Transitional Shelter

more than emergency relief

Sietze Meijer
Explorelab 5
Research Thesis
September 2008
Mentors

Dr. ir. Arjan van Timmeren

Dr. ir. Andy van den Dobbelsteen
Ir. Peter Mensinga
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living,
adequate for the health and well-being of himself
and of his family, including food, clothing, housing
and medical care and necessary social services”

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

MSc 3 - Explorelab 5 - Research thesis

Sietze Meijer
b1039180

sietzeameijer@gmail.com
sietzeameijer.nl
062876 3406
 Transitional
Contents

1 Introduction

2 Context

3 Emergency settlement and shelter

4 Conclusion

5 Epilogue
Shelter
Preface 9

Reading and Information absorbtion 11

Directions for readers

Short introduction in refugees 14

Definitions in emergency relief 16
Research question 18

Housing and its need after disaster 22

Disaster and hazards 24
Emergency relief 26

Stakeholders 28

Emergency settlement 30

Emergency shelter 34

Transitional shelter, Reconstruction houses 36

Conclusion 44
Reflection 46

Zeeland, the Netherlands 2053 50

Biblography 55

5
?
1
Introduction

7
 Transitional

8
Shelter
Preface
During my study at the Faculty
of Architecture of the Delft
University of Technology so
far, I have been wondering
about what I would do with the
knowledge I acquired over the
years. Very soon it became clear
to me that working in ‘standard’
architectural practices does not
really appeal to me. I felt that I
should use my knowledge for a
more humanitarian purpose. Not
until after my internship in an
architectural practice in Jakarta
(Februari – June 2006), did I
decide on using my abilities for
humanitarian aid. The striking
contrasts between the clientele of
the office and its commissions and
the living circumstances of the
‘ordinary’ people in the villages
where the direct reason for this.
Having experienced the
earthquake in Yogjakarta, May
2006 and consequentely seeing
the news about Pakistan, Darfur
etc. it became obvious to me
I wanted to help the ones in
immediate need for shelter.

9
 Reading and information
Directions for

fig.1 cross-information absorbtion of the human brain (van den Brandhof)

The human brain is capable of receiving massive amounts of information. This

manual is laid out in such a way, that it ensures the ideal way of absorbing its
information. A number of guides in this matter have been applied to the layout
of the manual. For fast reading, leaf through the manual from back to front,
focusing on the left side.

10
absorption
readers columns of 6 to 8 words wide. The
text can also be legible by using
side of every double-page.

type with serif. Spacing text, so These measures should ensure

that lines fill out a column, is not pleasant reading and an optimal
The layout of this thesis has
easily readable. absorption of information, while
been given specific attention and
reading or leafing through this
requires explanation.
The FOG-index provides manual.
a number, with which the
There are a few simple guides
readability of a text is measurable.
for composing a layout, which is
Time Magazine has a FOG-index
easily readable. They ensure that
of 11, Reader’s Digest about 8. A
information is absorbed in the
text with a FOG-index of over 13
most efficient way possible.
is hardly readable. This manual
has an average FOG-index of 10.
Our brain absorbs information
best when as much senses
The human brain is divided in a
as possible are triggered
right and left hemisphere. Each
simultaneously. Knowing this,
hemisphere controls the side
the tangible and visual division
of the body opposite of itself.
in sections is made by tabs,
The right hemisphere of the
illustrated by symbols and marked
brain excels in taking in visual
by colouring.
information in one glance, the
left one specializes in analysis.
‘One image says more than a
Therefore an overview, including
thousand words’ is a phrase
images and summary is placed on
commonly heard. This is most
the left half of the thesis. The full
certainly the case, since the
text is placed on the right side of
human brain is far better in
the manual.
comprehending images than it
is in text. Therefore I tried to
When scanning a book, this
illustrate all information provided
usually occurs from back to front.
in each section with images as
This is another reason why a
comprehensively as possible.
summary of the information in
any section is given on the left
Text is best readable when read in

11
2
Context

13
 Short introduction
Numbers, figures

fig.2a Table of numbers of refugees, UNHCR 2005

fig.2b Diagram of numbers of refugees, UNHCR 2005

14
in refugees
and facts with all problematics surrounding
emergency sheltering in general
but focuses on the solution for
the problem of finding permanent
Worldwide there are about 9.3
shelter .
million refugees, num­bers of
Internally Displaced People
go up to 5.5 million[1]. Fleeing
from disasters like earthquakes,
flooding, wars, famine etc, they
leave behind all their possessions
but what they can carry on them.
The most pressing needs for
refugees are food, medical aid,
sanitary and shelter.

Provided shelter proves to last

to a maximum of one year, the
average time of displacement of
refugees being up to 14 years. A
simple calculation indicates that
there is a lack of decent shelter
for a considerable period of time.
Therefore the problem is self
evident: how to shelter refugees in
a constructive way?

After the disaster has receded,

a refugee is faced with the
problem of finding a permenant
residence. The provided
shelters do not suffice. How
can emergency relief provided
shelter contribute to solving this
problem? This research will deal

15

In this paragraph I define the
key vocabulary of the subject
of emergency shelter for my
research.
refugee
‘A refugee is a person who, owning
to a well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race,
fig.3 External religion, nationality,membership
Displacement
of a particular social group or
political opinion, is outside the
country of his nationality and is
unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to avail himself of the
protection of that country.’[2]
internally displaced person
(IDP)
1. An IDP has been forced from
his home for many of the same
fig.4 Internal
reasons as refugees, but has not
Displacement
crossed an international border.[3]
16
Definitions in
2. Persons displaced from their
habitual place of residence by
disaster, fear of prosecution
of fear of physical harm, but
remaining within the territorial
borders of their country of origin.
Unlike refugees, IDPs have no
internationally defined legal
status.[4]
shelter
1. Something that provides
cover or protection, as from the
weather.
2. A refuge; a haven.
3. An establishment that provides
temporary housing for homeless
people.[5]
4. A habitable covered living
space, providing a secure, healthy
living environment with privacy
and dignity to the groups,
families, and individuals residing
with in it.[6]
emergency relief
5. A critical determinant of disaster
survival in the initial phase of 1. a calamitous event, especially
an emergency. Beyond survival, one occurring suddenly and
shelter is necessary to enhance causing great loss of life, damage,
resistance to disease and provide or hardship, as a flood, airplane
protection from the environment. crash, or business failure.
It is also important for human 2.Obsolete. an unfavorable aspect
dignity and to sustain family and of a star or planet.[10]
community life as far as possible
in difficult circumstances. The
purpose of shelter, site selection
and physical planning is to meet
the physical and primary social
needs of individuals, families
and communities for safe, secure
and comfortable living space,
incorporating as much self-
sufficiency and self-management
into the process as possible[7]

