Disaster Preparedness and Risk Reduction

 Emergency or disaster preparedness is a programme of long-term activities whose goals are to strengthen the
overall capacity and capability of a country or a community to efficiently manage all types of emergencies, and
bring about an orderly transition from relief through recovery, back to sustained development.  
The goal of disaster preparedness is to reduce the loss of lives and suffering and to minimise the effects of a
disaster.  Much effort has been made to determine how agencies can cooperate to provide effective aid to those
who have experienced disaster.  Recently, the focus has begun to include disaster preparedness.  Instead of
waiting for a disaster to occur, communities are exploring how they could be prepared in advance.   High risk areas
are most in need of preparedness efforts.  
Practice
Capacity building
No one is immune from disasters.  Preparing for disasters before they occur improves a community’s ability to
respond.  Capacity building should occur at every level, including global, national, regional, community and family.
The stronger the capacity of the community, the more resilient and less vulnerable they will be.   Capacity building
in at-risk countries and communities can save lives, property, and recovery time. 

Programme development
Disaster preparedness is about developing programmes that will reduce the impact of disasters.  In addition to
being prepared for unexpected disasters, it is important to make preparations that will reduce the risk and
vulnerability of communities to other emergencies.  Successful programmes are culturally appropriate, based on
the needs of the community, and can be sustained by the community. 

Sharing experiences

Sharing experiences is important when preparing for disasters and emergencies..  By learning from others  what
works and what doesn’t, communities and nations can enhance their strengths by adopting proven strategies.  
Sharing experiences increases a nation or community's resources, knowledge, and skills.  It also enables agencies
and organisations to have integrated plans of action, which increases the efficiency of response and recovery.
 Target groups

Affected population
The affected population and local community are at the heart of disaster preparedness and risk reduction.  When
the local community is enabled to prepare and care for themselves, disaster recovery will be more immediate,
effective, and sustainable.  Although some disasters require outside support, many can be managed internally.  The
local population is also in the best position to know what they need most.  By using their own knowledge and
expertise, they can develop plans to avoid, reduce, and respond internally to disasters of all kinds. 

Coordination and cooperation

There is a well-known saying that "it takes a village to raise a child."  In times of disaster, it takes the coordination
and cooperation of not only a village, but the local community and the community at large.   This can sometimes
extend as far as the international community.  In disaster preparedness and risk reduction, it's a huge task to
organise the planning, development and implementation of the appropriate plans.  Coordination and cooperation
is essential from the ground up.  It is extremely important that the affected population is represented and an active
participant at all stages of disaster preparedness and risk reduction. 

Organisational
During times of disaster, there are many agencies and organisations involved in responding to the needs of the
community and affected population.  This makes disaster preparedness even more critical.  There must be a plan
for coordinating services and materials.  Agencies and organisations must work together to mainstream services
and meet the needs of all involved.  This also helps to reduce risk.  When organisations work together, they can
develop the resources needed to reduce vulnerability to disaster. 

Disaster preparedness

Disaster preparedness is a programme of long-term activities with the goal of strengthening the overall capacity
and capability of a country or a community to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and bring about an
orderly transition from relief through recovery, and back to sustained development. 

Emergencies can strike anyone, anywhere, at any time.  Each year, hundreds of thousands of individuals, families,
and communities are disrupted by emergencies. The effects of disasters can be short-term, intermittent, or long
lasting.  Death, physical injury, disease, and mental health issues are the consequences of disaster and
emergencies.  There are also residual consequences such as diseases resulting from unsanitary conditions,
communicable diseases, and higher incidences of mental health problems.  Politically driven crises can often result
in immediate deaths followed by long-term suffering.  Worldwide, the number of refugees and internally displaced
persons is increasing as a result of both natural disasters and complex political crises. 

