Jen Jackson

AP Psych, C-Gold
4/8/11

Chapter 2- Neuroscience & Behavior

I. Neural Communication
A. Neurons
Neurons- a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous
system
Dendrite- the branches of the neuron that receives signals
Axon- an extension of the neuron, ending in branching
fibers, through which messages are transmitted to muscles and
other neurons
Action Potential- a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge
that travels down an axon, generates by the movement of
positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s
membranes
Myelin Sheath- a layer of fatty tissue encasing many fibers of
the neurons, allows faster transmission and neural impulses
Threshold- the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural
impulse
B. How Neurons Communicate
Synapse-the junction between the axon tip of the sending
neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The
tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
Neurotransmitters- Chemical transmitters that traverse the
synaptic gap between neurons
C. How Neurotransmitter Influence Us
Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter that, among its
functions, triggers muscle contraction
 1. The Endorphins
Endorphins- the level of stimulation required to trigger a
neural impulse
2. How Drugs and Other Chemicals Alter
Neurotransmission
II. The Nervous System
Nervous System- the body’s speedy, electrochemical
communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the
peripheral and central nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)- the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- the sensory and motor
neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of
the body
Nerves- neural “cables” containing many axons, part of the
peripheral and central nervous systems
Sensory Neurons- neurons that carry incoming information
from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
Interneurons- central nervous system neurons that internally
communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and
motor outputs
Motor Neurons- neurons that carry outgoing information from
the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
A. The Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System- the division of the peripheral
nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; also
called the skeletal nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System- the part of the peripheral
nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles to the
internal organs (such as the heart)
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms
 B. The Central Nervous System
1. Spinal Cord and Brain
2. Neural Networks
Neural Networks- interconnected neural cells, with
experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or
inhibits connections that produce certain results

III. Da Brain
A. The Tools Of Discovery
Lesion- destruction to tissue
1. Clinical Observations
2. Manipulating the Brain
3. Recording the Brain’s Electrical Activity
4. Neuro-imaging Techniques
CT scan- a series of x-ray photographs taken from
different angles and combined by computer into a
composite representation of a slice through the body
MRI - a technique that uses magnetic field and radio
waves to produce computer generated images that
distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us
to see structures within the brain.
PET scan- a visual display of the brain activity that
detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the
brain performs a given task
B. Lower-Level Brain Structures
1. The Brainstem
Brainstem- the oldest part and central core of the brain,
beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the
skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival
functions.
 Medulla- the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat
and breathing
Reticular Formation- a nerve network in the brainstem
that plays an
important role in controlling arousal
2. The Thalamus
Thalamus- the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on
top of the
brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving
areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum
and medulla.
3. The Cerebellum
Cerebellum- the “little brain” attached to the rear of the
brainstem; it
helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
4. The Limbic System
Limbic System- a doughnut shaped system of neural
structures at the
border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres;
associated with
emotions such as fear aggression and drives such as those
for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdale,
and hypothalamus.
The Amygdale- two almond shaped neural clusters that are components
of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.
The Hypothalamus- a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several
maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine
system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
C. Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex-the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the
cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing
center
1. Structure of the Cortex
Glial Cells- cells in the nervous system that support,
nourish, and protect neurons
Frontal Lobes- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying
just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle
movements and in making plans and judgments.
Parital Lobes- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at
the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the
sensory cortex.
Occipital Lobes- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying
at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which
receive visual information from the opposite visual field.
Temporal Lobes- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying
roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each
of which receives auditory information primarily from the
opposite ear.
2. Functions of the Cortex
• Motor Functions
Motor Cortex- an area at the read of the
fontal lobes that controls voluntary
movements
• Sensory Functions
Sensory Cortex- the area at the front of
the parietal lobes that registers and
processes body sensations
• Association Areas
 Association Areas- areas of the
cerebral cortex that are not involved in
primary motor or sensory functions;
rather, they are involved in higher
mental functions such as learning,
remembering, thinking, and speaking.
• Language
Aphasia-
Broca’s area- controls language
expression, area of the frontal
lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that
directs the muscle movements involved
in speech.
Warnicke’s area- controls language
reception, a brain area involved
in language comprehension and
expression, usually in the left temporal
lobe.
3. Brain Reorganization
Plasticity- the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident
in brain reorganization following damage (especially in
children) and in experiments on the effects of experience
on brain development
Our Divided Brains
1. Splitting the Brain
Corpus Callosum- the large band of neural fibers
connecting the tow brain hemispheres and carrying
messages between them
Split Brains- a condition in which the two hemispheres of
the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers
(mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.
 2. Studying Hemispheric Differences in the Intact Brain
3. Brain Organization
• Is Handedness Inherited?
• So, It’s Alright to be Left-Handed?
• The Case of the Disappearing Southpaws
IV. The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System- the body’s “slow” chemical
communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones
into the bloodstream
Hormones- chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured
by the endocrine glands, that are produced in on tissue and
affect another.
Adrenal Glands- a pair of endocrine glands just about the
kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline), which help to
arouse the body in times of stress.
Pituitary Gland- the endocrine system’s most influential gland.
Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates
growth and controls other endocrine glands.