emergency shelter
1. transitional shelter [8]

transitional shelter
shelter which provides a habitable
covered living space, and a secure,
healthy, living environment with
privacy and dignity to those
within it, over the period between
a conflict or natural disaster
and achieving a durable shelter
solution.[9]

17
 Research

fig.5 The (re-)use of shelters in a recycling cycle

18
question
How can I design an emergency and resources. This led me to
shelter which can serve a believe that there is a way to
permanent function after its create more resource efficient
initial use? emergency shelters. The answer to
this research question guides me
This question follows from the through the rest of the research.
preliminary research which
I have done after I chose the
subject within my interest for
humanitarian aid, design and
architecure.

Recently, discussions on global

warming supposedly caused by
human activities, cradle to cradle
principles, renewable energy
sources etcetera have been fired
up again since the oil crisis in
1973.

Everyday in the paper we read

about wars, both civil and
international. We read about
refugees looking for new places to
live.

As to find out whether these

issues can be combined, I looked
into the problems surrounding the
use of emergency shelter, by both
the refugees and the emergency
relief organisations and projected
these on current events and my
own views on the use of material

19
3
Emergency settlement and shelter

21
 Housing and its
The role of shelter

Housing is essential to the well

being and development of most
societies[11] . Next to the obvious
function of providing shelter,
it plays an important role in
livelihoods, health, education,
security and social structures. It
also represents cultural identity of
the inhabitants and their political
and economical status.

Thus it is clear that a loss of

housing during a disaster,
either through displacement or
destruction, has a major impact
on the daily lives of the survivors.
Consequently, providing shelter
is very important, in order to be

fig.6 Some of the purposes of shelter, UNOCHA 2004

22
need after disaster
able to restore the lives of the
survivors.
It is, however, not so that
housing is always the first need of
refugees and Internally Displaced
People (from now summarized
as refugees). As stated in
the UNHCR Handbook for
Emergencies 2007, any aid given
should meet the prior assessed
needs of the refugees so as to
make sure they are appropriate.
This means that not only their
material needs should be taken
into acount, but also their culture,
age, religion, gender and back
ground and that of the hosting
community.
If assistance in housing is
appropriate, survivors have
certain priorities regarding their
housing.
1.To remain as close as possible to
their damaged or ruined homes
and their means of livelihood.
2.To move temporarily into homes
of friends or relatives
3.To improvise temporary shelters
as close as possible to the site of
their ruined homes.
4.To occupy buildings which have
been temporarily requisitioned.
5.To occupy tents erected in, or Most commonly used as
next to, their ruined homes. emergency shelter is the tent. It
6.To occupy emergency shelters is easy to produce and to ship off
provided by external agencies and fast and easy to construct.
7.To occupy tents on campsites Drawback of the tent however, is
8.To be evacuated to distant that its lifespan lasts up to only 1
locations (compulsory evacuation) year (if that long at all). The tent
is exposed to extreme situations
Generally, as seen through the like UV radiation, rain, wind, sand
media, the focus immediately and intensive use. Often tents
seems to be on the 6th, 7th and and plastic sheeting are combined
8th priority. However, among by refugees with locally acquired
internationally operating aid materials to improvise shelter.
and disaster relief organisation,
the notion that local resources
and ways of living are of major
importance in relieving survivors
and their housing needs is already
firmly set in their policies.
What disaster relief organisations
do not take into account, for
understandable reasons, is what
happens after the initial relief:
where and in what do people live
after the aftermath of a disaster.
Aid organisations already focus
more on this issue. The fact that
refugees or IDPs on average
live up to 14 years in a camp[12]
shows that a different or more
sustainable solution for sheltering
is needed.
23
 Disasters
The different natures and its consequences

Disasters are divided by

emergency relief organisations
in two groups: man-made and
natural. The nature of the
disaster greatly influences the
situation after the disaster and it
is therefore important to specify
the differences. Following are
definitions:

Natural disasters
A natural disaster is the
consequence of when a potential
natural hazard becomes a
physical event (e.g. volcanic
eruption, earthquake, landslide,
tsunami) and this interacts
with human activities. Human
vulnerability, caused by the lack

Ill 1 Disasters

24
and hazards
of planning, lack of appropriate Man-made hazards
emergency management or the Disasters having an element
event being unexpected, leads of human intent, negligence,
to financial, structural, and error or the ones involving the
human losses. The resulting loss failure of a system are called
depends on the capacity of the man-made disasters. Man-made
population to support or resist hazards are in turn categorised
the disaster, their resilience. This as technological or sociological.
understanding is concentrated in Technological hazards are results
the formulation: “disasters occur of failure of technology, such as
when hazards meet vulnerability”. engineering failures, transport
A natural hazard will hence never accidents or environmental
result in a natural disaster in areas disasters. Sociological hazards
without vulnerability, e.g. strong have a strong human motive, such
earthquakes in uninhabited areas. as crime, stampedes, riots and
The term natural has consequently war.[14]
been disputed because the events
simply are not hazards or disasters
without human involvement.
The degree of potential loss can
also depend on the nature of the
hazard itself, ranging from a single
lightning strike, which threatens a
very small area, to impact events,
which have the potential to end
civilization.[13]

