Today, Patterns in Polygonal Numbers
Washington University Middle School Mathematics Teachers’ Circle
Richard Lodholz, February 6, 2008
Keith Devlin, in his book, Mathematics: The Science of Patterns, presents a humanistic
view of mathematics. He relates the search for patterns that pushes the mathematics
of such content as counting, reasoning, motion, shape, and position. Match these
categories for patterns respectively with the topics of natural numbers, logic,
calculus, geometry, and symmetry, and you will have an overview of some of my
sessions. Throughout the sessions of the Teachers’ Circle we will be discussing such
patterns, creating ideas and mathematizing those ideas.
Let’s first look at the patterns described by the ancient Greeks (Pythagoreans) around
500 B.C. They believed “everything was number” and so were most interested in
connecting numbers to geometric figures. The name is handed down as figurative
numbers. Some texts refer to them as polygonal numbers. These are numbers that
can be illustrated by dots arranged as figures (polygons).
Everyone knows about square numbers, but many students today merely call them
squares without thinking of the figure. Literally, the numbers relate to the regular
polygon of four sides. The first five of these well known numbers are illustrated
below.
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1 4 9 16 25
The least number of sides for a polygon is 3 (triangle), so let’s look at triangular
numbers. We will see later in this discussion the powerful relationships that these
numbers generate.
The first six triangular
numbers are
constructed below.
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What is the seventh triangular number? The sum of consecutive counting numbers
will determine triangular numbers. This is shown by 1 + 2 + 3 = the third triangular
number, 6. Then the seventh triangular number is determined by the sum of the
numbers 1 through 7. If we know this formula we have a formula for the nth
triangular number.
We will see later another method of determining a rule for generating the nth
triangular number, however many know the Gaussian formula for finding the sum of
consecutive counting numbers.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12
If you work in from the outside pairs you will see 1 + 12 = 13 just as 2 + 11 = 13, and 3
+ 10 = 13. In fact, this pattern has 6 pairs of numbers with the sum of 13. Saying it
another way, half of the numbers will have a sum equal to one more than the ending
number. Mathematizing this idea gives the formula for consecutive numbers 1 to n
and provides the following:
n n(n + 1)
half , or times “one more than the ending number”, (n + 1) , or
2 2
For this case, using 12 for n, giving us 78 as the 12th triangular number.
Some other geometric figures or polygons are pentagons, hexagons, heptagons,
octagons, nonagons, and decagons. Below are illustrations of the first few numbers
for some of these figures. The first five pentagonal numbers are:
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1 5 12 22 35
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The first
five
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1 6 15 28 45
hexagonal numbers are illustrated by these overlapping hexagons.
The dots are determined by increasing the side lengths of the hexagons. The first is
trivial with 1 dot. The second has 2 dots on each side, the third has 3 dots on each
side and includes the previous hexagon’s dots (each dot only counted once). The
fourth figure has 4 dots on each side added to the previous figure, and so on.
Patterns can be seen to generate other numbers without actually drawing the figures
with the dots.
Following are illustrations for the first few heptagonal numbers, octagonal numbers
and nonagonal numbers. Heptagonal numbers 1 through 5 are shown.
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1 7 18 34 55
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The first 4 octagonal numbers are 1, 8, 21, and 40. Find the 5th octagonal number?
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The first four nonagonal numbers are counted using the 9sided polygons. Count the
dots to find these to be: 1, 9, 24, and 46. Explain why the 5th nonagonal number is 75.
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Make a listing or make a table for the first ten of each of these polygonal numbers
through the decagon. There are some amazing patterns and relationships for the
numbers. It is easy to see why the Pythagoreans were interested in these figurative
numbers.
What patterns do you find?
Numbers 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
Triangular 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55
Square 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Pentagonal 1 5 12 22 35 51 70 92 117 145
Hexagonal 1 6 15 28 45 66 91 120 153 190
Heptagonal 1 7 18 34 55 81 112 148 189 235
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Octagonal 1 8 21 60 65 96 133 176 225 280
Nonagonal 1 9 24 46 75 111 154 204 261 325
Decagonal 1 10 27 52 85 126 175 232 297 370
Verify that the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is a square number. We
could use our mathematical notation below
T (2) + Τ (3) = Σ(3)
to identify that the second triangular number plus the third triangular number equals
the third square number. Verify that is true, then test the generalized rule for the rest
of the table.
Find the result of 2 times the third triangular number plus the fourth triangular
number. We could denote this as 2T (3) + Τ (4) . What type of number is the result?
