ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration includes the movement of air into and

out of the lungs, exchange of gases between the air and
the blood, the transport of gases in the blood.
Functions:
1. Gas exchange - the respiratory system allows oxygen
from the air to enter the blood and CO2 to leave the
blood and enter the air.
2. Regulation of blood pH - it can alter the blood pH by
changing blood CO2 levels.
3. Voice production - air movement past the vocal cords makes sound and speech possible.
4. Olfaction - sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity.
5. Innate immunity - it provides protection against some microorganism by preventing their
entry into the body by removing them from respiratory surfaces.
 Upper Respiratory Tract (nasal cavity and pharynx)
 Nares - external opening
 Choane - openings into the pharynx
 Nasal septum - divides cavity into right and left
 Hard palate - floor of the nasal cavity
 Conchae - prominent bony ridges on the lateral wall of each nasal cavity
 Paranasal sinuses - air filled with spaces within the skull, reducing the weight and
act as resonating chambers (frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, sphenoidal)
 Pharynx - passageway of air and solid particles, leads to respiratory and digestive

3 Regions:
1. Nasopharynx - from choane to the level of uvula, contains pharyngeal tonsils as
defense against microorganism
2. Oropharynx - from uvula to the epiglottis, contains palatine and lingual tonsils
 3. Laryngopharynx - posterior to the larynx and extend from the tip of epiglottis to the
esophagus
 Lower Respiratory Tract (larynx, bronchi, lungs)
 Larynx - posterior to the pharynx and inferior to the trachea; consist of 3
unpaired and 6 paired cartilages, primary source of sound production
Unpaired cartilage:
1. Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple)
2. Cricoid cartilage - bone of larynx
3. Epiglottis - made up of elastic cartilage which help prevent swallowed material
from entering the larynx
Paired cartilage:
1. Cuneiform cartilage
2. Corniulate cartilage
3. Arythenoid cartilage
 Trachea - membranous tube that consist of dense connective tissue and small
muscle reinforced with C shaped cartilage (16-20)
1. Trachealis muscle - contraction of this smooth muscle narrows its
diameter
2. Primary bronchi - divides to form two smaller tubes
3. Carina - most inferior tracheal cartilage which separates the opening
to two primary bronchi, very sensitive to mechanical stimulation and foreign objects
 Bronchi - left and right main bronchi, left bronchi is more horizontal than the
right because it is displaced by the heart
 Lungs - powerful organs of respiration
- Right - 3 lobes, superior, middle and inferior
- Left - 2 lobes, superior and inferior
Secondary bronchi - conduct air to each lobe
Bronchioles - subdivide numerous times which gives rise to terminal bronchioles
Alveoli - small air sacs, connected to alveolar ducts and alveolar bronchioles
 The epithelium from trachea to bronchioles is ciliated to facilitate removal of debris.
Cartilage helps to hold the tubes system open. Smooth muscle helps to control diameter of
tubes especially bronchioles.
Pleural membranes - surround the lungs and provide protection
Pleura - serous membranes
Parietal pleura - lines the wall of thorax, diaphragm, mediastinum continuous to lungs
Visceral pleura - covers the surface of the lungs
Pleural cavity - filled with small volume of fluid produced by the pleural membranes
Pleural fluid - acts as a lubricant, helps hold the pleural membranes together
Diaphragm - dome-shaped, attaches to the inner circumference of the thoracic wall.

VENTILATION AND LUNG VOLUMES

Ventilation is the process of moving air in and out of the lungs;
the two phases include inspiration and expiration.
Changing thoracic volume
- Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm contracts and the external
intercostals muscles lift the ribcage, thus increasing the volume of the
thoracic cavity.
- Expiration can be passive or active. Passive expiration during occurs
when muscles are relaxed. Active respiration ours when the diaphragm
relaxes and the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles depress the
rib cage to forcefully decrease the volume of thoracic cavity.

Tidal volume - volume of air inspired and expired with each breath.
Inspiratory reserve volume - amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of
resting tidal volume.
Expiratory reserve volume - amount of air that can be expired forcefully after expiration of the
resting tidal volume.
Residual volume - volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs after
maximum expiration
ALVEOLAR PRESSURE CHANGES
End of expiration - alveolar pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, no air movement.
During inspiration - increase thoracic volume results in decrease pressure inside the alveoli. Air
moves into the lungs.
End of inspiration - alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. No air movement.
During expiration - decreased thoracic volume results in increased pressure in the alveoli. Air
moves out of the lungs.
GAS EXCHANGE
The respiratory membrane is all of the areas in which gas
exchange between air and blood occurs. The dead space is
the part of respiratory passageway in which gas exchange
between air and blood does not occur. Increased thickness
in respiratory membrane results in decreased gas exchange.