ASSIGNMENT NO – 1

Ques-1: Discuss the various Digital Conversion Techniques or

Methods which convert DIGITAL DATA to DIGITAL SIGNAL.

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION:
The signal that represents data can be digital or analog. We can
represent digital data by using digital signals. The conversion of digital
data to digital signal is known as Line Coding.

LINE CODING:
Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to be
transported by an amplitude- and time- discrete signal that is
optimally tuned for the specific properties of the physical channel (and
of the receiving equipment). The waveform pattern of voltage or
current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital signal on a
transmission link is called line encoding.

Digital Data: 01101110

Digital signal:
Types of Line Coding
 Unipolar Scheme:

Unipolar encoding is a line code. A positive voltage represents a binary 1,

and zero volts indicates a binary 0. It is the simplest line code, directly
encoding the bitstream, and is analogous to on-off keying in modulation.

Non- Return -to- Zero:

A unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero scheme, in

which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines
bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the
middle of the bit

In clock language, "one" transitions or remains high on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit and "zero" transitions or remains low on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit, or just the opposite. This allows for long series without change, which
makes synchronization difficult. One solution is to not send bytes without
transitions.Disadvantages of on-off keying are the wastage of power due to the
transmitted DC level and also the power spectrum of the transmitted signal does not
approach to zero at zero frequency.
 Polar Scheme:

In Polar Scheme, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.
For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage
level for 1 can be negative.

Non-Return-to-Zero:
In polar NRZ encoding , we use two levels of voltage amplitude. The
two versions of polar NRZ are:
• NRZ-L
• NRZ-I
In first variation NRZ-l(NRZ-Level),the level of the voltage determines
the value of bit. The second variation NRZ-I(NRZ-Invert). The change
or lack of change in level of voltage determines the value of bit.
“Zero" is represented by no change in physical level.
"One" is represented by a change in physical level.
In clock language, the level transitions on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit to represent a "zero."
 Return-to-zero (RZ)

It describes a line code used in telecommunications signals in which

the signal drops (returns) to zero between each pulse. This takes place
even if a number of consecutive 0's or 1's occur in the signal. The
signal is self-clocking. This means that a separate clock does not need
to be sent alongside the signal, but suffers from using twice the
bandwidth to achieve the same data-rate as compared to non-return-
to-zero format.

The "zero" between each bit is a neutral or rest condition, such as a

zero amplitude in pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), zero phase shift
in phase-shift keying (PSK), or mid-frequency in frequency-shift keying
(FSK). That "zero" condition is typically halfway between the
significant condition representing a 1 bit and the other significant
condition representing a 0 bit.

Although return-to-zero (RZ) contains a provision for synchronization,

it still has a DC component resulting in “baseline wander” during long
strings of 0 or 1 bits, just like the line code non-return-to-zero.
 Biphase

The biphase mark code (also called FM1 code) is a type of encoding
for binary data streams. When a binary data stream is sent without
modification via a channel, there can be long series of logical ones or
zeros without any transitions which makes clock recovery and
synchronization difficult. Streams encoded in NRZ are affected by the
same problem. Using biphase mark code makes synchronization easier
by ensuring that there is at least one transition on the channel
between every data bit; in this way it behaves much like the
Manchester code scheme.

When encoding, the symbol rate must be twice the bitrate of the
original signal. Every bit of the original data is represented as two
logical states which, together, form a bit. Every logical 1 in the input is
represented as two different bits (10 or 01) in the output. The input
logical 0 is represented as two equal bits (00 or 11) in the output.
Every logical level at the start of a cell is inversion of the level at the
end of the previous cell. In BMC output the logical 1 and 0 are
represented with the same voltage amplitude but opposite polarities,
as shown in the following image:

BMC coding provides a better synchronization since there is a change

in the polarity at least every two bits. It is not necessary to know the
polarity of the sent signal since the information is not kept in the
actual values of the voltage but in their change: in other words it does
not matter whether a logical 1 or 0 is received, but only whether the
polarity is the same or is different from the previous value; this makes
synchronization even easier. Finally, BMC coded signals have zero
average DC voltage, thus reducing the necessary transmitting power
and minimizing the amount of electromagnetic noise produced by the
transmission line. All these positive aspects are achieved at the
expense of doubling clock frequency.