What about 3T (n) + Τ (ν + 1) ?
Write some other algebraic notations to explain similar patterns using the triangular
numbers to generate other figurative numbers. Describe the generalized pattern with
algebraic notation. Or, complete the right side of the following identify.
kT (n) + Τ (ν + 1) = ?
A quick review of some basic algebraic concepts solving systems of equations, along
with some marvelous patterns, will provide us with a scheme to determine rules
(formulas) for generating each of the figurative numbers we have investigated.
Patterns of motion and change and the concept of limit were mathematized
independently by a German, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Englishman, Sir Isaac
Newton in the seventeenth century. A unified general approach (calculus) to the
solution of problems of motion and change with the derivative and integral was the
keystone of methods and techniques developed over the centuries. Renes Descartes
was a critical player in this story line with his unification of algebra and geometry.
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One example from patterns with polynomials is the discrete analog of the derivative.
If we know that ordered pairs belong to a polynomial function then we can
determine that function with only a few discrete values. This method of determining
the coefficients for terms in the equation is the concept called Finite Differences.
The idea relates to patterns of change in the function f(x), considering consecutive
changes in x. Let’s look at the concept of function with each figurative number. We
know, or can easily be convinced, that linear functions have a constant rate of change
and can be expressed in standard form:
f(x) = ax + c, for a and c real numbers
For example, consider the function given by: f(x) = 2x + 4. Some values of this linear
function are:
(1,6), (2,8), (3,10), (4,12), and (5,14)
If you plot the points determined by these values you will see they lie on a line. Each
time x increases by 1, f(x) increased by 2. Of course the constant increase comes from
a = 2. A graph (line) would go through the obvious point (0,4) and then contain each
of the points listed. Each time by moving over 1 to the right, and up 2, increasing
with a slant of 2.
Since the rate of change is constant with the first differences in f(x) we call this a first
degree equation. You may recall your calculus days and be convinced the value of
derivative for a first degree equation is constant (in this case, 2).
Investigate the differences in consecutive triangular numbers. Look at the first few
ordered pairs of numbers belonging to the triangular numbers.
1 → 1,
change of 2
2 → 3, change of 1
change of 3
3 → 6, change of 1
change of 4
4 → 10 change of 1
change of 5
5 → 15
These pairs do not belong to a linear or relationship of the first degree, because the
rate of change (difference) is not constant on the first change. The rate of change is
constant with the second difference. This is an example of a second degree function.
The standard form (convention) for a second degree function in algebra is:
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f(x) = ax 2+ bx + c, for a, b, c ∈ Reals
The concept of Finite Differences can be used to determine the coefficients a, b, and c
in the polynomial equation. Use the ordered pairs above to find specific equations
representing this set. Since (2,3) belongs to the set, x = 2 produces the result f(2) = 3.
So, we obtain the equation: 3 = a(2)2 + b(2) + c, or 4a + 2b + c = 3
This equation has 3 unknowns for which we want a solution. The algebraic
convention is to produce 3 such equations with 3 unknowns and eliminate by
substitution to find the values for the unknowns.
Using the ordered pairs (2,3), (3,6), and (4,10) from the triangular number
relationships, we generate these three equations in the system. This system of 3
equations with 3 unknowns will permit us to find values for a, b, and c.
4a + 2b + c = 3
subtract eq.1 from eq.2 to get 5a + b = 3
9a + 3b + c = 6
subtract eq.2 from eq.3 to get 7a + b = 4
16a + 4b + c = 10
subtract top result from bottom equation to get 2a = 1
or a = 1/2
Substituting (1/2) as the value of a into 5a + b = 3, and solving, gives us b = 1/2
Substituting for both a and b into equation 1: 4(1/2) + 2(1/2) + c = 3
4/2 + 2/2 + c = 3
which gives us a solution c = 0.
1 1 1 2 1 x2 + ξ x(x + 1)
So a = b = and c = 0, which yields f(x) = (x) + x or or
2 2 2 2 2 2
Look back on page 2 to find the formula for the sum of consecutive integers. Observe
the illustrations of the triangles generating the triangular numbers. Clearly each
consecutive triangular number is given by the addition of the bottom row, or merely
the next consecutive counting number.
This is a nice formula to commit to memory. It is also the generating formula for the
triangular numbers.
Now that we know the concept we can repeat the process using Finite Differences to
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find algebraic formulas for other polygonal numbers.