Some natural disasters, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and tsunamis, come with some warning and time to
prepare.  We may not always know the impact of the disaster, but we can predict to a certain degree when they
will occur.  Others, such as earthquakes, fires, plane crashes, and terrorist attacks, usually occur without warning. 
There are also slow onset emergencies, such as drought, famine, epidemics, civil unrest, and war.   Additionally,
some emergencies are natural and some are manmade. 

Often the crisis exceeds the capacities of the affected community.  Consequently, the international community
must participate in the response effort, helping protect the survivors and providing for basic essential needs such
as food, shelter, and water.  Organisations with experience responding to emergencies recognise a direct
relationship between preparedness, a reduction in the loss of life, and resources. Much effort has been made to
determine how agencies can cooperate to provide the most effective aid to those who have experienced disaster.

Emergencies often destroy infrastructure, and affect institutions and personnel. One of the major challenges in
emergency preparedness is the vulnerability and protection of the physical infrastructure, the institutions and the
personnel.  All governments have a responsibility to protect public safety and provide emergency relief in a crisis.
This alone is sufficient reason for investing in emergency preparedness. 

Recently, focus has begun to include disaster preparedness.  Instead of waiting for disaster to occur, communities
began to explore how they could be prepared in advance.  High risk areas are most in need of preparedness
efforts.

Reduced impact
The impact of emergencies and disasters can be significantly reduced if national and local authorities are well
prepared.  Communities in high risk areas can prepare and reduce their vulnerabilities.  Disaster preparedness not
only reduces human and material losses, it can also reduce the anxiety and fear of residents.

All countries experience an emergency or disaster at some point.  Regardless of their level of development or
geographical situation, all will benefit from disaster preparedness.  The sad reality is that emergencies seem to
occur more frequently in poorer areas, where resources are lacking. Effects of disasters can be human, economic,
and political.  Preparation may include building infrastructure, implementing early warning, increasing awareness
among individuals, coordinating services, improving community health and security, and protecting vulnerable
individuals.  Although emergencies have almost doubled over the past decade, the number of casualties has
decreased in areas that were prepared..
 History of disaster preparedness

Before the development of advanced communication technology, disasters could go unnoticed by much of the
world.  Local communities responded to disasters as well as they could, and immediate and long-term loss was
much more significant.  As technology improved, the world became more aware of their neighbours’ plight and
needs.  Technology also affected the world’s ability to respond to their neighbours’ needs.  There was a movement
toward collaborating and coordinating services among agencies, so that responses could be more organised and
effective. 

More recently, global awareness has led to a shift from disaster response and management to community-based
risk reduction and disaster preparedness.  Short-term emergency plans are no longer sufficient.  It is widely
understood that a more comprehensive approach is needed.  In addition to developing their capacities for
emergency humanitarian responses, countries are also placing more emphasis on developing proactive strategies
by preparing for emergencies and reducing risks in the most vulnerable areas.   The pace of development is
increasing and disaster preparedness and risk reduction are essential to protect and sustain development. 

Over time, the approach to disaster response and preparedness has also shifted from a needs-based approach to a
rights andcommunity-based approach.  A rights-based approach recognises the affected population’s right to
participate in decision-making and programme planning.  It examines the policies and procedures of local
governments and authorities.  Close examination is necessary to ensure that the rights of all individuals are
respected.  Sometimes local governments and authority figures are the ones responsible for contributing to the
vulnerabilities of certain individuals and marginalising particular groups.  A rights-based approach makes
governments accountable and looks at the causes and context of human rights violations.  This also extends to
partner organisations.  The affected population has the right to have information and transparency from those
with whom they partner.  

This shift is based on the understanding that including affected people in decision-making and disaster
preparedness will result in better protection.  When the local community is involved, their capacities to identify,
develop, and sustain solutions and strategies will be strengthened.  The local resources will also be used more
efficiently and effectively. 

