5.1 What is an Ecosystem?

What determines which species occur in a

habitat?
Biosphere- Part of Earth inhab. by organisms.
Adapted to survive and reproduce there.
Made of ecosystems.
Ecological factors:
Abiotic + biotic factors.
Habitats Abiotic Biotic
In ecosystem. Solar energy input Competition
(inter/intraspecific)
Place with distinct set of conds. Where organism
Climate Grazing
lives.
Topography Predation -Benefit one at
Communities Oxygen availability Parasitism expense of
Population = Group of inds. same species in an other-
area. Edaphic (soil+pH) Mutualism –Both benefit-
Community = Populations of a Pollution
habitat/ecosystem. Catastrophes
Rocky shore ecosystem Adapted for Survival
Adaptations enable species to cope with biotic +
abiotic conds. in niche.
eg. Polar bear- small ears + tail Mate in
summer
Thick fur Cubs born
nov/dec,
Long nose + emerge in
spring
Layer of fat under skin Large
feet; long hair
Anthropogenic factors- Arising from human
Polar bears top carnivore of tundra.
activity.
Grasses grow from base so carry on growing.
Env. no longer natural.
Caribou teeth wear down but cont. to grow.
Ecosystems are Dynamic
Lichens= Mutualistic rel. of fungus + green
protoctist.
Fungus protects green cells, green
provides fungus with photosynthetic
products.
Often a pioneer species on bare ground.
Bare ground can arise in formation of new
island.
Primary Succession
Newly formed habitats, never a comm.. before.
eg. Bare rock, sand, open water.
-Dominant species exerts override inf. over rest
of species.
-Sometimes several co-dominant.
-Usually largest and most abundant.
As succession progresses, no. niches ^ + no
speices.
Climax comm. can have v biodiversity.
Climax without trees – tundra + moss bogs. In
some places succession doesn’t cont. as soil
very freely draining so suffers drought.
Pioneer Phase
Bare rock- Lichens + algae.
Cope with extreme temp. + lack of soil.
Break up rock > organic material accumulates.
Change conds. for next species (wind blown
moss spores)
Mosses build up organic matter in soil; can hold
water.
Small, shallowe rooted plants establish.
Conds improve > larger taller plants.
Compete + replace.
Climax comm.
Usually trees. stable. Britain = forest.
Sand Dune Succession
Secondary Succession
On bare soil where existing comm. has cleared.
Ploughed field or forest fire.
Seeds of species lying dormant in soil (seed
bank) + wind/animals.
• A species that takes adv of bare soil:
- Seeds dispersed by wind.
- Rapid growth.
- Short life cycle.
- Abundant seed production.
Competes by fast growing and flowering.
5.2 Ecosystems Rely on Energy Transfer
In oceans, phytoplankton- microscopic plants.
Provide food for animal plankton.
Producers + Productivity
Primary Productivity: Rate at which energy
incorp. into
organic molecules.
Producers/Autotrophs
Make their own organic compounds from
inorganic. Eg. Green plants, algae, some
bacteria.
When light falls on them, energy transferred to
chem. energy store by making organic fuels
Deflected Succession
Comm. that only remains stable because
humans stop succession cont. eg. Sheep
grazing.
Actively managed- Grazing, mowing burning.
Some producers chemosynthetic autotrophs.
Make organic molecules from energy released
by chem. reactions.
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O >>>>>>> C6H12O6 + 6O2
(Energy from light in presence of chlorophyll)
CO2 reduced as H and electrons from water
added to it, creating carb.
-The reactions require energy input from light.
Energy needed to break bonds of CO2 and water
greater than energy released when products
formed.
-So products at higher energy level than
reactants, acting as energy store.
-Oxygen is waste released into atmosphere.
-When energy is required in cell, H stored in
carbs reacts with O in respiration, releasing
energy.
