BHP

THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO

DYNAMIC LOADS

by

Dr. Frank Gatto

BHP Engineering Pty Ltd

Date of presentation." 1 April, 1995

BHP Engin~.ering Pb’ Lid AC::N 008 630 500

~ BHP

INTRODUCTION
This document is intended as a guide for structural engineers to analyse
and design structures subjected to d.~nnamic loads. Design methods are
presented as well as criteria wKich specify an accep~ble level of vibration.

The effects of dynamic loads, that is, loads that vary with rime, can be
significantly greater than the effects of static loads with the same
magnitude. As well as increased stresses and deformations in a structure,
other adverse effects include failure due to fatigue, ser~,iceability problems
and occupant discomforc

Tradi~iona!Iy, smact’,~res subjected to d)~amic loads have been designed by

trs~-,.g to ensure that the major natural frequencies of the structure are not
close to the frequency of the applied forces. V,’-i~e the calculation and study
of the structure’s natural frequencies present a guide to the beha~io ,ur of the
structure, it does not give the complete picture.

Some of the reasons why design by avoidance of natural frequencies should

be no.~t be relied upon exclusively include -

Structural engineers are interested in the vibration amplitudes.

Acceptable levels of vibration specified by ~rious Codes of Practice are
usually defined in terms of {-ibration amplitudes.

Unacceptable vibration amplitudes may be caused by -

!. Vibrating loads applied at frequencies near the structure natural
frequency.
2. Large vibratS~g loads applied at frquencies away from the structure
natmra! frequency.
3. A combination of (1] and (2].

Different parts of the structure may tolerate different levels of ~Sbration.

For example, kn a mine processin~ plant, the vibration amplitudes in the
occupant areas need to be less than in the remainder of the plant.

Typically, when calculating natural frequencies, only the major

structure natural frequencies are considered. Most structures are
complex and have many natural frequencies. Some of these natural
frequencies are major structure natural frequencies and many are
localised. Vibration at certain locations may be caused by Iocalised
natural frequencies.

The best method to use for the design of structures subject to dynamic loads
is to calculate the vibration response. In this document, some hand
calculation methods are presented which are suitable for preliminary design
and for simple structures. However more complex structures require
computer analysis. When underta_tdng a vibration analysis, it is also
important to check the sensitivity of the modeIIing assumptions.
Structural designers should also consider other methods of reducing the
vibration levels. Ways in which nuisance from vibration can be reduced
include -

Reduction of vibration at its source.

Reduction of the vibration transmitted to the immediate surroundings at
the source.

Page 1
 ¯ Placing equipment that causes vibration as far as possible from people
and equipment likely to be affected.
¯ Protecting sensitive apparatus against external vibration.
¯ Protecting the whole structure or part of it against external vibration.

For example, consideration should be given to using xibration isolation

systems or separating occupant areas from sources of vibration.

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2. DYNAMIC LOADS
Dynamic loads can be categorised into four main groups (see Figure 1).

Harmonic loads va~., according to a sine function with or without a phase

shift. They affect the-structure for a sufficiently tong time to permit a
steady-state vibration response. They may be caused by machines with
sS~nchronously rotating mases which are slightly out of balance or machines
with intentional out of balance forces.

Periodic loads exhibit a time ~riation which is repeated at regular intervals.

Although the load ~ithin one period is arbitrary., its repetition allows it to be
decomposed into a series of harmopJc loads through a Fourier
tra.nsformation. The duration of the load is long enough for a steady state
response to develop. They may a_rise arise from human motion such as
walking, ru_nning and machines ha~ing more than one unbalanced mass or
oscillating parts.

Transient loads exhibit an arbitrary time ~riation without any periodicity.

Such loads can be due to v~-’md, ~-ater waves, earthquakes, rail or trm~c and
construction works.

Impulsive loads are als0 of a t~ansient narm-e. Their duration, however, is

very sho~ so that the structural member affected reacts in a different
ma!-l!ler,

Dead load

Perrr~nent bad

~ SIoMy varying bads

Loads Machine operation

Human motbn
Harmonic
Wind

Water w~ves
Periodic
Earthquakes
Dynamic

Rail and road traffic

Transient
Conarucibn works

impact
tmpuls;’ve

~ Loss of support

Figure 1. Types of loading in structural engineering

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at ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
"gm-ee major criteria need to be considered when evaJuating the effects of
~ibration. Ernese are -
. human body perception and response;
¯ effects on equipment and machineo’; and
¯ structural design and detailing with respect to fatigue life.
Each of these criteffa will be discussed in detail in the follo~"mg section.