25

Policy and guidelines for shelter and logistics
fig.7 Phases of operation, Oxfam 2005
fig.8 Cover Transitional Settlement,
Displaced Populations
26
In the history of emergency relief,
only recently guidelines have been
developed. Since the 1940’s, when
the first emergency relief agencies
were founded, common practice
and best practice have been the
basis of emergency relief policies.
Now best practices have been
collected and updated, supported
by in-field research. They have
been published in a guidebook,
endorsed by the major aid
organisations (UN, UNHCR, IFCR
UN-HABITAT, CARE International
et al.), Transitional Settlement,
Displaced Populations, by Tom
Corsellis and Antonella Vitale. In
this book phases of operation are
described. These comprise:
1 Preparedness
The period before an emergency
that is not necessarily imminent,
in which precautions on various
material, managerial, political and
financial matters are taken.
2. Contingency
The period before an emergency
which is yet to occur but is likely
to happen, in which disaster
Emergency
scenarios are being constructed
and to which specific measures are
taken.
3. Transit
The period during which
populations are being displaced
and are moving away from their
places of origin into transitional
settlement (TS) options, in which
support of refugees in transit
between a front or borderline
to a safer location should be
considered.
4. Emergency
The period during which
significant numbers of people
are being displaced, with the
result that a country or region is
receiving a significant influx of
displaced people. In this phase
the actual sheltering takes place,
which should be prepared in the
transit phase: influx should be
predicted, and immediate needs of
the displaced persons need to be
assessed and prepared in terms of
infrastructure, health care etc.
relief
5. Care & maintenance
The period between the major
influx of displaced people and
the point when every member
of the displaced population has
moved to a different TS option
(to be explained later) or has
reached a durable solution and
is no longer displaced. In this
phase a deliberate and sustainable
movement from the provision
of services solely by external
organisations to self-management
and self-help.
6. Durable solutions
The period when the displacement
has ended because sustainable
and permanent settlement and
shelter have been achieved for
the displaced population. UNHCR
defines three durable solutions,
within the UNHCR mandate:
a.voluntary repatriation
b.integration in the country of
first asylum*
c.resettlement in a third country
*Corsellis and Vitale adopt these
options, but apply them to all
displaced persons. ‘ integration
in the country of asylum’ could
thereforee be replaced by ‘
integration within the area of
displacement’ likely in all three cases the
7. Exit strategies displaced population will move
The period after durable solutions to a different location. Shelter, in
have been accomplished. In this these cases, will have to be built
phase, management and assets up from scratch, either using
will be handed over to other locally procured materials or
humanitarian organisations or by humanitarian organisations
local governance. imported goods.
During these subsequent phases
the role of emergency shelter
varies. Aid organisations stack
tents in warehouses around the
world, as part of procurement.
This takes place in phase 1 and 2.
In practice this means that at any
given time, aid organisations are
able to deploy tents to any given
area within a minimum time span.
In phase 3 the amount of shelter
needed to house the oncoming
influx is estimated and prepared.
In the fourth phase the shelters
are deployed and in the fifth
they are maintained and, where
possible, replaced by durable
shelter.
Whereas in phase 6 the
integration within the area
of displacement might mean
members of the displaced
population reside on the primary
site of arrival after the transit,
27
 Stakeholders

fig.9 Table of stakeholders, Oxfam 2005

28
This table shows the different
interests they have in the
provision of transitional
settlement. It is important to
identify which stakeholders share
interests and which interests are
conflicting.
For my design project I will focus
on three stakeholder groups:
beneficiaries, (local) authorities
and the emergency relief agencies.
In this way I compress the
mentioned groups into three
major groups. I ignore consciously
several groups (military,
fig.10 Project focus on stakeholders, after Kemenade 2007
specialists, suppliers/donors), for
in the light of my research they
are not relevant.
Previously I discussed several
aspects of the circumstances in
which refugees find themselves,
the problems that emergency
relief organisations face and the
stakeholders, each with their
own interests. Now this is clear,
I will describe more extensively
the different possibilities
of settlement, shelter and
requirements of settlements and
shelters.
29

fig.11 Planned and self-settled, Oxfam 2005
fig.12 Grouped and dispersed, Oxfam 2005
30
Choosing a settlement option
Choosing for a certain settlement
option has consequences
for all stakeholders. These
consequences deal with costs for
the aid community, spreading
of assets and capacity of aid
organisations, time needed to
respond to changes in situations,
infrastructure etc. Combining
options is also possible, for it is
likely that more than one option
is appropriate when there is
need for transitional settlement.
Displaced communities will also
move into one or more settlement
options before government or aid
community had time to respond
to the emergency. As time goes
by, the situation which led the
displaced and aid community to
choose for a certain or several
settlement options will no doubtly
change, which means changes in
settlement options are likely to
occur. Through assessment needs
and change of needs will be made
visible.
When assessments have been
made, there are several options
regarding the form of settlement
which can be provided for the
Emergency
displaced population.
Six kinds of settlements options
are recognised:
dispersed in host families
(common with natural disasters)
the displaced population is housed
within the households of local
families or on their land or in
properties owned by them.
dispersed in rural self-
settlement (common with man-
made disasters)
the displaced families settle on
collectively owned land in a rural
context.
dispersed in urban self-
settlement (common with natural
disasters)
the displaced population settles in
an urban environment, occupying
unclaimed properties or land, or
settle informally.
grouped in self-settled camps
(common with man-made
disasters)
displaced population settles in a
camp, independent of assistance
government or aid organisation.
settlement
grouped in collective centres
the displaced population are
sheltered in mass-shelters or
pre-existing structures such as
community centres, town halls,
gymnasiums etc.
grouped in planned camp
(common with man-made
disasters)
accommodation on purpose-
built sites where a full services
infrastructure is provided.
These categories can be divided in
two ways:
four self-settlement and two
planned settlement options
three dispersed and three grouped
settlement options
Dispersed or grouped settlement
Dispersed settlement has the
advantage that the displaced
population has better chances
of fitting in with the host
families, leading to less chances
of hostilities and and tension
between the two groups. The
demand for resources is spread
over a larger area, which can also
be a disadvantage, particularly
when the displaced community
is so large that it overloads local
infrastructure and services,
supplies and over burdens
environmental resources. It can
be more cost effective for the
aid community, since the initial
investments are smaller than
for planned camps, the local
population can benefit when
investments are being made into
local infrastructure and services.
Problems with dispersed
settlement include security
risks, when the two groups
are of different ethnic or
religious background. Dispersed
populations are hard to estimate
in numbers and to register and are
hard to physically reach. Resources
will be spread over a large area,
which means that offering services
takes considerably more time and
effort, thus slowing down the
speed and effectiveness.
Self-settlement or planned
settlements
Which of these options is
chosen depends on what
options are available to both
the displaced community and
the aid community. In the
initial phases of displacement,
displaced populations will choose
self-settlement, since planned
settlement is only available till
after government or the aid
community has responded to the
emergency. Through assessment
of needs of the population and the
current situation, it will become
clear whether a continuation of
that situation is desirable, or that
the population should be sheltered
differently.
Disadvantages of self-
settlement comprise most of
the disadvantages of dispersed
settlement, mostly dealing
with tension between displaced
and local communites and the
higher demand for services,
supplies and the pressure on local
infrastructures.
Planned settlement on the other
hand can rarely offer the same
level of support for family coping
and flexibility for livelihoods as
dispersed or self-settlement can,
are expensive and time consuming
to construct and maintain and
can barely, or not, cope with large
influxes. Lastly, there will be a
unsustainable duplication of local
infrastructure and services.
31
 Emergency
Choosing a shelter option