With disaster preparedness, the effects of disaster and the vulnerability of individuals can be substantially
decreased.  Emergency preparedness and risk reduction is the responsibility of global and local authorities. 
Collectively, these proactive strategies strengthen the resilience and capacities of communities before disaster
strikes.  Management of disaster preparation and response must now include developing internal system
procedures, improving external capacity, and coordinating partner organisations.  Disaster preparedness allows for
quick and effective action during the onset of an emergency.  Effective action is dependent upon having a plan
prior to the emergency that is comprehensive, organised, and coordinated.

Assessment of disaster preparedness

Assessments of disaster preparedness do not differ significantly for natural or environmental disasters.  Although
specialised teams of professionals may be required for specific situations, the principles and methods of the
assessment will be basically the same.

Save the Children identified the following primary elements of the assessment of disaster preparedness.
 risks and vulnerabilities  - the broad profile of a projected emergency,
 internal capacity  - what individual organisations are capable of doing, 
 external preparedness -  what other actors are capable of doing,
 preparedness actions -  results of the planning process.
Risks and vulnerabilities of communities are related to the likelihood of a disaster occurring.   In essence, disasters
are the realisation of risk.  To assess the risks is to determine the probability of destruction and loss, whether they
be human, structural, economic or political.  Deaths, injuries, and loss of property, economy, or livelihoods are a
few examples.  Risks can be naturalor manmade.  Certain communities are at risk for drought, flood, hurricanes,
tornadoes, and other natural disasters.  Other communities may be at risk for war, terrorism and civil unrest. 
Disasters alone are not enough to cause widespread destruction.  This is why assessment must include
vulnerabilities.
 Vulnerability
Vulnerability is not a static concept.  It fluctuates across time, seasons, and ages.  It also depends upon certain
people’s standing and positions in society.  For example; women may be more vulnerable than men, children more
so than adults, and marginalised groups such as disabled people, castes, ethnic groups and those of certain
religious affiliations may be at a greater risk. When people are powerless, exploited, or discriminated against, they
are more prone to vulnerability.  They are overlooked during capacity building and encounter more difficulty in
accessing resources.  They are often unaware or unable to exercise their rights. There is little protection for their
rights or freedom. 
Changing the social, economic and political factors usually means altering the way that power is controlled.
Unfortunately, inequality in power is often related to leadership that is corrupt, neglectful or unaccountable.  Part
of assessing vulnerability, consequently, not only involves identifying those who are vulnerable, but also identifying
those responsible for violating the rights of the vulnerable.  Furthermore, it is necessary to identify how equity
within the community can be established by strengthening the rights and safety of those at risk. The vulnerability
of a community is assessed by determining the conditions that increase their susceptibility to disasters and
emergencies.  One of the greatest determinants is an individual or community’s ability to anticipate, cope with,
resist, and recover from a disaster or emergency.
 
Several factors can contribute to the impact of disasters and emergencies on an individual or community:
 physical – an individual’s physical well being;
 social – the amount of social support from family, friends, community;
 economic  - stability in individual, family, community, regional, and national economy;
 environmental – the conditions of the environment such as terrain, infrastructure, humanitarian services,
security, safety, food, water; and
 sanitation and levels of hygiene.

Internal capacity
Measures can be taken to reduce or eliminate risks and vulnerabilities that have been identified. One way of
assessing a community’s areas of risk and vulnerability is to explore its capacities to respond to a disaster. 

 What is their awareness of the risks and responsibilities? 

 Do they have a working knowledge of human rights and standards? 
 What are their capacities in human resources and their ability to train additional workers? 
 Are they able to mobilise their community and develop internal and external support networks? 
 How up-to-date are their communication networks, media. and other mechanisms for dissemination of
information? 
 What is their level of mental health and psychosocial support in areas of health services, education, food
and nutrition, shelter, water, and sanitation?  
 If relevant, how have they responded in the past?  What lessons have they learned?
 
External preparedness
Assessments of disaster preparedness are multi-faceted.  To be fully effective, an assessment must be
comprehensive at a global, national, regional, and community level.  In our global society, disasters need no longer
be dealt with in isolation or only at  the local level.  The rest of the world can be instrumental in the outcome of
such tragedies by assisting with disaster preparedness, response, and recovery.