Releasing H from water= Photolysis.
-Importance of photosynthesis: Glucose made
passed on through food webs. Animals can’t
make all the org. compounds needed so depend
on plants.
-And the O released needed for respiration.
- Site of photosynthesis = Chloroplast
Palisade mesophyll cell in leaf:
Thylakoid membrane = System of
interconnected flattened fluid-filled sacs.
How Photosynthesis Works
- Series of reactions controlled by enzymes.
Light dep- Uses energy from light + H from
photolysis to > NADPH, ATP, O.
Light indep- Uses NADPH + ATP to reduce CO2
to carbs.
Reduction= gain of electrons
Oxidation= Loss of electrons
H atoms consist of H ion and electron. H ions
alone can’t reduce things.
CO2 and H2O have no direction contact. The H,
electrons and energy transferred indirectly using
NADP and ATP.
Light Dependent Reactions
Light absorbed by chlorophyll in thylakoid
membrances.
1) Energy from light raises two electronics in
each chlorophyll molecule to ^ energy level. The
molecules are excited.
2) Electrons leave excited chlorophyll. Pass
along electron carrier molecules in membrane.
3) Electrons pass from one carrier to next in
series of redox reactions, losing energy.
Energy is used in synth of ATP;
photophosphorylation.
4) In thylakoid space, enzyme catalyses
photolysis to give O, H+ and electrons. Electrons
5) Electrons that have passed along combine
with co-enzyme NADP and H+ >> NADPH.
6) ADP + Pi >> ATP
Role of ATP
Light-Independent Reactions
In stroma of chloroplast. NADP acts as H carrier,
keeping H loosely bonded so it can’t react with O
as it’s transferred from H20 and CO2. Calvin
cycle.
- Moves energy from energy-yielding to energy-
requiring reactions.
-When the 3rd phosphate group is removed, it
becomes hydrated, bonding with water. Energy
is released.
Catalysed by ATPase
ATP in water >>> ADP + hydrated Pi + Energy
-When ATP is created, phosphorylation.
Phosphate is separated from water.
Metabolic Pathways
Reactions mostly occur in series of smaller ones,
each controlled by specific enzyme. Allows rate
of overall reaction to be controlled. Intermediate
1) CO2 combines with 5C compound RuBP,
catalysed by RuBISCO.
2) 6C compound is unstable and breaks into two
3C molecules, GP.
3) The GP is reduced to form (3C) GALP. H from
NADPH and ATP provides the energy.
4) 2 of 12 GALPs create a 6C sugar that can be
converted to other compounds.
5) 10/12 GALPs recreate RuBP. Rearrange to six
5C compounds, then phosphorylation using ATP
forms RuBP.
Why does Photosynthesis Happen in Primary = Herbivores, Secondary=Carnivores,
Chloroplasts? Tertiary= Carnivores.
• Thylakoids + light dependent
- The protein electron carriers are in the Detritivores = Primary consumers that fed on
thylakoid membrane. Positioning creates dead organic material (detritus)
electron transport chain. Decomposers= Bacteria and fungi that feed on
dead remains of orgs. and faeces.
• Stroma + light independent
Secrete enzymes + digest food externally.
- Keeping in stroma inc. the enzymes used
means easy to keep high concentrations of
Trophic level= Position a species occupies in
enzymes so reaction is fast.
food chain.
Transfer of Energy through the Ecosystem
Some energy fixed in organic molecules by
autotrophs is transferred to other orgs.
How Efficient is Transfer of Energy in Some of the carbs. broken down in resp., rest for
Ecosystems? proteins, chr, membranes etc (= biomass).
- Most energy reaching plant not absorbed as
Disappearing Energy
chlorophyll only absorbs certain wavelengths.
-Transfer energy from producers > consumers
(red and blue ends)
inefficient.
- Less than 5% of energy reaching plants is used
-2-10% energy in producers makes herbivore
in photosynthetic products.
biomass.
-Limiting factors inf. rate of photosynthesis.
The rest?
The rate is limited by the factor furthest from its