fig.13 Tents - UNHCR, canvas and PE fig.14 Imported designs - Global Village Shelter
and Domes for the World

fig.16 Temporary housing - Ico Pod

and Oxfam, Srilanka

fig.15 Standard design - Bold

32
shelter
A choice for a certain type of
housing depends on the same
factors as does the choice of
the type of settlement. In due
time, the need for a certain
type of sheltering may vary
and aid organisations should
be able to respond and even
anticipate these changes. Key
indicators can be availability of
indigenous materials, willingness
and acceptance of the affected
population, natural resources etc.
UNOCHA[15] distinguishes eight
shelter strategies:
Tents are the most commonly
used in the immediate housing
of displaced populations.
The advantages are obvious:
lightweight, easy to transport,
fast and easy to construct and
relatively cheap. Disadvantages
are the limited lifespan due
to excessive use and weather
influences, limited possibilities in
use and inability to be extended or
adapted.
Imported designs and units tend
to be unsuccessful in the field.
High costs, donor rather than
beneficiary-orientated, complex
constructions etc. are the reason
for this. The lack of cultural
acceptance and the relative high
cost compared to local, traditional
housing further contribute to
failure.
Standard design incorporating
indigenous materials may lead to
structurally more sound housing
than traditional ways of building.
However, while improving designs
structurally, attention must be
paid to local building tradition
in regard to quantity of used
building material, traditional
designs and the pressure on local
environment (the depletion of
natural resources).
Temporary housing is usually
provided by wealthy governments.
The type of housing is extremely
expensive compared to permanent
housing in terms of the lifespan or
time of use before being replaced
by permanent housing. Next
to the fact that housing of this
type is usually more expensive
than traditional housing, it often
becomes permanent, resulting in
possible premature slums. Also
it is known to be used as storage
facility or barn next to a cheaper,
simpler house.
The distribution of materials
or the means to produce
building materials can prevent
problems with non-acceptance
of designs. This can be done to
promote reconstruction, repair or
improvement of buildings. Next
to the provision of materials,
aid organisations set up housing
education programmes. When
materials are not local, it might
cause problems later in the supply
of the materials or its replacement
or repair. Introducing new
materials requires new, or adapted
building methods and designs.
Most importantly, price control
of building materials needs to be
implemented.
Core housing is to provide the
basic bearing structure or frame
of a house with or without
roofing material at a relatively
low cost. This frame can be used
as a temporary shelter, which is
intended to become permanent
at a later phase. The beneficiaries
are meant to fill in the walls
with indigenous materials. The
structure usually is more durable
and hazard-proof than traditional
33
 Emergency
Choosing a shelter option

fig.17 Distribution fig.19 Hazard-resisting housing - Education

fig.18 Core Housing

34
shelter
frames. Improtant however is to different applications in the field,
secure land-tenure, keep the price often depending on speed of
of the frame relatively low and to requiring, locally procurability
educate the beneficiaries. of shelter and/or resources,
speed and type of response by
Hazard-resistant housing internal actors (refugees, IDPs,
focusses on providing information (local) authorities, local NGOs)
to house builders on how to and external actors (NGOs,
improve their designs so that they governments). Thus the option,
are more hazard resistant. House or options, to choose is highly
rebuilding usually starts rapidly dependent on context.
after natural disasters. Difficulties
are to provide the information in
time; finding appropriate formats
to transfer the information;
providing adequate information
on how to build structually sound
with the available, indigenous
materials.

Accelerating reconstruction
of permanent housing is only
available as an option after a
natural disaster. It pre-supposes
that, when people are stimulated
and supported in rapidly rebuild
permanent houses, the displaced
people will suffice in their own
temporary shelter. Required
are the same criteria as with
hazard resistant housing and the
distribution of materials options.