At country level, analyse the risks and capacities, and whether or not an emergency preparedness programme is in
place.  At regional level, identify national strategies and programmes; assess their capacity for technical assistance
and human resources; assess their partnerships between agencies and organisations; assess past experiences in
disaster preparedness.  At a global level,  identify the policies, and improve any norms and standards that are weak
or lacking; promote advocacy at international and interagency levels; assess the global level of preparedness and
their areas of expertise; evaluate their coordination with regional offices and their relationship with the affected
community; assess their capacity for responding, and providing what the local community is lacking. The capacity
of partner organisations is also part of the assessment.  Each organisation is responsible for doing their own
(internal organisational) assessments.  What are their areas of expertise?  Where are they able to fill in the gaps? 
What has worked in the past?  What lessons have they learned?
 Preparedness actions
Strategies of partner and individual organisations should include the following
 develop evidence-based, replicable solutions;
 use their experience to advocate and mobilise better practices, policies, and programmes;
 support effective implementation of the practices, policies, and programmes;
 work with alliance members, communities, governments, and other partner; and
 include the affected population as equal partners with an active role in protecting themselves and
responding to their own basic needs.

Humanitarian response remains critical, but it is now evident that the effects of emergencies and vulnerability of
communities can be substantially reduced if both national and local authorities, and communities in high-risk areas
are well prepared by having policies and programmes in place prior to the emergency..
Building a community's capacity

Capacity building is about increasing the ability of people to respond to the needs of others with expertise and
depth of understanding.  The goal of capacity building is to enable individuals and communities to care for
themselves and to be as self-sufficient as possible.  The more resources and skills within a community, the more
efficient and timely the response.
  
Experience shows that the community is the first to provide emergency assistance in many disasters. For this
reason, preparedness planning increasingly emphasises building capacity (human, organisational and in
infrastructure) at the community level. Empowering communities to develop emergency management plans
requires strong involvement at all levels.  There must be involvement at the national level, as well as support from
other sectors.  The common gaps in disaster preparedness around the world are generally well understood.
Consequently, they need to be shared in a comprehensive and systematic way.  Many countries have not yet
developed disaster preparedness plans, and communities are too often left alone to develop preparedness and
response plans without guidance from those with expertise. (Adapted from WHO’s Community Emergency
Preparedness: A Manual for Managers and Policy Makers (WHO 1999).

Capacity building is a process that involves educating and training individuals to anticipate and meet the needs of
their community in times of disaster.  It begins with assessing their needs, identifying their risks and vulnerabilities,
and developing their ability to respond.  In the process of responding to emergencies, there is a lot of opportunity
for formal and informal learning that broadens the understanding of everyone involved.  Local professionals
participating in emergency response deepen their understanding and, therefore, increase their capacity to train
and support others in their community.
  
A lesson consistently learned from emergencies is that those who suffer the most during emergencies are those
who are unable to protect themselves.  These individuals are most often the poor and marginalised.  Their rights
and safety are often overlooked by those in authority and positions of power, and may even be violated.  It is
critical that capacity building involve those who are marginalised due to gender, ethnicity, social class, politics,
religion, disability, or age.  During the assessment process, marginalised groups are identified.  It then becomes
important to guard and advocate for their rights and freedoms.  These individuals and groups need to be
represented during decision-making and planning programs for disaster preparedness.

The involvement and input of marginalised groups is needed to guarantee that they are given access to the same
resources and protection as everyone else.  This might involve confronting the government and those in leadership
positions on discrimination or rights violations.  It may be necessary to lobby for policies that will rectify past
injustices and protect them in the future.  Nevertheless, they must be empowered with the education,
information, and skills needed to protect themselves. 