Not all avail. food eaten, some lost in
optimum.
faeces+urine, a lot used in resp.
-GPP= Gross primary productivity
= Rate at which energy incorp. into org. mol. -Primary to secondary more efficient. 10%.
by ecosystem Most of a herbivore eaten by carnivore. Easily
-Percentage efficiency = GPP/light on plant X digested so less lost in faeces.
Energy entering trophic level = energy lost in
resp + lost in faeces + lost in urine + used for
biomass.
-Energy entering must = amount used/lost by
that level
Transfer to trophic levels gets less and less.
Pollen grains preserved well in peat.
- Plant pollen vast amounts
- Tough outer layer decay resistant.
- Each species distinctive pollen type.
- Peat forms layers. Deeper = older. Carbon-14
dating.
- Each plant has set of conds. best.
So, eg. find pollen from warm cond. plants = was
warm.
5.3 Is the Climate Changing?
Ev. for climate change
Ev. from memory= anecdotal. Unreliable.
We are in period of warming. Ev:
Temp records, pollen of peat bogs,
dendrochronology.
Studing Peat Bogs
Find out about climate past 3c ago.
Study plant + insect remains in peat.
Peat = Accumulation of partially decayed org.
matter.
Mainly dead plants.
Denrochronology = Tree ring analysis
- Every yr tree makes new layer of xylem
vessels.
- Diameter varies according to season.
Wide= Spring (grows fast), Narrow= Summer.
Little growth autumn/winter.
- Core sample can be taken eg. ring in 1326 wider
than 1327= tree
- Outside ring = newest grew more 1326 so
better conds =
warmer / wetter
Ice Cores
- Used for more than 3c ago.
- As water freezes, bubbles of air trapped.
-Ratio of diff. O isotypes in air measured giving
5.4 Why are Temps. Changing?
Atmosphere keeps temp. more stable. Without
it, would hugely fluctuate.
Greenhouse Effect
-Sun radiates energy. Earth absorbs some;
warms surface.
-Earth radiates energy back into space as
infrared radiation.
-Some infrared is emitted, cooling atmosphere.
-Some infrared absorbed by gases in
atmosphere, warming it. = greenhouse
gasses.
Which are greenhouse gasses?
Global warming pot. = Measure of greenhouse
Does ^ CO2 Cause Global Warming?
Correlation.
Rise in temp is followed by rise of CO2 released
from oceans, so further warming.
Theory = Well tested, widely accepted idea.
Controversial Issue
- Science can only disprove theories.
- Incomplete knowledge of how climate system
works and date sets for predictions have
limitations.
- Some suggest part of natural cycle, or sun’s
activity.
- Where cuts in emissions might have business,
company/country may not accept causal link.
Some examples- Methane, Nitrous Oxide.
Methane- CH4
Produced by anaerobic decay of org. matter in
water logged conds.
Also decay of domestic waste in landfills,
decomp. of animal waste, digestive systems, +
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
Absorbs more infrared than CO2, but stays in
atmosphere for less time.
Could be reduced through: waste recycling,
using as biofuel to produce CO2 + water vapour
(less serious)
5.5 Predicting Future Climates
Scientists use computer models to study
interactions of many factors to predict.
Mathematical models
Extrapolation- Extending a line on graph. Not
very accurate.
Trend may not continue.
Multifactoral- Considering many makes model
more
accurate.
Other factors: Other gases, aerosols, small
particles/liquid droplets
Degree of reflected of earth surface free of
ice+snow,
Fraction of earth in ice + snow,
Models aren’t perfect- - Melting ice = Fresh water in North Atlantic.
-Limited data and knowledge of climate system Rises rather than sinks.
-Limitations in computing resources -So, Drift may stop ‘pumping’
-Failure to inc all factors = UK temp falls.
-Changing trends in the factors Ev that salt in North Atlantic reducing so may
-Can test them against existing data. happen.