Each of these options have

35

fig.20 Shelter priorities, Oxfam 2005
The Sphere Project 2004 was the
result of a joint effort of a number
of NGOs and the Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies to come
to create minimum standards in
emergency relief on water supply
and sanitation, nutrition, food
aid, shelter and health services.
In the shelter section it states that
‘shelter is a critical determinant for
survival in the initial phases of a
disaster.’ Furthermore, it provides
security and personal safety,
protection from climate and
enhanced resistance to ill health
and disease.
On the most personal level
‘shelter’ can be provided by
clothing, blankets and bedding.
36
Transitional shelter
Standards for design and construction
These are included in so called
‘shelter Non Food Items’(NFIs),
usually provided by aid
organisations.
Ideally, any shelter-response
should enable affected households
to upgrade their emergency
shelter gradually into a durable
shelter in a reasonably short
time, taking into account
the constraints on acquiring
additional resources and any
political implications.
The Sphere Project sets standards
for shelter in the fourth chapter
of the publication. Especially
the standards 3 to 6 are relevant
to the design of shelters in
particular:
Shelter and settlement standard 3:
covered living space, including:
- the initial covered floor area per
person is at least 3.5 m2.
- the covered are enables safe.
- separation and privacy between
the sexes, between different age
groups and between separate
families within a given household
as required.
- essential household activities can
be carried out within the shelter.
- key livelihood support activities
are accommodated where possible.
Shelter and settlement standard 4:
design, including:
Reconstruction houses
- the design of the shelter and the
materials used are familiar where
possible and culturally and socially
acceptable.
- the repair of existing damaged
shelters or the upgrading of initial
shelter solutions constructed by
the disaster-affected population is
prioritised.
- alternative materials required
to provide temporary shelter are
durable, practical and acceptable
to the affected population.
- the type of construction,
materials used and the sizing and
positioning of openings provide
optimal thermal comfort and
ventilation.
- access to water supply sources
and sanitation facilities, and
the appropriate provision of
rainwater harvesting, water
storage, drainage and solid waste
management, complement the
construction of shelters.
- vector control measures are
incorporated into the design and
materials are selected to minimise
health hazards.
Shelter and settlement standard 5:
construction, including:
- locally sourced materials and
labour are used without adversely
affecting the local economy or
environment.
- locally derived standards of
workmanship and materials are
achieved.
- construction and material
specifications mitigate against
future natural disasters.
- the type of construction
and materials used enable the
maintenance and upgrading of
individual household shelters
using locally available tools and
resources.
- the procurement of materials
and labour and the supervision
of the construction process are
transparent, accountable and in
accordance with internationally
accepted bidding, purchasing
and construction administration
practices.
Shelter and settlement standard 6:
environmental impact, including:
- the temporary or permanent
settling of the affected population
considers the extent of the natural
resources available.
- natural resources are managed
to meet the ongoing needs of the
displaced and host populations.
- the production and supply of
construction material and the
building process minimises the
long-term depletion of natural
resources.
- trees and other vegetation
are retained where possible
to increase water retention,
minimise soil erosion and to
provide shade.
- the locations of mass shelters
or temporary planned camps
are returned to their original
condition, unless agreed
otherwise, once they are no longer
needed for emergency shelter use.
These standards describe in
general terms what qualifications
transitional shelter should comply
with.
The standards are accompanied
with guidance notes, which
describe more detailed the
narrative of the standards.
37

Shelter standards
More specifically on standards
Shelter Centre is currently
working on Shelter Standards,
an ISO-standards compliant
document, in order to map more
precisely and accurately what
exactly are the requirements of
emergency shelters. A consortium,
consisting of fourteen major
NGOs and aid organisations, has
been formed and develops with
Shelter Centre the Standards.
The goal of the consortium is to
agree “common standards and
indicators for family shelters in
humanitarian operations, both
in order to improve the quality
and consistency of response
and to engage research and
development capacities of shelter
manufacturers.”
fig.21 Cover Shelter Standards, Shelter Centre 2007
38
Transitional shelter
The Standards are divided in three The Standards are specifically not
parts: specifications. The consortium
logistic requirements wishes for manufacturers to
total weight and packed work with the Standards and
size interpret them to their own
storage designs. Specifications would
marking lead to a certain design, which
availability would rule out any initiative of
physical requirements manufacturers. Pointed out by
integrity project leader Tom Corsellis is
durability that Shelter Centre is not looking
useable area for one ‘super tent’, as they
ventilation are convinced no such tent can
fire safety exist. Shelter Centre challenges
vector control manufacturers to develop several
environmental toxicity designs meeting a number of
colour standards.
social requirements
privacy It seems impossible to implement
buildability all standards in one design;
adaptability meeting all standards means
reparability incorporating conflicting
standards in one design.
Reconstruction houses
In this chapter a priority list has
been made out of the standards
for:
general basic standards
hot, wet and cold climates
maximum adaptability
Following are a discussion of
applicable standards and their
revision.
General basic standards:
The aim of the logistical
requirements of the shelter
is to minimise the cost and
maximise the logistics options
for transport. As listed above,
the weight and seize should
be minimal while maximising
usability and durability. Easy
storage, fast and wide availability
and clear markings on several
characteristics of the shelter will
contribute to its handling through
the logistical process for getting
shelter to the disaster struck area.
(logistical requirements standards
25-39)
The physical requirements state
that shelter should be structurally
sound, even when parts of it fail.
It should be able to withstand
minimum harsh weather
conditions (40-44,46-47,49-50),
provide a minimum of useable
space (51-53, 55-57)provide a
minimum volume of ventilation
(58-61), be fire proof (66-68),
repel or avoid vector intrusion
(69-72), be environmentally
friendly during its total life cycle
(73-75) and be colour neutral
in respect to military and socio-
cultural sensitive colours (76-77).
(physical requirements standards
40-44,46-47,49-61,66-77)
The social requirements deal
with cultural acceptance: they
are set up to ensure maximum
usability through adaptability
and reparability, resulting in
dignified living space. The shelter
has to provide maximum privacy
in both day and night situations
for different users, occupying the
same shelter (78-80). The shelter
should be easy to erect, regardless
of the literacy or constructional
skill of the recipient (81-83). In
adaptability and reparability, focus
is on the possibilities of adapting,
and replace parts of, the shelter
to increased space demand and to
local, traditional ways of building
and living, and any repairs or
adaptations should be able to be
performed with local tools and
building methods. (84-95). (social
requirements standards 78-95)
The logistical requirements seem
all to be quite feasible and not
contradicting with any of the
other standards. The specific
design standards regarding
maximum weight and dimensions
present conditions for the design,
whereas availability standards
have both consequences for
both manufacturers and disaster
relief organisations regarding
production capacities and storage
policies.
In the physical requirements
specific standards regarding
climate can be noted. The division
in hot and cold climates is made,
mostly regarding ventilation. In
regard to thermal insulation it
is only stated that it should be
possible to insulate the roof, walls
and floor of the shelter.
The social requirements are very
straightforward. The emphasis
on clarity in use and cultural
adaptation by interchangeability
of parts is stressed and puts a high
benchmark for designs.
39
 Transitional shelter

Hot, wet and cold climates

Specifically in the area of
ventilation is mentioned that
there should be achieved a
maximum of ventilation and
have a ‘reasonably sloped roof’
in hot wet climates in addition
to a double layer roof in hot dry
climates. In cold climates the
ventilation should be kept to a
minimum, but still guarantee
smoke and air outflow for space
heaters and cooking stoves. The
shelters also need to be internally
compartmented to prevent heat
loss through infiltration.