Stregthening capacity by coordination and cooperation

Some individuals, communities, and countries are better prepared to handle emergencies than others.  However,
in today’s globally connected world, a community or country no longer has to face an emergency alone.   There is a
global community of agencies, governments, organisations, and individuals ready and willing to join efforts to
respond to emergencies.  When preparations are made beforehand, it strengthens the capacity of the community
to respond.  Having guidelines established, tools and resources identified, and a plan of implementation, has made
responses more timely, effective, and comprehensive.  Capacity building in countries and communities at risk can
save lives, property, and time for recovery.  And because no one is immune from emergencies, preparedness is
appropriate at every level of society. 

Preparedness plans need to be the foundation of the community and should be coordinated across all sectors.  
Provisions must be included in budgets, legislation, personnel, education, and public awareness. 
 
Instead of waiting for emergencies to happen, capacity building should be ongoing.  This means learning from the
experiences of others, and adapting the best practices.  Reducing the risks of emergencies and being prepared to
respond requires a strong and long-term commitment.  This calls for sound management at all levels and within all
sectors.

One of the priorities of capacity building is to develop the community’s ability to sustain programmes implemented
in the preparation and response phases of emergencies.  There is a major emphasis on enabling communities to be
involved in all areas of programme development.  Although some communities are better prepared than others, it
is essential to assist them in developing the knowledge, skills and resources to be as independent as possible.  With
global awareness and technology, it is becoming easier for even the poorest and most remote areas to become
more self-sufficient.  

Indigenous knowledge in capacity building

IASC emphasises the need to respond to emergencies with sensitivity to the local culture, customs and ethnicity.  
External responders have the responsibility to not only be sensitive, but also to embrace the knowledge and skills
that local individuals have to offer.  In recent years, indigenous knowledge has been identified as a significant
factor in disaster preparedness.  Disaster preparedness programmes are recognising the value of integrating the
indigenous knowledge of the community into disaster education and early warning systems.  There are four
advantages to using indigeneous knowlege and practices in humanitarian response work.
 
 Indigenous practices and strategies can be generalised to other communities in similar situations,
 Integrating indigenous knowledge into practices and policies encourages and empowers community
members to play a leading role in disaster preparedness,
  Indigenous knowledge provides valuable information about the context of a disaster,
 The informal method of sharing indigenous knowledge can be used to disseminate other educational
material on disaster preparedness. 

Indigenous knowledge is particularly valuable in communities that experience recurring disasters such as drought,
famine, disease, floods, etc.  While these events often occur in the poorest countries, local individuals have
valuable information and successful strategies for managing such occurrences.  Because they are poor, they have
come to rely on themselves when they lack technology.  They have used their local knowledge and practices for
generations, long before technology was even developed or applied.  Indigenous communities often employ local
knowledge to cope with the effects of natural disasters.  These strategies and practices are historic in these
communities.  This knowledge consists of known facts and those learned from experience, observation, and study. 
This indigenous knowledge has allowed communities to live successfully within their environments and has been
handed down from generation to generation.  It has allowed them to solve problems and manage natural
disasters. Knowledge is obtained through a thorough understanding of the environment, based on close
observation, past experience, technology, beliefs, and rituals.  Elders are often the ones who predict emergencies,
especially when the signs are complicated and require interpretation.  Other times, natural disasters are obvious to
everyone and the community instinctively responds and prepares for the impending event. 
 
Examples
The most common warning signs come from observing vegetation, trees, winds, air and water temperatures,
clouds, earth movements and celestial bodies, and the behaviour of animals, birds and insects.  The Onge tribe of
India’s Little Adaman Island were the first to leave the coast before the tsunami because they knew that nature
was warning them of impending disaster.  An elder of the Jarawa tribe led his people to the hilltop after he
perceived the sudden dizziness of a young boy as an indicator of the earth tremors that precede a tsunami.   For
natural disasters like drought and famine, people in parts of Africa use the water beetle to find potable water in
streams and ponds.  Other areas have learned how to prepare for famine by using beanstalk ashes to preserve
grain.  Still others can predict drought and famine by observing the intestines of their goats.   The agro-pastoral
communities in some African areas practiced controlled grazing and rotation of areas to conserve vegetation.   The
Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania were considered pure pastorals and moved their herds seasonally to different areas
for grazing, depending on the amount of rain and grass.  Along the Indian Ocean people were dependent on water
resources for their livelihood; they adopted practices and technologies to help sustain the harvesting of their water
resources. 