Models predict colder UK-

-Brit. winters warmer than places of same
latitude.
-Gulf stream + North Atlantic Drift bring warm
water from Gulf of Mexico.
- In North Atlantic, water cools, contracts, sinks,
Back to Gulf where warms, expands, rises.
Sinking acts as ‘pump’
5.6 Coping With Climate Change -Invasion of exotic/alien species of other regions.
Effects: Changing dist. of species. Outcompete.
Changing dev. + life cycles. - Pests + diseases may spread.
Changing dist of species -Witchweed = parasitic weed. Infects crops.
Absorbs nutrients + moisture
Changing comms. and alien invaders
Some species may benefit + become dominant. -In Britain, fruit crops could be threatened by
Others lost due to comp. with existing/invading fungal diseases if more humid.
species.
- Invertebrate pests. May reproduce quicker.
If mobile/seed dispersal, may migrate.
-After changing rainfall; soil moisture, wind and
Higher temps. earlier in yr could extend growing
rising sea levels influences species dist.
season.
Crops sensitive to frost could growth further
north.
Altered Development
Faster photosynthesis  Faster growth
Effect of temp. on enzyme activity
More collisions so substrate binds
with active site of enzyme freq.
If past optimum, enzymes denature
= bonds holding shape break.
Substrate doesn’t fit.
Increase temp  higher reaction rate, only if no
other factors limiting.
CO2 and light are limiting so in normal conds.
optimum rarely achieved.
Phenology – Changing with seasons
- Phenology = stud of seasonal events in lives of
organisms.
- Timing of events is indicator of climate change.
- Spring is earlier.
Making the most of food supply
- Hatching of eggs / emergence of adults is
synched with periods of max food availability.
In response to day length = Photoperiod
( Phytoplankton respond to temp so if ^ then
peak occurs earlier in spring, but worms may lay
at same time, so nothing for worms to feed on )
Complex picture
CO2 is limiting factor of photosynthesis
Plateaus when other factors
limit.
Crop production in cooler regions will benefit
from climate change and warmer will suffer. So
may increase global inequality.
Disrupted Development + life cycles
If temp. is a trigger for animals dev then will be
affected.
Egg incubation temp of some reptiles
determines sex of offspring.
5.7 Adapt or Die
Climate change provides selection pressure for
nat. selec + evolution.
Changing Over Time
Darwin observed – Orgs produce more offspring
than can survive + reproduce. No. in nat. pop.
stays same over time.
Conc = Struggle for existence. Comp. for
survival in species.
As pop ^ size, env. factors halt the increase.
Many inds die.
Also- Huge var. in
species.
Conc= Inds best
adapted to
We now know DNA profiling-
New alleles arise through random mutation  -Restriction enzymes cut DNA at sequences =
Variation. fragments.
If inds. new alleles better adapted, survive + - Visualised as bands of DNA profile.
pass on. - If mutations have happened, the enzymes
won’t cut the DNA, so bands change.
So, Evolution = Change in allele frequency of
population of DNA + protein sequencing-
organisms over time. - Comparing sequence of bases in DNA, or amino
Ev. for Evolution acid sequence in proteins, of diff. species. See
Before publication of paper, peer review, to how related.
check validity. - If few diffs, evolved from common ancestor.
Molecular Ev
Study of DNA = genomics. Of proteins = Evo Observed
Proteomics. When a HIV pop is exposed to a new drug with a
Speciation Other reasons for reproductive isolation...
How are new species formed? Ecological Isolation: Occupy diff parts of habitat
- Group of inds reproductively isolated from the Temporal Isolation: Reproduce at diff times
rest of the top.
Behavioural Isolation: Diff courtship beh
Eg. Isolation by a geographical feature.
Physical Incompatibility: Physical reasons
- The two groups become diff as they respond to
prevent sex
diff selection pressures in their habitats +
Hybrid sterility: Hybrids that can’t breed
mutations accumulate.
Hybrid Inviability-: Hybrids produced that don’t
When they can’t breed to produce fertile survive to
offspring = breed
diff species.
5.8 Getting the Balance Right It’s not in balance due to combustion of fossil
The Carbon Cycle fuels and deforestation.
Combustion
Burnt faster than forming.
Coal is formed from wood of trees. Wood didn’t
decay so carbon locked in coal.
Coal is a carbon sink.
Extract + burn, release CO2.
Deforestation
If a forest is cut down, in the short-term there
would be more CO2 released than absorbed.