Difficulties arise when a

reasonable climate inside a tent
is required in extreme climatic
situations: the thermal insulation
fig.22 Shelter upgrade proces, Oxfam 2005

fig.23 Building principles for cold (a), hot (b) and wet climates (c), Oxfam 2005

40
Reconstruction houses
of the shelter material must be
very high, lest it not be possible
to retain a 15 to 18 degree
temperature inside the shelter,
when it is a sub-zero temperature
outside. Providing adequate
ventilation, it is easier to achieve
a moderate temperature in hot
climates. Since the minimum
ventilation required to be achieved
is 221m3 for a 5 persons tent in
hot climates (standards 51, 52
and 59), keeping a comfortable
temperature level while complying
to the required ventilation
standards will prove very hard.
Maximum adaptability
Designing for optimal
adaptability is meant to lead to
permanentising of the transitional
shelter. As can be found in the
Standards, the requirements
regarding climatological
performance, safety etc. are set
quite high. The shelter product
therefore is a highly sophisticated
product, able to be adapted
to local climate and custom.
In technically less advanced
countries (developing countries)
the climatological performance
and safety of traditional housing
is usually not as good as the
transitional shelter provided. provide a shelter complying with
In time, the provided shelter is the Standards for such a price.
reduced to the local standards.
This seems at odds with the
standards set for transitional
shelters. The adaptability can only
lead to better housing when the
affected population is educated
in building better performing
housing with local materials and
tools. This is however not the
core task of emergency relief
organisations.
Price
The challenge in designing
transitional shelter is not only the
provision of a Standard complying
design. The financial situation of
emergency relief agencies, or aid
organisations in general, is very
unstable. Relying heavily on gifts,
there simply is not much money to
spend. Furthermore, the providing
of transitional shelter usually is
a gift to the beneficiary. There
will be no refund, revenue or any
other kind of income generator
for the providing aid organisation.
The price willing to be paid for
transitional shelter is about
US$300 or less. In comparison,
the UNHCR standard tent costs
US$250. It will prove hard to
41
4
Conclusion

43

Housing and its needs
Of the utmost importance is the
needs assessment of the affected
population. If not or poorly
conducted, the aid provided
may not be appropriate and
would therefore be a waste of
time and resources. Consider
that housing needs may not be
a first priority. Recent research
however has indicated that the
provision of shelter can improve
not only the living conditions,
but also the livelihood of affected
populations[16]. Concerning the
housing of people in emergency
shelter, the closer people can
stay to their property, however
damaged during the calamity,
the better. Emergency shelter
intended to last for a short period
of time often, no matter what
state it might be in, will be used
for longer periods of time. The
average time a refugee is displaced
can run up to 14 years.
Disasters
The two types of disasters,
natural and man-made, each
present their specific problems
concerning political situations,
natural resources and local
procurement of goods. Depending
44
on the situation to bigger or
smaller extent natural resources
and locally procurable goods
are available to be used in the
emergency relief phases. In
man-made disasters the political
situation may strongly inhibit
emergency relief. This affects
greatly the building of shelter.
Especially building for a longer
term is difficult.
Emergency relief
The building of shelter only
actively takes place after a
hazardous situation has subsided
and/or a suitable location has
been found for settling. In the
different phases of emergency
relief the role and influence of
shelter is different. Concerning
the building of more permanent
structures only in one of the latest
phases this can be considered.
Earlier would, as practice shows,
seriously slow down the process of
emergency relief aid.
Stakeholders
Three types of stakeholders are
of importance: the benificiary,
the aid organisations and (local)
authorities. Shelter provision
should ideally meet all of the
Conclusion
stakes of each party. Bottlenecks
in shelter provision for all
parties are finances and time.
For beneficiaries, the cultural
acceptance of shelter determines
its success. For authorities
political implications of the
shelter type is important.
Transitional settlement options
Depending on possibilities, both
financially and politcally as well
as culturally, a certain type of
settlement is chosen. This has
a major impact on the need for
internationally of locally procured
shelter or materials. When not
housed in existing structuresor in
host families, repairs to damaged
property or the provision of
shelter will suffice.
Shelter strategies
Depending on possibilities,
both financially and politcally as
well as culturally, a certain type
of shelter is chosen. This has a
major impact on the need for
internationally of locally procured
shelter or materials. The impact
of shelter on the improvement
of livelihoods and effects on
the longer term have yet to be
investigated, although initial
findings report varying degrees of
success. Furthermore, the type of
shelter appropriate to the needs
of the beneficiaries will change
during time and availability of
natural resources. Key to success
is, again, cultural acceptance by
the beneficiaries.
Standards
Only recently standards have
been developed to bridge the gap
between shelter producers and
the emergency aid organisations.
These standards comply all aspects
of emergency aid concerning the
production and use of emergency
shelter. The standards will
provide the information needed
for innovation in shelters for
emergency relief purposes and will
act as a list of demands. However,
it seems quite improbable to apply
all of the standards to one single
design. For specific climatological
situations, different kinds of
solutions can be designed, still
complying to the needs of the aid
organisations.
‘How can I design an emergency
shelter which serves a
permanent function after the
initial use?’
This question should be answered
in several aspects.
Politically
Settling permanently on a certain
site has political implications.
This means that there is a strong
contextual relation between the
possibilities of designing a shelter
to become permanent after a
certain period of time. This implies
that it might not be possible.
However, when a structure is
moveable to a different location
in case of restrictions concerning
permanent settlement in one
location, it is possible.
Culturally
Every design which is not accepted
by the beneficiaries is bound to
fail in its intended goals. This
does not necessarily mean that
the erected structure is useless as
such. Beneficiaries tend to adjust
their surroundings to their needs.
This shows that a design should
comply with cultural expectations
and should be able to be adjusted
to local/beneficiaries’ customs and
building techniques.
Aid organisationnally
Most importantly it should be
necessary to build shelter if there
are plans to do so. Assessment will
point out the need and what that
need consists of. Furthermore is
time of essence: fast, cheap and
simple procurement, shipping
and construction are vital.
The less attention is needed in
construction and maintenance
after distribution the better.
Financially
The financial interests of
producers, aid organisations
and beneficiaries are different.
Producers want to sell, aid
organisations want to spend as
little as possible and beneficiaries
need financial support. The less a
shelter costs, the more it will be
sold to aid organisations and the
more likely it is that beneficiaries
will not sell the product for
money.
For the design process this
means that a location needs to be
picked, to pin down the cultural
and political situations which
need to be considered in the
design process. Furthermore the
Standards should be considered
in the process, focussing on the
specific climatical implications for
the chosen location. Statements
need to be made concerning the
phases of emergency relief an its
implications for the design.
45
 Reflection