Food security is also based on indigenous knowledge and practices.  Some of the practices include use of
indigenous seeds, cultivation of drought-resistant crops, mixed cropping, valley farming, livestock diversification,
harvesting wild fruits and berries, food storage and preservation. There are varying ways in which indigenous
communities alert the population to an impending emergency.  These may include the beating of drums and
sounding of horns.  Others may have more advanced technology such as lights and sirens.  Preparedness makes
early warning systems particularly valuable.
 
Knowledge preservation is important 
Indigenous knowledge can easily be lost during times of development, migration or when younger people move
away.  Much of this information has not been written down and the younger generation, even if they remain in the
area, is less likely to adhere to traditional rituals and customs.  Science and technology are also challenging the
traditional systems of indigenous people.  To avoid losing valuable information and solutions to disaster response
and preparedness, there needs to be an integration of the two systems.

 Research must be done on indigenous knowledge and the resulting data must be catalogued.
 Indigenous knowledge needs to be documented while elders are still available to share information.
 Indigenous knowledge needs to be incorporated into national policy and integrated with modern
knowledge.
  Laws need to be created to safeguard indigenous knowledge.
 Indigenous knowledge needs to be preserved by teaching it in schools and community programmes.
 
1. Train several community members in the use of participatory methods and ensure age and gender
balance among participants.  Promote women and youth leaders.
2. Use all training to raise awareness and understanding of values, such as inclusiveness and respect for
all, age, gender and diversity awareness, and the rights of children, persons with disabilities and older
persons.
3. Work with community leaders to inform all members about their responsibilities as duty-bearers,
particularly parents, and rights holders.
4. Work with the community to identify the different capacities and skills of community members and
agree where training and other capacity-building measures are needed.
5. Monitor how different people use the various training and capacity building opportunities and
whether any particular group is being excluded, such as persons with disabilities, young mothers,
children, or adolescents. If so, find out why. 6. Build on the creative ideas of different age groups to
deliver messages while fostering their leadership skills.
6. Identify appropriately skilled partners to deliver the training and ensure that they will transmit values
in keeping with a rights and community-based approach. Train people on developing community
action plans and participatory monitoring and evaluation tools.
7. Follow up on how people are applying the skills acquired and are training others (particularly with
regards to Training of Trainers, to ensure that the training has been conducted effectively).
8. Discuss with the people responsible for managing community projects how they are coping and
whether they require particular support or training. Promote transparent accounting mechanisms.
 Psychosocial support and disaster preparedness

Communities need the tools for assessing psychosocial well-being and training in providing psychosocial support.  
Regional and local authorities need to be involved in defining and managing these interventions so that they are
culturally appropriate.  National and international agencies need to work with local communities to develop
appropriate and relevant policies for psychosocial and mental health care.  The Interagency Standing Committee
(IASC) has developed guidelines for mental health and psychosocial responses in emergency situations.  An
important aspect of disaster preparedness determining how these guidelines can be implemented by the local
community, with national and international support, at the time of an emergency. 

The best form of disaster preparedness is developing adequate and well-functioning psychosocial support within
each community.  Empowering the community to be the first responder builds their coping skills and resilience.  
Disaster preparedness planning should include participation by different groups in the local community.   The plans
should enhance community development for the well-being of the entire community.   A sense of community can
be fostered by good communication and transparent relationships.  Local systems, such as schools, churches,
agencies, and organisations must work together and support one another.