Other Factors... * Reforestation. In new forest, trees grow fast,

- Volcanoes releasing CO2 CO2 > wood.
- CO2 lost to sediments in ocean Respiration less than
- ^ in acid rain could erode limestone (release photosynthesis.
CO2) Net absorber of carbon.
- Also warmer water = holds less CO2. When older, becomes a
Mystery of disappearing CO2 carbon store.
One exp is that more carbon = more
photosynthesis.
Also maybe more dissolved in ocean.
Maintaining the balance
* Using biofuels. = Any source of energy by
recent
photosynthesis.Renewable
6.1 Forensic Biology How is DNA profile made?
Identifying the body Obtaining the DNA
Fingerprinting, dental records, DNA profiling.
From bio tissue. Eg. Cheek swab, wbcs, bone
DNA Profiling marrow,
DNA is unique. Over 3 billion base pairs. Sperm.
Introns = Non-coding blocks. Exons = Coding
blocks. - Tissue sample physically broken down in buffer
Introns contain STRs = Short tandom repeats / solution inc salt and detergent to disrupt cell
satellites. membranes.
STRs 5-20 base pairs; rep. 5-hundreds of times. - Small suspended particles inc the DNA are
separated from cell debris by
Some STRs occur at same loci on both chrs of filtering/centrifuging.
homologous pair.
No of reps on each chr can be diff. - Protease incubated with suspension to remove
proteins.
Creating the fragments PCR Reaction = DNA Amplification
- DNA treated with restriction endonucleases DNA polymerase + DNA primers + nucleotides
(enzymes)... + DNA sample (treated).
Restriction endonucleases: Reaction tube into PCR thermal cycler..
Found nat. in bacteria for cutting invading viral
DNA. 95oC 55oC 70oC
Name reflects bacteria its from. Separates DNA  Primers attach at  DNA
Bacteria protect own DNA from restriction polymerases
enzymes by changing bases in the sequences into 2 strands start of STR attach to
targeted. primers so
sequence. nucleotides are
... –Only cut DNA at specific base sequence. added
- Use enzymes that cut at restriction sites either extending DNA
side of STR to cut it away from the rest of the from primer.
DNA primer = Short DNA sequence
complementary to DNA adjacent to STR. Marked
by fluorescent tags.
(An additional primer is used to determine
gender.
Targets sequence on sex chr)
Separating the fragments
Gel electrophoresis
-DNA placed on agarose gel
-Gel submerged in buffer solution
-Connected to electrodes. Produce pot diff
across gel.
- Neg charged DNA fragments migrate towards
pos.
DNA probe:
short DNA complementary to target DNA
sequence to locate
Probe can be radioactive-
Membrane dried and placed next to Xray film.
Film blackens where probe has bound as double
stranded.
or labelled with fluorescent marker-
visualised under UV light
Single band on profile where maternal +
paternal chr. have same no. reps at locus.
Two bands on profile if diff. no. reps.
Unique banding pattern for an ind. if probes for
many sequences used.
Visualising the fragments
Gel is fragile and frags are double stranded after
electrophoresis.
Southern blotting
used to transfer frags to nitrocellulose
membrane...
- Membrane placed on gel
-Wad of absorbent paper on top.
-Paper draws buffer solution up through gel,
charging DNA
frags onto membrane.
-Frags denatured into single strands, exposing
bases.
- Membrane incubated with labelled DNA probe
Results produced as graph. Position of each peak
= size of DNA fragment. Size of peak = Amount
of DNA in sample.
Colour of peak = fluorescent tag on primer
(in forensics, PCR is automated so that frags can
be visualised using the DNA primers)
Using the DNA profile
Can be used for ID, paternity disputes, ID stolen,
animals, variation + evolutionary relationship of
organisms.
Is the profile infalliable?
Complete profile would be unique, but if only
some STRs = less likely to be unique.
Determining Time of Death
Body Temp
Normal = 36.2-37.6. Die = cools
Temp. reliable indicator first 24 hrs.
Measured via rectum / ab stab.
Initial temp may not be 37. Fever,
hypothermia.
Factors affecting cooling:
-Body size, position, clothing, air movement,
humidity, surrounding temp.
-Water immersion = cool quicker
because water better heat conductor than air.
State of Decomposition < putrefaction
After death, tissues break down due to enzymes.
First, Autolysis. Enzymes from digestive tract +
lysosomes cause lysis.
Bacteria from gut invade the tissues, releasing
enzymes.
Loss of O so anaerobic bacteria thrive.
Signs:
1) Greenish discolouration of abdomen due to
sulphaemoglobin. Spreads to body, to purple-
black.
2) Gas + liquid blisters on skin.
3) Bacteria action cause gases to form in
intestines + tissues = smelly+ bloated. Gas
Rigor Mortis
1) Muscles starved of O = O dependent reactions
stop.
2) Respiration becomes anaerobic  lactic acid.
3) pH of cells falls  Enzymes + anaerobic resp.
inhibited.
4) ATP for muscle contraction not produced, so
bonds
between proteins fixed.
5) Proteins can’t move to shorten muscle,
so muscles + joints fixed.
Small muscles stiffen first.
Rigor mortis ends when tissue starts to break
- Rate determined by temp.
- Intense heat denatures enzymes, delaying
decay.
- Injuries allow bacteria to enter + aid decay.
Forensic Entemology
Take samples of insects on/near body.
Temp of air, ground, body mass + maggot mass
measured
so that rate of maggot dev. can be determined.
Some maggots killed to determine, others fed on
meat to dev. + see when they pupate.
Estimating time since death
Est age of maggot  Est when eggs laid Est.
Egg  First instar larva  2nd  3rd  Pupa 6.2 Cause of Death
External + internal examination of corpse.
Succession on Corpses
The insects come in waves and they don’t Bacteria
replace the last wave. Prokaryotic cell. Reproduces asexually by binary
Body has been moved since death if species fission.
aren’t from location body is found.
Other decomposers
Bacteria + fungi.
Corpse is good source of energy for them.
CO2 released when they respire.