3.1. HUMAN BODY PERCEPTION

The human body can detect mag.~_itudes of ~ibra~ion lower than those which
would norma!ly cause mechanical problems. The "discomfo~" or
"annoyance" produced bv whole body ~ibration is a veO" influential factor
and may be the one of the limiKng parame*,ers Ln l_he design of the structure.
However, in some cases, it is d~cuh to eliminate the perception of
vibration. Therefore the objecNve is to idenKfy those components (i.e.
frequency of ~dbraNon, directions of motion, etc.) which contribute most to
adverse subjective reaction and concentrate on their reduction.

3.1.1. Vibration Exposure to AS2670.1

It is possible to predict the extent of subjec13ve reacNons (i.e. discomforx or
annoyance) from measurements of vibration. The sensitivity of the human
body to horizontal and vertical vibration has been incorporated into a
vibration evaluation guide published by Australian Standards. This is
AS2670: Part 1 - Evaluation of human exT~osure to whole-body vibration- Part
1: Generol requirements. Vibration exposure limits are given as a function of
these quantities:
¯ direction of motion, either horizontal or vei-dcal;
¯ frequency of ~bration;
¯ acceleration of the osci!lations; and
¯ exposure time.

This relationship is sho~..-n in figures 2 and 3. For practical evaluation

purposes, three main human criteria are distinguished. These a_re :
¯ the prese~,ation of health and safety ("ex~posure limit");
¯ the preservation of working efficiency ("fatigue decreased proficiency
boundary"); and
¯ the presen-ation of comfort ("reduced comfort boundary").

//L~os~limtt, The exposure limit recommended is set at approximately

/~alf the~ level considered to be the threshold of pain (or limit of voluntary
[~.l..erance) for healthy human subjects. These ~ not be exceeded
%~ithout special just_t+~cation and awareness of a~ )~,,

Fatigue decreased proficiency botmdary. This boundary species a limit

beyond which exposure to vibration can be regarded as carrying a significant
risk of impairing working efficiency in many types of tasks. The actual
degree of task interference in any situation depends on many factors,
including individual characteristics as well as the nature and difficulty of
the task. For example, a more stringent limit may be applied when the task
is of a particulayly demanding perceptual nature or ca!Is for an exercise of
fLne manual skill. By contrast, some relaxation of the limit might be
possible in circumstances in which the performance of the task (e.g. heavy
manual work) is relatively insensitive to vibration.

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 Reduced comfort boundary. The reduced ~ bounda-Dr is related to
difficulties of cano.ing out such operations as em~_ reading and

~oo.oo0

1.ODD

0.100 ,
1
Frequency[t~
Figure 2. Senstttvi~ of h~s to ~ ~ibratton for fatigue
~n~y bm,~a~~F~ ~e ..lf~t ~ttpI~ ~

1 DO.ODD
lm
__16m

Ii lh
2.5h
4h
10.000 8h
16h
24h

1.000

.,

0,100

1 10 100
Frequen¢’~ ~

Figure 3, Sensitivity of humax~s to ~ vibration for fatigue

F~ ~l~sure limit multiply
accelerations by 2.0, For reduced comfa~2B~i~llvlde accelerations by
3.15.

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 3.1.2. Vibration Exposure to AS2670.2

AS2670:P~2 - Eva[uazion of human ex’posure to wh~le-body vibration- Part

2: Continuous and shock-i~nduced uibrazton in bu~kiings (i ~o 80 Hz) is
speckfically for the assessment of human e_xposure to con ~u-nuous vibration
ha buildings. Vibration is assessed on the basis of the ~ibra~on dose value
(X~D\0. A base acceleration curve is provided (Figure 4) and a muldp!)~mg
factor is used to distinguish different classes of buil ~dings (Table t).

1.000 ___

Frequency (Hz)

Fig~e 4. Base vertical acceleration curve for 16 hour day or 8 hour

night.

