on the
first reflection.
Compare your measurement to the fibre’s rated NA (given with other fibre specifications in
Table 1) and discuss the uncertainty in your value and how this could be improved. Use your
value of the NA to calculate the fibre’s V-number and approximate the number of modes in the
fibre; discuss the values you obtain. Remember to include uncertainties with all values.
Calculate the NA of the light entering the fibre. A useful formula is the spot size at the
focus of a Gaussian beam,

2λf
w0 = (4)
πD
where w0 is the radius of the spot at the focus, λ is the wavelength in free space, f is the focal
length of the lens, and D is the diameter of the input beam. How does the input NA compare
to that of the fibre? Did this have any impact on how you coupled light into the fibre?
What happens to the output pattern when you start to bend the fibre? Do not bend it in a
tight circle (less than about 3 cm diameter) as this could damage/break the fibre.

5
 Table 1: Multimode and singlemode fibre specifications (as provided by manufacturer).
Specification Multimode Singlemode
core diameter 100 µm -
cladding diameter 140 µm 125 µm
NA 0.290 0.12
cutoff wavelength - 500-600 nm
mode field diameter - 4.3 µm

Tips for photographing the output spot with the webcam

• You can focus the webcam onto the screen using the manual focus slider under the
tab in the settings panel in the Logitech Webcam Software program.

• A key consideration in obtaining good data is not to saturate the camera. You may find
it helpful to place the camera on the opposite side of the screen to the fibre. You can also
adjust the exposure and gain of the camera with sliders under the tab in the settings
panel.

• A Matlab script, saturate.m, is provided on the computer with the prac, as well as on the
course Blackboard site. The file is read only, so you will have to copy the commands to
another m-file. If you save your image as a bitmap, this script will read it in to Matlab
and plot an image of the red channel. You will also be prompted to enter a row number;
the script will plot a cut through that row of the image showing intensity against pixels.
Use this m-file to check that your data is not saturating the camera, as it may be difficult
to tell simply from the image on the screen. Later, you should adapt this m-file to obtain
the necessary data and manipulate it to determine the fibre NA.

STOP

Before continuing, show a tutor the plots generated by saturate.m with the
data you intend to use for the multimode fibre NA. Use the cut through plot to
obtain a rough estimate of the fibre NA. Discuss with the tutor your method
for measuring the NA, i.e. steps you took to reduce uncertainty, and how you
will process your data.

3.2 Singlemode Fibre

In this part of the experiment, you will examine the output pattern of the singlemode fibre,
measure its NA, and investigate the effect of the fibre on the polarisation of the input light.
First, coupling into a singlemode fibre is somewhat trickier than coupling into a multimode
fibre, due to the much smaller core size. If you adjust the coupler to the central position with
the multimode fibre, and then swap fibres, this should be a good starting point for coupling into
the singlemode fibre. Follow the same process as previously to achieve maximum coupling, and
then examine the output spot. How does it differ from what you saw with the multimode fibre?
What happens this time if you bend/wiggle the fibre and why might this be different to what
you saw before?
Next, measure the fibre NA. In this case, the light intensity should take an approximately
Gaussian form, so you could try to fit a Gaussian to your data. Good polynomial fitting
commands in Matlab are lscov (gives an estimate of the error in the fit) and polyfit (no error
estimate). By convention, we take the fibre acceptance angle to be the half-width angle to the
point at which the output intensity is e12 ≈ 5% of its maximum value.

6
 Compare your measurement with the rated NA from Table 1, and discuss the agreement,
your results, and their uncertainties. Discuss the agreement between the NA of the input light
(as determined in the previous section) and the singlemode fibre NA. What does this mean for
power delivery from the fibre? Estimate the V-number of this fibre, and discuss the implications
of this value.
Finally, what effect does the singlemode fibre have on the polarisation of laser light? You
should design a simple experiment to explore this question, using the linear polarisers in rotating
mounts as polarisation analysers, and the photodiode as a detector. It is recommended you use
another coupler on the fibre output end, this time to collimate the outgoing light. This will make
it easier to insert a polariser between the fibre end and the detector, and still have good signal
levels. Some questions you may like to consider are as follows: Is the laser light linearly polarised?
Is the output light linearly polarised, to what degree, and at what angle? To determine the degree
of polarisation, we usually use the extinction ratio, that is, the ratio between the maximum and
minimum power passing the polarisation analyser. The power passing the analyser will depend
on angle following Malus’s law. Does anything change if you change the polarisation of the input
light (±45 degrees from the laser polarisation are good starting points)? What happens if you
change the fibre alignment, such as from coiled to straight?

STOP

SWITCH OFF THE PHOTODIODE. Before continuing, show a tutor the

plots generated by saturate.m with the data you intend to use for the single-
mode fibre NA. Discuss your polarisation experiment and its results with the
tutor.

3.3 Few-mode Fibre

You will further investigate the notion of modes in optical fibres by examining the output pattern
from a few-mode fibre. This fibre is singlemode at telecommunications wavelengths (1330 and
1550 nm), which means it will be multimode at 633 nm. Due to the slow increase of modes
with V-number, however, only a few different modes will be excited by the 633 nm light. By
looking at the output spot and how it changes with the angle of the coupling lens and with
bending/wiggling of the fibre, you can estimate the fibre’s V-number at 633 nm.
First, couple the laser beam into the fibre. Then, vary the angle of the coupling lens around
its optimum and observe the different patterns produced. Similarly, bend/wiggle the fibre and
note the change in the output spot. Photograph a few distinct output patterns for your report.
For 2-3 such distinct patterns, estimate which LP modes are involved in producing the pattern.
Use the mode patterns from Fig 2 and consider how they could be made to interfere, taking into
account destructive (constructive) interference between areas of opposing (the same) phase. You
might find it easier to refer to the colour picture given in Ref [3]. Discuss your deconstructions in
your report. Estimate a V-number range for the fibre, based on the order of LP mode patterns
observed and Fig 3.
Finally, compare the few-mode output patterns with those from the singlemode and multi-
mode fibres. How does the number of modes in the fibre contribute to what you see?

STOP

If you still have time left, return to the polarisation experiment to make more
thorough measurements.
Once you have completed the experiment to your satisfaction, tidy up the
bench, returning the apparatus to its original condition, and have your lab-
book initialled by a tutor.

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References
[1] Keiser, G., Optical Fiber Communications. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical and
Computer Engineering: Communications and Signal Processing, ed. S.W. Director. 2000,
Boston: McGraw-Hill. [TK5103.59.K44]

[2] Sharma, A.B., S.J. Halme, and M.M. Butusov, Optical Fiber Systems and Their Components:
An Introduction. Springer Series in Optical Sciences. 1981, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York:
Springer. [TA1800.S47]

[3] Paschotta, R. Fibers. Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology [accessed 9 February
2010]; Available from: http://www.rp-photonics.com/fibers.html.

[4] Gloge, D., Weakly Guiding Fibers. Applied Optics, 1971. 10(10): p. 2252-2258.

Kim Hajek 2010