Gram pos – Wall thickened with additional

polysacc+protein. Gram neg- Thinner, but
Viruses Manufacturing new virus particles
Small organic particles. Stand of single/double
1) Virus attaches to host cell
stranded nucleic acid enclosed in protein coat.
- Some have outer envelope from host cells 2) Virus inserts nucleic acid
membrane 3) Viral nucleic acids replicate
(lipids, proteins, + antigens from virus) 4) Viral protein coats synthesised
- Helps the virus attach to cell + penetrate 5) New virus particles formed
membrane.
6) Virus particles released in cell lysis
- Lack structures for growth + reproduction, so
have to enter host cells + use their metabolic
- Disease causing bacteria + viruses =
systems.
Pathogens.
- After reproducing, bud out or burst cell = Lysis.
- Diseases caued by bacteria – Cholera,
Contents released inc. enzymes + chems.
gonnorhoea.
Protein coat
- Diseases caused by viruses – Flu, measles,
Transmission of HIV 6.3 Body’s Response to Infection
- Can’t survive outside body for significant time. Non-Specific Response
- Passed on in body fluids – Blood, vaginal
Lysozyme Inflammation
secretions, semen.
Tears, saliva, nasal secretion. Damaged wbc +
NOT saliva or
mast cells
urine.
Enzyme. release histamine.
Ways of transferring: Kills bacteria by breaking Arterioles dilate,
Unprotected sex, oral sex, blood-to-blood, ^ blood flow
maternal transmission from mum to unborn child down cell walls. in capillaries +
or in breast milk. permeability.
Taking HIV drugs in last 3 months of pregnancy Plasma fluid, wbc
and C-section lowers risk. +antibodies
leave blood to
tissues
Phagocytosis Action at infected site
Phagocytes= wbc that engulf. - Chems released by bacteria + damaged cells
Neutrophils Lymphocytes attract wbcs.
Leave cap. between walls. B + T cells. (also Neutrophils first (engulf 5-20).Next macrophages
in specific) (up to 100)
Last few days. Ingest. Can last days or
years. Bacterium > Engulfed > Enclosed in vacuole >
Lysosomes (1)
Monocytes Other
Circulate blood days then move Produce
histamine
to tissue and become
macrophages. Engulf.
Lysosomes fuse with vacuole, releasing
lysozymes to destroy.
Lymphatic system- to prevent spread of Specific Immunity
infection Lymphocytes – wbc in blood + lymph
Some bacteria may be carried away in B+T Cells
blood/lymph. Respond to antigens on surface of
Macrophages in lymph nodes, spleen, liver. bacteria/viruses
protein molecules
1) Tissue fluid drains into lymphatic vessels.
Lymphocytes identify which are foreign/non-self.
2) Lymph (fluid) flows along lymph vessels,
passing through nodes + returning to blood via B Cells
ducts. Secrete antibodies. Bind to antigens. Act as
3) Any pathogens in lymph activate lymphocytes labels for phago.
+ macrophages -> destroyed. Immunoglobins:
Amino acid sequence
If lymphatic system fails, septic shock/blood
(so shape) of binding
poisoning.
site diff in each type.
B Cell Process (4) Activation of T Cells (2)
Secrete antibodies Bind to antigens Then - Macrophages present antigens on surface
engulfed by when engulf
macrophage =APCs
after -T helper cells CD4 receptors bind to antigen of
binding to APC.
antigen - Divide to produce active T Helpers and T
receptor. Memory cells.
T Cells Clonal Selection role of active T Helpers (3)
-Produced in bone marrow but mature in thymus B cell binds to antigen APC binds with
gland. B Cell divides to
-Produced by stem cells in marrow
-Leave to thymus + mature
> APC active T Helper B
- Leave thymus to lymph nodes + spleen memory +
-When lymph or blood passes, T cells activated by > Cytokines stim B
Plasma cells short lived.
Takes 10-17 days for B cells to make enough
plasma cells.
= PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE.
Likely to suffer symptoms here.
T Killer Cell Process
- Body cells infected > APCs.
- T killers bind + divide > Active T Killers +
Memory T Killers
+ release enzymes that perforate cell > Lysis
Secondary Immune Response
- If infected by the same pathogen again.
- Involves memory cells. Quicker (2-7 days)
- B memory can divide straight away to produce
plasma
- More antibodies produced + response lasts
longer.
The person is immune.