Table I. Multiplying factors used to specify satisfactory magnitudes of

bulldin~ vibration.
Time Multiplying factor

Critical working areas (e.g. Day 1

hospital operating theatres, Night 1
precision laboratories)
Residential Day 2to4
Night 1.4
Office Day 4
Night 4
Workshops Day 8
Night 8

Table 1 leads to magnitudes of rib.ration below which the probability of

adverse comments is low. Doubling of the suggested ~ibration magnitudes
may result in adverse comment and this may increase significantly ff the
magnitudes are quadr~pled.

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3,2. EFFECTS OF VIBRATION ON MACHINE BEHAVIOUR

With regard to machine behavior_r, the design of a structure may be

considered satisfactory ff the follo~’Lng conditions are satisfied:
¯ no damage is done to the roach.the;
¯ the performance of the machine or adjacent machines is not impaired;
and
¯ ~cessive maintenance and repair costs for the macl~ine and De
adjacent macl-Knes are not generated.

This criteria for acceptance must be based on the particular ~pe of reactS.he
and other mact~_nes and equipment operating in the vicir~i~. For example,
more stringent criteria may have to be applied ff the operation of precision
ins~r’m-nents in an area subject to vibration is involved. Equipment
manKfacm_rers may provide inYorma~on on acceptable ambient ~bra~ion
levels for their sensi~ve equipment.

Vibration tolerances for heavy macl-zines are given in figure 5.

1.00E+O0

1.00E-01

0olO

1.00E-02

1.00E-03

lOO
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5. General machinery vibration severity chart.

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3.3. EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

Many structures suffer a reduction in strenguh after they have been

subjected to cyclic loading. This phenomenon is kno~-n as fatigue and is
essentially a process, of crack mitigation and subsequent propagation. T’ne
effect of any form of dynamic response is to reduce the fatigue life because:
¯ the amplitude of the stress variation at any point is increased;
¯ the frequency of the stress reversal is associated with a combination of
the natural frequency of the structure and the forcing frequency.

The actual mode of failure and time to failure are dominated by the local
physical features of the struct-ure as well as external factors such as
corrosion, temperature, pre-treatment, etc. The failure of a structure is
therefore dominated by the weakest links in the failure chain and much
effort is required to identify, and eliminate them.
For high cycle fatigue, AS4100-t990, Section 11 has a good ~-eatment of the
design of structures and structural elements subject to loadings which could
lead to fatigue. Within the limitations described in AS4100, Section 1 t.4
states that fatigue assessment is not required for a member, connection or
deta_il ff the normal or shear design stress ~satisfy

f" < 26MPa

or ff the number of stress cycles, nso satisfies

Even t~hough mechanical failure due to material fatigue is by far t_he most
commortly known deteriorating effect of vibrations, a ~bra~ng mechanical
construction may fail in practice for other reasons as well. Failure may, for
instance, be caused by the occurrence of one, or a few, excessive "4bration
amplitudes [brittle materials, contact - failures in relays and switches,
collisions between two vibraKng systems, etc).

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4. SENSITIVITY
Vibration analysis is a function of mass, damping, stiffness and the applied
forces. A change in any one of these factors may be sufficient to make the
beha~iou.r of the structure or certain elements of the structure unacceptable.

Some of the modelling assumptions which can affect rise accuracy of the
results include:
¯ simplistic modelling of cormec~on details Ipirmed or f~xed joints, s1~p at
joints, etc);
¯ change of stiffness due to floors and secondary members not considered
in model;
¯ difficulty in calculating the exact mass;
¯ changing live loads during structure operation (e.g. spillage due so poor
housekeeping;
¯ difficulty in modelling the interaction bet~veen structure and mach_ine;
¯ difficulty in modelling the interaction between structure and soil; and
° difficulty in correctly specifying the s~racm_re damping.

In general, it has been found that it is very difficult to predict the natural
frequency of a structure to better than ±10% of the actual structure natural
frequency.

It is very importar~t for the de’signer to undertake a series of sensiti~ity

studies and evaluate the importance of various factors. Figure 6 shows the
results of a se~.si~i~iry analysis on a simple structure. As can be seen, the
actual dsmamic displacements may be much greater than the calculated
results.