46
During the process of researching, of the design process I will further
I found that cultural acceptance conduct research into Zeeland and
is of major importance. Although all its aspects concerning flooding,
beneficiaries don’t have choice its prevention and resolving its
in the help they are offered, not consequences.
accepting the shelter in this
case means that the shelter will
not be used as it is intended.
The reason for this, as I learned
at a conference in Geneva, is
that designers hardly have
any idea of what is required of
emergency shelter in the field.
Thus it is important to know
who I am designing for and what
the cultural consequences are by
choosing a location.

Therefore I have decided to choose

a location in the Netherlands.
Since I am dutch, I know the
culture. In the history of the
Netherlands there has been a
constant struggle against the
natural elements. The sea has been
a major influence in the shape
and shaping of the Netherlands.
The flood of 1953 is a resounding
example. The site of this
disastrous event, which affected
not only the Netherlands but also
the UK, Germany and Belgium, is
a province in the south-west, the
province of Zeeland. In the course

47
5
Epilogue

49
 Zeeland

History of Zeeland 1953

The combination of a fierce north-
wester storm, spring tide and a
dangerously weakened coastal
defence led to a flood of a bet-
ter part of Zeeland and parts of
Zuid-Holland en Brabant, in the
night of 31st of Januari to the
1st of Februari 1953, causing the
death of 1830 people. The disaster
led to the formation of the Delta
committee and the Deltaplan.
Finished in 1997 with the comple-
tion of the Maeslantkering, the
Netherlands were thought to be
well protected from the sea.

During the aftermath of the disas-

fig.24 Photographs from Zeeland, 1953 ter, several countries send aid to

fig.25 Flooded area Zeeland 1953 fig.26 Deltawerken in Zeeland

50
the Netherlands 2053
the Netherlands, amongst others
money, military personnel and
food. Norway, Finland and Sweden
however sent houses, constructed
in Scandinavia, disassembled and
shipped to the Netherlands, to be
constructed as a kit. For instance
in Tholen and Vlissingen these
houses can still be found, some
still functioning as permanent
residences, others functioning as a
holiday bungalow park.
Current affairs
Recently though, the discussion
about the safety of the Nether-
lands regarding water has been
reopened. Due to climatological
change the Netherlands are said
to be in danger again. Rising sea
levels and hightened amounts and
frequencies of precipitation may
cause serious problems for the
Netherlands’ coastal and inland
waterway defenses. Predictions
of the rise of sea levels range from
+0.60m to +4.00m, and precipita-
tion may increase with 1 to 6 % in
2100.
Projects like ‘ Veiligheid Nederland
in kaart’, ‘Verkenning waterveilig-
heid in de 21e eeuw’ and ‘ Project
Zwakke Schakels Zeeland’ risk
areas are mapped and dealt with.
Against this background I develop
my design for emergency shelter
for Zeeland.
Dutch political climate
In the dutch politics there has
been more and more attention for
the risks of global warming, rising
sea levels and hightened frequen-
cies and levels of precipitation.
This makes the climate for risk
prevention in the Netherlands
quite viable. The government
issues research and measures for
disaster prevention as well as
measures to reduce further in-
crease of pollution of the environ-
ment.
As opposed to countries where
emergency relief agencies cur-
rently operate, as a rule develop-
ing countries, the Netherlands
situation allows for preventive
measures. The luxury of enough
resources in time, money and
political will allows us to take
preventive measures. Production,
procurement and distribution of
emergency shelter fits in the line
of current events.
The nature of the shelters can also
be altered to fit best the need of
the Netherlands. My goal of de-
signing shelters which can adopt
a different function and be used
after a disaster can fit well in the
Netherlands.
Financial situation
The financial situation of the
Netherlands and its citizens is
very good. National budget, insur-
ance agencies etc can financially
contribute to the execution of
preventive measures to reduce
flood damage. Emergency shelter
solutions have a larger range of fi-
nancial support and therefore the
maximum price level of a shelter
can be set higher than in develop-
ing country emergency situations.
Also, the way of financing the
shelters has a wider range of vari-
ation than only financial support
bu emergency relief organizations.
Culture and comfort
The cultural circumstances in the
Netherlands are decidedly differ-
ent than in developing countries.
The standard of living is higher in
almost every aspect. Nutrition,
medical aid, financial and social
safety nets etc. all contribute to
this standard.
51
 Zeeland