A detailed analysis of the community’s risks and resources is needed in order to begin planning.   The local
community needs to look at their problems and resources as communal rather than individual.   They must also be
committed to working together as a community in their responses to disasters and conflicts.

Training programmes need to be developed on the identification and management of common psychosocial
problems within the community.  Training can include lectures, group discussions, brainstorming, case vignettes,
discussions, and role playing.  Other preparatory interventions include placing disaster management and response
modules into social work courses, psychology courses and teacher education courses.  This can be particularly
helpful in disaster-prone countries such as India and Indonesia.  Some of these modules need to include education
on reactions to traumatic events, psychological first aid, and strategies for coping with trauma and distress. 
Training modules can be developed locally or adapted from national and international curriculums.  It is necessary
to ensure that the appropriate individuals in each community receive the training. 

Disaster management team

Preparedness is the best defence against a disaster.  Physical and psychological trauma are consequences of
emergencies.  Disaster management teams are responsible for facilitating the disaster preparedness plans during
times of emergency. The role of the disaster management team is to assist community members to
 protect themselves and their belongings from future disasters;
 acquire the awareness and skills to help mitigate the consequences of disasters;
 protect and safeguard their community from further harm once a disaster has occurred; and
 begin the recovery process and create a (new) normalcy as soon as possible once the disaster has passed.

In order to prepare before a disaster, it is important to know how individuals will react physically and
psychologically.  Several factors determine the degree and type of impact that a disaster will have on individuals
and a community collectively.  These include

 prior experience with a similar, or other, disaster;

 faith in a higher power or political cause;
 individual understanding of the event;
 the physical, mental and emotional strength of the individual (individual levels of resilience);
 the degree, duration and intensity of the event; and
 the amount of danger and threat related to the event.
Emotional phases
Researchers agree that individuals go through distinct emotional phases during a disaster.  The first phase is
the acute phase,also known as the survival mode, where individuals are doing what it takes to keep themselves
and their family alive and out of danger.  The second phase is the reaction phase, where individuals and
organisations assess the damage and any injuries, relationships are functional as individuals and groups engage in
emergency medical care, search and rescue.  The third phase is called the recovery phase, where emergency
personnel and disaster management teams take control to keep the response and rescue organised and
coordinated, and individuals try to create a new normalcy as soon as possible.  The final stage is thereorientation
phase,  where survivors are dealing with the stresses and frustration of rescue and they may feel as if things aren’t
moving quickly enough.
 
It is important that the disaster management team understands the psychological effects of trauma.  They need to
de-personalise survivors’ reactions and understand their psychological meaning.  It then becomes the role of the
disaster management team to prepare their responders for how to deal with disaster-related stress by
 briefing personnel - be sure they know what to expect to see, and what they can expect as far as
emotional responses in themselves and others; 
 emphasising teamwork so that the workload and emotional load is shared across the team;
 rotating personnel so that humanitarian aid workers have time to care for themselves and their families;
and 
 providing opportunities for debriefing at the end of each mission.
Risk reduction 
Risk reduction and disaster preparedness are part of the programme development process. Humanitarian
organisations need to work in conjunction with governments and communities to develop programmes that will
reduce the impact of disasters.  The context within which the disaster occurs is very important.  While different
disasters can create similar consequences, the effects on the most vulnerable and marginalised groups depend
upon policies at the national level.  It is important to know the standing of men, women, girls and boys in the
community, power dynamics between individuals and groups within a community, and the role or position of
marginalised groups. How marginalised groups (i.e.: disabled individuals, ethnic groups, castes, clans, women and
girls) are treated will affect their vulnerability and the outcome of a disaster or conflict. The focus is on developing
community level programmes that are appropriate and sustainable by the community.   Communities will be less
vulnerable to emergencies if the local capacities of all groups have been strengthened.
 