Look at pentagonal numbers. The listing below shows that this is also representative
of a second degree relation. We can use the same algorithm to determine a, b, and c.
1 → 1,
change of 4
2→5 change of 3
change of 7
3 → 12 change of 3
change of 10
4 → 22 change of 3
change of 13
5 → 35
4a + 2b + c = 5
subtract eq.1 from eq.2 to get 5a + b = 7
9a + 3b + c = 12 subtract top from
subtract eq.2 from eq.3 to get 7a + b = 10 bottom equation
16a + 4b + c = 22 to get
2a = 3
or a = 3/2
Substituting (3/2) for a into 5a + b = 7 gives us b = (1/2)
Substituting for both a and b into equation 1 give us c = 0.
3x 2 − ξ
(3/2)x2 – (1/2)x = f(x) or
2
This technique will produce the table below, algebraically representing the figurative
numbers we have discussed.
n2 + ν
Triangular
2
Square
2
n
3n 2 − ν
Pentagonal
2
Hexagonal 2n − ν
2
5n 2 − 3ν
Heptagonal
2
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Octagonal 3n 2 − 2 ν
7n 2 − 5 ν
Nonagonal
2
4n − 3ν
2
Decagonal
2
Of course we should always be alert to other ideas for solution to math situations.
Using the beauty and power of creating ideas when interpreting patterns, consider
the following thinking.
This organization of the data and solution is not as systematic and mechanical as
the Finite Differences concept.
Look at these listings.
pentagonal numbers 1 5 12 22 35 51 . . .
consecutive differences 4….7 10 13 16 . . .
1 1
5 1 + (1+3)
12 1 + (1+3) + ((1+3(2))
22 1 + (1+3) + ((1+3(2)) + (1+3(3))
35 1 + (1+3) + ((1+3(2)) + (1+3(3)) + ((1+3(4))
. . .
. . .
. . .
n 1 + (1+3) + ((1+3(2)) + (1+3(3)) + ((1+3(4)) + . . . + ((1+3(n1))
So, look at these patterns.
We have (1, n times) and we have 3 times {sum of numbers, 1 to (n1)}
Or,
n −1
we have n + 3 ∑ i we are pros finding sums of consecutive numbers
1
n −1
(n − 1)ν
so this becomes n + 3 ∑ i = n + 3
1
2
3n 2 − 3ν
= n +
2
2n 3n 2 − 3ν 3n 2 − ν
= + = =
2 2 2
The patterns within these patterns will relate that:
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n −1 n−1
hexagonal numbers will be n + 4 ∑ i , heptagonal numbers are given by n + 5 ∑ i ,
1 1
n−1
octagonals by n + 6 ∑ i , and in general polygonal number relating to a polygon
1
n −1
with k number of sides will be provided by n + (k2) ∑ i
1
Other investigations and problems with figurative numbers.
1. Test the formulas in the table to be convinced that they do generate the
appropriate figurative numbers.
2. Use the concept of Finite Differences to develop a couple of these rules.
3. Use the formula to find T(19)
4. Compare T(19) with H(10)
5. Verify that every hexagonal number in the table is also a triangular number.
6. Look at the patterns in the relationship between hexagonal numbers and
triangular numbers and generalize the relationship with an algebraic equation.
7. Find the difference between P(6) and the square of 6. What kind of number is
it?
8. Find the difference between P(8) and the square of 8. What kind of number is
it?
9. Investigate the pattern for the differences between a pentagonal number (n)
and the square of (n). What is your conclusion?
10. Investigate the sum of consecutive cubes starting with 1. In other words, find
these results: 13, 13 + 23, 13 + 23 + 33, 13 + 23 + 33 + 43, and so forth until you have
the sum of all cubes up to 10.
11. Verify that each of sums of cubes in problem 10 is also a square.
12. Generalize the result from the pattern in problems 10 and 11.
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13. Investigate the sum of the cubes of consecutive odd numbers. These are
squares of what figurative numbers?
14. Investigate the sum of the cubes of consecutive even numbers beginning with
2. Divide the results by 8. What is your conclusion?
15. Investigate the differences between consecutive cubes. Make a list of these up to
the result of 103 – 93. From each of these results subtract 1 and divide those results
by 6. What is your conclusion?
Note: Some of the investigations and questions are rephrased from the book:
Experiments With Patterns In Mathematics, by Boyd Henry
Published by Dale Seymour Publications, 1987
If it is still in print it would be a good resource, in any event credit is given.
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