Avoiding attack by own immune system 6.4 Body’s Response to TB

We have membrane proteins on our cells that What is TB?
mark as ‘self’. - Contagious disease caused by bacteria.
Unique in each ind. - 2/3 world infected. But most healthy.
- Respiratory/pulmonary common type. Affects
- As B+T mature, any for ‘self’ are destroyed by
lungs;
apoptosis (programmed cell death).
contagious.
- Occasionally body attacks itself., Cells may
- Improved housing, living conds, antibiotics >
appear foreign.
less cases.
Eg. Insulin-secreting cells apoptised > Diabetes Symptoms of TB
Infection occurs when bacteria inhaled + lodged
in lungs.
2 phases:
Primary Infection Active TB
- Several months, maybe no symptoms. 2nd phase.
- Bacteria  Inflammatory response  If IS didn’t control disease as bacteria too great,
Macrophages engulf or, old infection broke out.
 Granuloma forms IS may be reduced because:
In TB, tubercules. Anaerobic. Dead bac + mac -old/young age / malnutrition / poor living
inside. conds / AIDS
3-8 weeks, infection controlled, lung heals. As HIV
targets WBCs
When not cured.. - Active TB multiply + destroy lungs >
- Bacteria survives in macrophages. holes/cavities
- Engulfed and resist killing mechs. - Symptoms: Coughing, blood, short breath, V
- Thick waxy walls difficult to break down. app, weight loss, fever, extreme fatigue.
- Dormant. Active when IS down (opportunistic) Fever as fever substances release from macs,
Glandular TB ID of bacteria
TB in bones, lymph nodes, CNS. - Sample of sputum coughed up. Cultured to see
-Enlarged lymph, glands in neck/pits if TB present.
-Staining. Cell wall of diff bacteria take diff
TB Diagnosis stains.
Skin + blood tests Chest X-Rays
- Tuberculin in arm. Pos result > inflamed area. Extent of damage to lungs. Friends + family
As antibodies attack, showing TB should be tested
antigens present
- But can give false neg result if latent TB.
- Can give false pos result if BCG.

- Blood tests find T cells for TB antigens.

6.5 Body’s Response to HIV + AIDS HIV Invades T Helper Cells
What are they?
- Glycoprotein of HIV = gp120
AIDS- Caused by infection of HIV virus. - gp120 bind to CD4 receptors on T cells.
Syndrome. Symptoms of aids are of - Combine with 2nd receptor
opportunistic - HIV envelope fuses with T cell membrane.
infections.
- mRNA enters cell
HIV:
- Reverse transcriptase  mRNA to DNA (so
retrovirus)
makes one strand so
then copied to make 2
- Integrase  Integrate DNA into host DNA.