20.00

16,00

14.00

12.00

10.00
i i i"’W’e"/I I I\1
8.00
I I I ! /! ~ ! \1 I
6.00

4.00 I i i I~j/ \ I\,

~ ~I !/I Ill ~\~ \ ~I
2.00

0.00

10 15 20 25
Forcing frequency (Hz)

Figure 6. Results from sensitivity arm.lysis.

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5. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
T’ne following rules provide acceptable levels of sela-iceabflity and are
s~itable for preliminary sizing. Table 2 presents span to depth ratios w~ch
can be used for preliminary, design purposes.

Table 2. Spa.~ to depf.~ ratios.

Columns
Maximum slenderness ratio 1:80
Beams
Maximum depth ratios
Conveyor decks and walkways 1:25
Floor beams other than minor beams 1:20
Major beams supporting drives less than 200 kW 1:15
Major beams supporting drives greater than 200 kW 1:12
Major beams supporting screens, crushers, etc 1:10
Girts 1:50
Purlins not lapped 1:30
Purlins lapped 1:50

K a more detailed preliminary design is required, equ3valent static load

factors may be used. The supporting structure is designed for a static load
calculated by muldplFLng the weight 6f the structure times the equivalent
static load factor. These factors are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Equlvalent static load factors.

Screens 5
Centrifuges 2.5
C~shers ] 3
Bucket elevator supports
Reciprocating machine supports (pumps and compressors)
Rotation machinery supports 125.2

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6. FINAL DESIGN
The table below presents the vibration design procedure.

Obtainfj, the forcing frequency and the

amplitude of the force Fd

Calculate the vib,-a~on response, ~d and ~d

Iffy is ~-ithin 30% of peak

Then there may be excessive ~-ibration
Set factor of s~e~, 4~ = 4

Iffy is not ~’ithin 30% of peak

Set factor of safeD,, ¢ = !. 5 to 2

Is ¢ x 8~ > allo~ablc for people?X

Is ¢ x 8a > allowable for machiner~9 ./

6.1. REGULAR STRUCTURES

The calculation of the vibration response of "regular stractures" can be

carried out using some simplified calculations. The range of applicability of
these simplified calculations is sho~-n in Table 4.

Ta5Ie applicability fo~- s, tz~ple analysis.

Applicable structures: Non applicable structures:
Squat structures - height to minimum Tall structures
width is less than 3

Structure is well braced Irregular structures

Individual members are all checked More than one source of vibration

Large dynamic forces.

The calculation of the vibration response is based on the following general

approach:

l. Determine the natural frequencfles of the stracture.

2. Determine dynamic amplification factor.

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3. Calculate the pseudo-static deflection and pseudo-static stress.

4, Calculate the dynan-dc deflection and dynarrdc stress,

~nese steps are e_\-plained in more detail hn the fo!]o~mg sections.

6,1,1. Natural Frequency of Structure

natural frequency can be determined from -
standard formulae;
static deflection method; or
computer analysis.

Fable 5 shows some S~d~d fo~a~ for uhe #.rst natural frequency.

Table 5, Standard formulae for natural frequencies.

Description I Natural frequency (Hz)
Uniform beam, cantilever, lumped
mass at end f~ _- 2r~
1 [3El
"~M/3

Uniform beam, simply suppoded,

lumped mass at centre

Uniform beam, simply supported,

uniformly distributed mass

Uniform beam, simply supported,

lumped mass at general position f~ - 2~ ~Ma~ (L- ai

Uniform beam, simply supported,

uniformly distributed mass and
lumped ,mass at general position

Frame structure, N levels, uniform

columns, equal mass at each level,
fixed at base

where
fn = natural frequency of &rst mode

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= elastic modulus
second moment of ~rea
= sum of second moment of area of all columns between each ]evel
length
distance of mass from suppor~
b=[-a
= concentrated mass
= mass per unit lenK~h ~

The ~tati~ d~fiection met_hodcan be used to obtain an estimate of the

structure natural frequency. The static deflection of a structure under its
own weight and the natural frequency of the structure are related. This
relationship can be used to estimate the f~rst natural frequency of comp]e_x
structures whose s~aNc deflection is k~nown, i’n_is relationship is given by -

where

The accuracy of the above equation depends on the degree to which the
static deflection conforms to the mode shape of vibration. The static
deflection method generally uh’derestimates the natur~l frequency of more
complex structures. For example, for a ur~orm simply supported beam
with a uniformly distributed mass, the approx~nadon of t_he static deflection
method underestimates the in-st na~u_ral frequency of the beam by about
11%.