BMC is essentially a form of frequency-shift keying, where the channel

frequency of a data 1 bit is double the channel frequency of a logical 0
bit.

BMC is used as the encoding method in AES3 and S/PDIF. Many

magnetic stripe cards also use BMC encoding, often called F2F
(frequency/double frequency) or Aiken Biphase. That standard is
described in ISO/IEC 7811. SMPTE time code also uses BMC.

BMC is also the original "frequency modulation" used on single-density

floppy disks, before being replaced by "double-density" modified
frequency modulation.

Manchester code
In telecommunication, Manchester code (also known as Phase
Encoding, or PE) is a line code in which the encoding of each data bit
has at least one transition and occupies the same time. It therefore
has no DC component, and is self-clocking, which means that it may
be inductively or capacitively coupled, and that a clock signal can be
recovered from the encoded data.

Manchester code is widely used (e.g. in Ethernet; see also RFID). There
are more complex codes, such as 8B/10B encoding, that use less
bandwidth to achieve the same data rate but may be less tolerant of
frequency errors and jitter in the transmitter and receiver reference
clocks.
Features

Manchester code ensures frequent line voltage transitions, directly

proportional to the clock rate. This helps clock recovery.

The DC component of the encoded signal is not dependent on the data

and therefore carries no information, allowing the signal to be
conveyed conveniently by media (e.g. Ethernet) which usually do not
convey a DC component.
Description

An example of Manchester encoding showing both conventions

Extracting the original data from the received encoded bit (from
Manchester as per 802.3):

original data XOR clock = Manchester value

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Summary:

• Each bit is transmitted in a fixed time (the "period").

 • A 0 is expressed by a low-to-high transition, a 1 by high-to-low transition
(according to G.E. Thomas' convention -- in the IEEE 802.3 convention, the
reverse is true).
• The transitions which signify 0 or 1 occur at the midpoint of a period.
• Transitions at the start of a period are overhead and don't signify data.

Manchester code always has a transition at the middle of each bit period
and may (depending on the information to be transmitted) have a transition
at the start of the period also. The direction of the mid-bit transition
indicates the data. Transitions at the period boundaries do not carry
information. They exist only to place the signal in the correct state to allow
the mid-bit transition. The existence of guaranteed transitions allows the
signal to be self-clocking, and also allows the receiver to align correctly; the
receiver can identify if it is misaligned by half a bit period, as there will no
longer always be a transition during each bit period. The price of these
benefits is a doubling of the bandwidth requirement compared to simpler
NRZ coding schemes (or see also NRZI).

In the Thomas convention, the result is that the first half of a bit period
matches the information bit and the second half is its complement.

Differential Manchester encoding

Differential Manchester encoding (also known as CDP; Conditioned
Diphase encoding) is a method of encoding data in which data and clock
signals are combined to form a single self-synchronizing data stream. It is a
differential encoding, using the presence or absence of transitions to
indicate logical value. This gives it several advantages over standard
Manchester encoding:

• Detecting transitions is often less error-prone than comparing against a

threshold in a noisy environment.
• Because only the presence of a transition is important, polarity is not.
Differential coding schemes will work exactly the same if the signal is
inverted (wires swapped). (Other line codes with this property include NRZI,
bipolar encoding, biphase mark code, coded mark inversion, and MLT-3
encoding).

A '1' bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal equal to the last
half of the previous bit's signal i.e. no transition at the start of the bit-time.
A '0' bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal opposite to the
last half of the previous bit's signal i.e. a zero bit is indicated by a transition
at the beginning of the bit-time. In the middle of the bit-time there is
always a transition, whether from high to low, or low to high. A reversed
scheme is possible, and no advantage is given by using either scheme.