- Transcribed + translated  new viruses

Protein Synthesis Translation
DNA sense strand -mRNA is attached to smaller unit of ribosome.
- Anticodon on tRNA pairs with codon of mRNA.
DNA antisense strand - Peptide bond forms between the aminos,
Template strand making
polypeptide chain.
mRNA

DNA described as degenerative code as several

Transcription
- RNA polymerase attaches to DNA, breaking H triplets  code for same acid.
bonds.
mRNA Splicing
-DNA unwinds.
mRNA can be edited. Introns removed.
- RNA pair with DNA to form mRNA strand.
One gene gives rise to many diff proteins.
mRNA leaves nuclear pore.
- Attaches to ribosome on ER.
New viruses destroy T Helpers Chronic Phase
- New viruses bud out of T cells taking envelope, - Virus reproduces rapidly, but no. kept in check
killing cell. by IS.
- Infected T cells killed also by T killers. - May be no symptoms, but easily get colds etc.
>> less T cells - Dormant diseases can reactivate, eg TB,
>> so B + T not activated shingles.
>> so IS function lowered
Disease Phase
Course of AIDS
- ^ no. viruses + v T helper  AIDS
Acute Phase
- IS vulnerable to opportunistic infection.
-HIV antibodies in blood 3-12wks
- Sig. weight loss, dementia. Tumours.
- Fever, sweat, headache, sore throat, swollen
lymph nodes.
- Rep. of virus + less T helper cells.
- Infected T cells killed by T Killers  v rate of
6.6 Prevention of TB + HIV Infection Gut Flora- Bac in intestines. Conds- Warm, moist,
Preventing Pathogen Entry food.
Skin- Keratin layer, blood clotting seals wounds. Compete with other pathogens.
Skin flora (microbes) prevent colonisation Mutualistic rel. with us.
by other bac Secrete lactic acid.
Other bac don’t adapt to salt, urea, fatty
acids well. Becoming Immune
* Active Artificial = Vaccination
Mucous Membrane- Line airways + gut. Lack
*Passive artificial = Injection. Instant
keratin. Moist.
* Active natural = Body IS. Memory cells
Good for bac.
* Passive natural = Antibodies from
-Mucus + cilia limit microbe entry. Trap +
placenta/milk
carry away.
- Lysozyme in mouth, eyes, nose breaks
down the
Vaccination
- Body responds in same way as to disease.
- Antibodies + memory cells give lasting
protection.
Vaccine contains...
• Attenuated virus- Weakened virus
• Killed bacteria
• Altered toxin produced by bac
• Antigen fragment of pathogen
- Usually have boosters, or with flu once per
strain.
- Gives herd immunity as when most protected,
the people without are also protected.
Are they dangerous?
Antibiotic = Chem substance produced by
microorganisms that inhib growth of/destroy bac
+ microorg, in dilute solution.
-Strepomyocin.
-Antibiotics help microorg. compete in env so
others can’t grow.
-Leave eukaryotic cells unharmed.
-Useless against viruses.
How Antibiotics Work
- Bactericidal – Destroy bac
- Bacteriostatic – Prevent multiplication. Then IS
destroys.
6.7 Treatment For AIDS + TB
Treating AIDS
- No treatment for HIV, as hidden in T Helpers.
- Drugs reduce production of more viruses.
= antiretroviral drugs:
*Reverse transcriptase inhibitors
* Protease inhibitors (stop cutting proteins into
smaller ones)
- HIV can resist them
Treating TB
- Active TB killed my antibiotics.
- Cont. for longer to ensure dormant destroyed.
Antibiotics Disrupt Bacterial Cell Growth By:
- Inhib cell wall synth (lysis)
- Disrupting cell membrane (lysis)
- Inhib nucleic acid synth, rep + transcrip.
Prevents division/ synth of enzymes.
- Inhib protein synth. Enzymes not made.
- Inhib enzymes.
Why do we still have TB?
- Bacteria reproduce fast, so pop. vast, so many
mutations.
- Random mutations = advantage
- Antibiotics provide selection pressure, so
resistant reproduce. Vertical evolution.
Passing on gene from one bac to another = 7.1 Getting Moving
Horizontal evolution

- Antibiotics should only be used when needed

- Should complete whole treatment
- Infection control in hosps.