.... Ni~ ~i~;~ the option to calculate na~oa-al frequencies. ~gnis is the
simplest optLon but care must be take when using these programs. Some
tips when using these programs a_re - "

. A hand check of the first mode frequency using an approxSmate or

empirical method is s~ongly advisable to ensure that the results are
realistic.

There is even more need than with static analysis to ~iew computer
analysis results as approximate. It is very difficult to predict natural
frequencies of real structures with a high degree of precision.

Programs such as MicroStran and SpaceGass assume that the mass is

lumped at the node points. This ~Ii give a significantly different answer
then ff the mass is assumed to be uniformly distributed. Add extra
nodes along the member ff modelling distributed mass.

6.1.2. Dynamic Amplification Factor

Once the structure natural frequency is known, the equation below is used
to calculate the dynamic amplification factor -

where

Page 13
 Blip

dynarrflc amplification factor

forcing frequency
natural frequency
damping ratio

Representative values of the damping ratio are given in Table 6.

Table 6. T’ypical values of damping. ,,.

Damping ratio
Continuous steel structures 0.02 - 0.04
Bolted steel structures O.O4 - 0.07
Prestressed concrete structures 0.02 - 0.05
Reinforced concrete structures 0.04 - 0.07
Small diameter piping systems 0.01 - 0.02
Equipment and large diameter piping 0.02 - 0.03

6.1.3. Pseudo-Static Amplitudes

Tine pseudo-static amplitudes of vibration of the structure are the deflections
and stresses due to the dynamic loads applied as though they are static
loads.

6.1.4. Dynamic Amplitudes of Vibration

The d~-namic amplitudes of ~ibration are calculated by multiplying the
pseudo-static amplitudes of vibration by the dynamic amplilication factor,
i.e. for deflection -

and for stress -

O"d -=-- ~) X O"s

where
d)mamic deflection amplitude
pseudo-static deflection
dynamic stress amplitude
pseudo-static stress amplitude
dynamic amplification factor

6,2, COMPLETE ANALYSIS

Many simple dynamic problems can be solved quickly and adequately by the
methods outlined in the previous section. However there are situations
where more detailed numerical analysis may be required and finite element
analysis is a versatile technique widely available for this purpose.

Progra~-ns such as Strand and Nastran can calculate the d}nnarnic response
for a ~-iety of problem ~b~pes. However, dynamic analysis is more complex
than static analysis and care is required so that results of appropriate
accuracy are obtained at a reasonable cost when using f’mite element
programs. It is often ad%sable to investigate simple idealisations initially
before embarking upon detailed models.

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There are different analysis methods for sol~q_ng vibration problems~ These
include -
¯ Modal analysis.
¯ Direct integration.
¯ Modal frequency analysis,
¯ Direct frequency analysis.

The designer needs to decide whether to solve in the time domain or the
frequencT domain. T32oically ff the excitation is periodic then it is preferable
to solve in the frequency domain, If the problem involves a transient or has
some nonlineaxities then it is necessary to solve in the time domain.

Some tips when using these programs are -

¯ A hand check of the first mode frequency using an approximate or
empirical method is s~-ongly advisable to ensure that the results a_re
realistic.
¯ There is even more need than ~,ith star.ic analysis to x~ew computer
analysis results as approximate. It is very difficult to predict natural
frequencies of real structures with a high degree of precision. It is
important to ,-----------------undertake sensiti~dry analyses. At best, the answer is +10%
of the true walue.
¯ Most computer programs assume that the mass is lumped at the node
points. This x~ill give a significan~Jy different answer then if the mass is
assumed to be uniformly, distributed. Add exT_ra nodes along the
member ff modelling distributed mass.
¯ For modal mnalysis, it is necessary to decide on the number of sigltificant
modes to use. Typically for a well-modelled structure, only the first
taventy major modes should be significant.
¯ For direct integration it is necessary to decide on the integration scheme
and to select a suitable ~t!rne step. A larger time step will decrease
accuracy and not count the contribution of higher modes. A smaller
time step ~,ill require excessive computer time.
¯ Secondary members, floor plate, cladding, etc, may be neglected in a
static analysis but can alter the dy-namic characteristics of the sr~dcture
significantly.
¯ A given finite element model witl represent higher modes ~th decreasing
accuracy, v, rnen using finite element programs, the accuracy of t~he
frequencies deteriorates for the higher modes of a particalar model.
They underestimate the exact frequency.