An example of Differential Manchester encoding

A related method is Manchester encoding in which the meaningful

transitions are the mid-bit ones, and these encode data by their direction
(positive-negative is one value, negative-positive is the other).

Differential Manchester is specified in the IEEE 802.5 standard for token

ring LANs, and is used for many other applications, including magnetic and
optical storage.

Note: In differential Manchester encoding, if a "1" is represented by one

transition, then a "0" is represented by two transitions and vice versa.

Bipolar encoding
In telecommunication, bipolar encoding is a type of line code (a
method of encoding digital information to make it resistant
to certain forms of signal loss during transmission). A
duobinary signal is such an encoding.

A binary 0 is encoded as zero volts as in unipolar encoding. A binary 1 is

encoded alternately as a positive voltage and a negative voltage. This
prevents a significant build-up of DC, as the positive and negative pulses
average to zero volts. Little or no DC-component is considered an
advantage because the cable may then be used for longer distances and to
carry power for intermediate equipment such as line repeaters. The DC-
component can be easily and cheaply removed before the signal reaches
the decoding circuitry.

Bipolar encoding is preferable to non-return-to-zero where signal

transitions are required to maintain synchronization between the
transmitter and receiver. Other systems must synchronize using some
form of out-of-band communication, or add frame synchronization
sequences that don't carry data to the signal. These alternative
approaches require either an additional transmission medium for the
clock signal or a loss of performance due to overhead, respectively. A
bipolar encoding is an often good compromise: runs of ones will not
cause a lack of transitions, however long sequences of zeroes are still
an issue. Long sequences of zero bits result in no transitions and a loss
of synchronization. Where frequent transitions are a requirement, a
self-clocking encoding such as return-to-zero or some other more
complicated line code may be more appropriate, though they
introduce significant overhead.

Alternate Mark Inversion

When used on a T-carrier, the code is known as Alternate Mark
Inversion because, in this context, a binary '1' is referred to as a
"mark", while a binary '0' is called a "space". The coding was used
extensively in first-generation PCM networks, and is still commonly
seen on older multiplexing equipment today, but successful
transmission relies on no long runs of zeroes being present. No more
than 15 consecutive zeros should ever be sent to ensure
synchronization. The modification of bit 7 causes a change to voice
that is undetectable by the human ear, but it is an unacceptable
corruption of a data stream. Data channels are required to use some
other form of pulse-stuffing, such as always setting bit 8 to '1', in order
to maintain a sufficient density of ones. If the characteristics of the
input data do not follow the pattern that every eighth bit is '1', the
coder using alternate mark inversion adds a '1' after seven
consecutive zeros to maintain synchronisation. On the decoder side,
this extra '1' added by the coder is removed, resulting that the correct
data arrives for the receiver. Due to this, the data sent between the
coder and the decoder is longer than the original data by less than 1%
on average. Of course, this lowers the effective data throughput to 56
kbit/s per channel.

2B1Q
Two-binary, one-quaternary (2B1Q) is a physical layer encoding
used for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) implementations. 2B1Q uses four signal levels, which
are −450 mV, −150 mV, 150 mV and 450 mV, each (1Q) equivalent to
two bits (2B). A competing encoding technique, also used for ISDN
basic rate interfaces, is 4B3T.

To minimize error propagation, bit pairs (dibits) are assigned to

voltage levels according to a Gray code, as follows:

Dib Signal
it level
10 +450
mV
11 +150
mV
01 −150
mV
00 −450
mV

If the voltage is misread as an adjacent level, this will only cause a 1-

bit error in the decoded data. 2B1Q is also used for some variants of
HDSL.
 8B/6T
8B/6T means send 8 data bits as six ternary (one of three voltage levels)
signals. 3/4 (6/8) wave transitions transitions per bit i.e. the carrier just
needs to be running at 3/4 of the speed of the data rate. The incoming data
stream is split into 8-bit patterns. Each 8-bit data pattern with two voltage
levels 0 volts and V volts is examined. This 8-bit pattern is then converted
into a 6-bit pattern but using three voltage levels -V, 0 and V volts, so each
8-bit pattern has a unique 6T code. For example the bit pattern 0000 0000
(0x00) uses the code +-00+- and 0000 1110 (0x)E) uses the code -+0-
0+. There are 36 = 729 possible patterns (symbols). The rules for the
symbols are that there must be at least two voltage transitions (to maintain
clock synchronisation) and the average DC voltage must be zero (this is
called 'DC balance' that is the overall DC voltage is summed up to 0v, the
+V and -V transitions are evenly balanced either side of 0V) which stops
any polarisation on the cable.