fig.27 Water defences and flood water levels

fig.28 Topography and flood water levels

52
the Netherlands 2053
fig.29 Water defence compartments
Our way of living, relying heavily
on the use of electricity and the
ability to buy nutrients every-
where and acquire potable water
from taps, has a major impact on
the requirements of the design for
emergency shelter.
Site
To come to decide upon a site I
searched for several aspects in the
potential site:
in the most extreme flood sce-
nario, the location should be hit
severely
fig.30 Maximum flood water levels Kruiningen
the potential location should
feature typical architectural and
urban features of Zeeland.
The province of Zeeland published
a range of maps which, combined
with movies of calculated water
rising during maximum floods,
pointed to three possible loca-
tions.
The worst scenario happens in
Kruiningen, Zuid-Beveland.
Maximum water levels are reached
16 hours after the breaching of
the primairy water defenses. The
water will reach up to +4.00m New
Amsterdam Level (NAP). It is a lit-
tle les than 4000 citizens counting
town, featuring buildings ranging
from a 14th century church till a
recently finished housing project.
It is the principal town of the
municipality of Reimerswaal and
accommodates the municipality’s
fire brigade, police force, sports
hall and town hall.
Along the north side of Krui-
ningen runs the only railway on
Zuid-Beveland and is the exit/
entrance to the highway A58, con-
necting Middelburg to Roosendaal
en Antwerpen (B) On the south
side is the old harbour of the ferry
to and fro from Perkpolder, made
redundant by the Westerschelde
tunnel.
53
 Design

54
sketches Design options
Several design options can be cho-
sen, ranging from floating street
furniture to completely renovated
Rhine barges. The most viable de-
sign solutions is either the design
of a emergency shelter the adap-
tion of existing structures.

Design brief
I adapted the design brief accord-
ing to the change of variables,
following from my research: to
design a solution to emergency
sheltering, fitting the cultural
context of Zeeland, the Nether-
lands. Further research has to be
done to ascertain the different
emergency and logistical needs in
the Netherlands. Consequently I
will have to adapt the differences
I found in the requirements and
standards of emergency shelters,
which will form the basis for the
design process.

55
 Bibliography
1. State of Refugees 2006, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York, 2007
2. 1948 Geneva Refugee Convention, Geneva 1948
3. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005
4. Sphere Project the,
Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, OXFAM London 2004
5. Shelter after Disaster Guidelines for Assistance, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York 1982
6. Ashmore J, Tents, United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs 2004
7. Birkeland et al. , Camp Management Toolkit, Norwegian Refugee Council/Camp Management Project, Oslo 2004
8. UNHCR, Handbook for Emergencies Third Edition, UNHCR Geneva 2007
9. UNHCR, Convention and Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, UNHCR Geneva 2007
10. UNHCR, Sheltering Refugees over the World, UNHCR Geneva 2002
11. Cameron S, Stohr K (ed), Design Like You Give A Damn, Metropolis Books New York 2006
12. Kemenade J van, ‘A flexible housing concept for durable shelter assistance for displaced
people in East Africa, Delft University of Technology 2007

Figures and illustrations

1. Brandhof J.W. van den, Gebruik je hersens, Brainware 200?
2a. UNHCR, 2006 State of Refugees, UNHCR Geneva 2007, fig. 1.1 pg 10
2b. UNHCR, 2006 State of Refugees, UNHCR Geneva 2007
3. Meijer S 2007
4. Meijer S 2007
5. Van Bezooyen, vanbezooyen_core77_recycling.jpg, http://www.core77.com 02-04-2008
6. Ashmore J, Tents, UN OCHA Geneva 2004, OCHA ref nr. OCHA/ESB/2004/19, §1.3 pg 4
7. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig. 2(c) pg 40
8. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, cover illustration
9. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, table 1(b) pg 12-13
10. Meijer S 2007 after Kemenade J van, ‘A flexible housing concept for durable shelter assistance for displaced
people in East Africa, Delft University of Technology 2007
11. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 3(b) pg 74
12. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 3(a) pg 68
13. UNHCR PE, http://www.dinsons.com/images/prod_tent_lwunhcr.gif / UNHCR canvas,
14. Global Village Shelters, http://www.gvshelters.com / Domes For The World, Yogjakarta RI, photo: Reuters 2007

56
Notes
[1] State of Refugees 2006, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York, 2007
[2] 1948 Geneva Refugee Convention, Geneva 1948
[3] State of Refugees 2006, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York, 2007
[4] Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005
[5] http://www.answers.com, December 10th, 2007
[6] Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005
[7] Sphere Project the,
Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, OXFAM London 2004
[8] Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005
[9] Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005
[10] http://www.dictionary.com, December 10th, 2007
[11] Shelter after Disaster Guidelines for Assistance, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York 1982
[12] State of Refugees 2006, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York, 2007)
[13] http://www.dictionary.com, December 10th, 2007
[14] http://www.dictionary.com, December 10th, 2007
[15] Shelter after Disaster Guidelines for Assistance, United Nations’ UNHCR, New York 1982
[16] Leersum A van, 2007

15. Building Opportunities and Livelihoods in Darfur, Darfur Sudan photo: Boyd I 2005
16. ICO Pods, photo: Pots O, 15-10-2007/ Oxfam Housing Tangelle Sri Lanka 2005 photo: Babister E 2005
17. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 7(a) pg 304
18. Core Housing Azerbaijan 2001, Relief International photo: Relief International
19. Meijer S 2007 after IKEA, http://www.marco.org/images/ikeapeople.png
20. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 6.4(a) pg 238
21. Shelter Centre, cover Shelter Standards 07b, 2007
22. Ashmore J, Tents, UN OCHA Geneva 2004, OCHA ref nr. OCHA/ESB/2004/19, §5 pg 15
23a. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 6.4(b) pg 240
23b. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 6.4(c) pg 242
23c. Corsellis T, Vitale A, Transitional Settlement Displaced Population, OXFAM Geneva, 2005, fig 6.4(e) pg 243
24. Zeeland 1953, North Sea Flood photo’s: authors unknown
25. http://www.zeeuwsarchief.nl/educatie/images/watersnood1.jpg img: author unknown
26. Deltawerken, http://www.deltawerken.com/Deltawerken/16.html
27. Topografische Dienst Kadaster via http://zldims.zeeland.nl/geoweb/Map.aspx 02-04-2008
28. Topografische Dienst Kadaster via http://zldims.zeeland.nl/geoweb/Map.aspx 02-04-2008
29. Topografische Dienst Kadaster via http://zldims.zeeland.nl/geoweb/Map.aspx 02-04-2008

57