Page 1 5
7. EXAMPLE
i-~.is section presents an example describing the procedure for the design of
s.~-uctures subject to ~ibrar_ion.

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Consider a structure required to support a vibrating screen. A plan of the

su-ucture is shox~-n in Figure 7. T’ne screen weighs 7 tormes and its
operating frequency is 900 rpm. The screen is supported on four isolation
springs and the force transmitted to the structure at the .operating frequency
is 800 N per support. Each beam carries an ex-u-a mass of 100 kg/m due to
~_!k~,ays and floor plate. "Fne beams are restrained at the top flange and it
is assumed T_hat morion does not occur in the tra_nsverse direction, i.e.
morion only in the Z direction.

Ln uKis example the units shall be N, mm and sec.

3 8 10 15

1500

4 ~~ Screen Screen ~ 11
support support ~

3000

. ~, Screen Screen ~, ..
e ~ support support ~ ~ "

1500

1500 2500 1500

T~X

Figure 7. Plan of structure supporting vibrating screen.

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PRELIMXNARY DESIGN

Beam depLh = Span= 5500mm

= 550 mm
10 I0

Choose 460UB67 [for demonstration o~y]

m = 67.1 kg/m
I = 294x106 mm4
A = 8540 mm2

DYNAMIC LOADS
From ~ibrating screen manufacturer -

NATURAL FREgUENCY

The first natural frequency from a computer analysis usLng Nastran is

shown below. Note that bounciary condidons have been set such that only
motion i~ithe Z direction can occur.

From the analysis

fn = !7.6 Hz

DYNAMIC AMPLI~’ICATION FACTOR

Damping ~. = 0.02 for a continuous steel structure

15
r=--=0.85
17.6
1
Q = ~(l- r~ )’ + (2~r)~

1
. 0.85+(2x0.02x0.85)
) a

FACTOR OF SAFETY
The forcing frequency or operating frequency is ~-ith.in 30% of the natural
frequency. Therefore

¢=4

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PSEUDO-STATIC DEFLECTION AND STRF, SS

Apply the dynamic loads as static loads and calculate t_he displacement and
s~ess. Results are sho~-n in We figure below.

Point Applied force Displacement Bending stress

(N) (ram) (MPa)
1 Support 0
2 Support I o
3 0 I 0.054 .06
4 800 0.115 .06
5 0 0.138 .06
6 800 0.115 .06
7 0 ! 0.054 .06
8 0 I 0.070 .06
9 0 t 0.070 .06
10 ! 0.054 .O6
11 800 0.115 .O6
12 0 0.138 .06
13 8o0 0.115 .06
14 o 0.054 .06
15 Support 0
16 Support
The maximum pseudo-static deflection and pseudo-static stress

0.138 mm
1.06 NfPa

DYNAMIC/LM~PLITUDES OF VIBRATION

The dynamic amplitudes of ~ibration are given by

~ =Qx~,
!!
6~ = 3.63x0.138 = 0.50 ram

O’ = Q X
o’~ = 3.63x1.06 = 3.85

ACCEPTABLE VIBRATION LEVELS

f~ = 15 Hz, 6d = 0.50 mm

Acceleration = fo =
J~o = 4 X/I;2 X152

X~S = ~X0

4.44
f~s- ~ -3.14m/

s~
Page 18
COMPLETE ANALYSIS

A forced vibration mnalysis was done using Nastran. The equations of

moNon were solved in the frequency domain and the vibration amplitude at
Node 5 is presented in the fig ,ure below.

Displacement at Node 5

3,5

o
1o 12 14 16 18 20
Forcing frequency (Hz)

The maximum displacement at 15 l-Lz is 0.5 mm. The forcing frequency or

operating frequency is wit_bin 15 % of a major peak. Therefore the factor of
safety to be used is 4.

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