The maximum frequency that the 6T codes could generate on one carrier is
37.5MHz. FCC rules do not allow anything above 30MHz on cables and
Category 3 cable does not allow anything above 16MHz (which is what
100BaseT4 was designed for). The 100BaseT4 standard uses 8B/6T
encoding on three pairs in a round robin fashion such that the maximum
carrier frequency on any single pair is 37.5/3 = 12.5MHz.

PAM-5

This employs multi-level amplitude signalling. To encode 8 bits, 28 = 256

codes or symbols, are required since there are 256 possible pattern
combinations. A five level signal (e.g. -2v, -1v, 0v, 1v and 2v) called Pulse
Amplitude Modulation 5 is used (This works in a similar manner to MLT-
3). Bearing in mind that there are 4 separate pairs being used for
transmission and reception of data, this gives us a possibility of 54 = 625
codes to choose from when using all four pairs. Actually only four levels are
used for data, the fifth level (0v) is used for the 4-dimensional 8-state Trellis
Forward Error Correction used to recover the transmitted signal from the
high noise.

If you plot time (nanoseconds) against voltage you will see an 'eye pattern'
effect showing the different signal levels. Comparing a plot for MLT-3
against PAM-5 will demonstrate how that the separate levels for PAM-5 are
less discreet. This is why extra convolution coding is used called Trellis
coding, which uses Viterbi decoding for error detection and correction.

2 bits are represented per symbol and the symbol rate is 125Mbps in each
direction on a pair because the clock rate is set at 125MHz. This gives
250Mbps data per pair and therefore 1000Mbps for the whole cable.

This type of encoding is used by Gigabit Ethernet. The data signals have
distinct and measurable amplitude and phases relative to a 'marker signal'.
Using this two way matrix allows more data bits per cycle, in the case of
Gigabit Ethernet 1000Mbps is squeezed into 125MHz signals. The
electronics are more complex and the technology is more susceptible to
noise.

MLT-3 encoding
MLT-3 encoding (Multi-Level Transmit) is a line code (a signaling
method used in a telecommunication system for transmission
purposes) that uses three voltage levels. An MLT-3 interface emits less
electromagnetic interference and requires less bandwidth than most
other binary or ternary interfaces that operate at the same bit rate
(see PCM for discussion on bandwidth / quantization tradeoffs), such
as Manchester code or Alternate Mark Inversion.

MLT-3 cycles through the voltage levels -1, +1, and 0. It moves to the
next state to transmit a 1 bit, and stays in the same state to transmit
a 0 bit. Similar to simple NRZ encoding, MLT-3 has a coding efficiency
of 1 bit/baud, however it requires four transitions (baud) to complete a
full cycle (from low-to-middle, middle-to-high, high-to-middle, middle-
to-low). Thus, the maximum fundamental frequency is reduced to one
fourth of the baud rate. This makes signal transmission more
amenable to copper wires.

MLT-3 was first introduced by Crescendo Communications as a coding

scheme for FDDI copper interconnect (TP-PMD, aka CDDI). Later, the
same technology was used in the 100BASE-TX physical medium
dependent sublayer, given the considerable similarities between FDDI
and 100BASE-[TF]X physical media attachment layer (section 25.3 of
IEEE802.3-2002 specifies that ANSI X3.263:1995 TP-PMD should be
consulted, with minor exceptions).

Signaling specified by 100BASE-T4 Ethernet, while it has three levels,

is not compatible with MLT-3. It uses selective base-2 to base-3
conversion with direct mapping of base-3 digits to line levels (8B6T
code).