Emergency plan
Disaster preparedness means having an emergency plan for responding to, and recovering from, emergencies.   It is
about protecting life, property and the environment. The development of an emergency plan should take into
account existing plans at other administrative levels, plans that operate at the same level, as well as plans
developed for specific hazards.
The planning process includes several stages that can be applied to all levels and sectors.
 
 Project definition: aims, objectives and scope of an emergency plan; tasks and the resources required for
performing these tasks.
 Planning group: representative of sectors, ethnic groups, gender; developed to gather information and
facilitate the commitment of key resources for successful implementation of the plan.
 Data analysis: analyze the problems; examine vulnerabilities and risks; develop strategies for response
and recovery.
 Resource analysis: identify resources for implementing the strategies.
 Roles and responsibilities: identify roles and responsibilities.
 Programme management: manage programme implementation within and across organisations.
 Strategies and systems: develop applications for specific response and recovery.
 Documentation: develop and publish a comprehensive, step-by-step emergency plan.  

The World Health Organisation bases their strategy in risk reduction and emergency preparedness on an “All
Hazard/Whole Health” concept. This concept emphasises developing and implementing disaster and emergency
preparedness programmes for the full range of likely risks.  This includes natural, social, biological, and
technological risks. The strategy is based on the premise that different emergencies and disasters result in similar
problems and, regardless of cause, benefit from a consistent and comprehensive model across all sectors.   These
programmes would include early planning, early warning, coordination, evacuation and community recovery. A
commonly accepted approach to risk reduction and disaster preparedness is necessary to avoid having different
systems go in different directions.  By unifying and coordinating emergency planning, development and
implementation, the response will be more immediate and effective.  

So: 
 coordinate emergency preparation planning;
 coordinate the roles of external international organisations;
 provide joint trainings in preparation planning; and
 plan for unified responses.
 
Disaster preparedness management team

Disaster preparedness needs to be organised and managed.  This end is best accomplished by establishing a
national emergency management agency with multiple sectors that will work to

 develop effective internal systems and procedures for preparedness and rapid response;
 ensure and improve external capacity and coordination of partner agencies to prepare for and respond
to emergencies;
 remove barriers limiting access to services and supplies; and
 provide access to services and supplies in a timely manner.
Building an Effective Multifunctional Team
It is essential to have a team of individuals who can serve as managers of the disaster preparedness process.   This
committee should be representative of all sectors of the community.  It’s important to have individuals who are
respected and involved in the decision-making process, but to also be sure that others are represented.

Therefore, when setting up the team the following should be considered:

 gender,
 ethnic groups,
 youth and elderly,
 community leaders,
 members of schools, churches, organisations, and agencies, and
 combined skills of the team members.

Additionally, a chain of command needs to be clearly delineated from the local community to the international
level. Interagency coordination of activities and responsibilities should be mapped out and should be part of the
disaster preparedness plan.

 Organisation partners should be part of the team.

 Emphasise the importance of attitude and behaviour of team members.
 Clearly identify the roles of team members and create a positive relationship; keep expectations realistic.
 All team members should build skills in analysing the situation from the perspective of age, gender and
diversity.
 Ensure that the results of the participatory assessment and follow-up decisions are shared and evaluated
with the community.
 Ensure that a community-outreach strategy exists for follow-up on high-risk people.
 Develop an annual plan to monitor the plan and evaluate what has been achieved.
Community-based psychosocial support during the phases of disaster response
The approach and activities implemented will vary in accordance with each emergency.   Activities should therefore
be tailored to individual contexts.  Psychosocial support and programming benefit from a multi-professional,
collaborative approach.  Systems and networks at multiple levels (camp, urban centres, home-based care, within
local, national and international host communities) will need to be built to ensure a comprehensive and
coordinated response.
Pre-disaster (disaster preparedness)
The following are preparatory activities that should be undertaken by international organisations and local
communities.
 Train and educate  staff.
 Develop psychosocial back-up and support organisation.
 Develop  a staff care programme, education, support and post-disaster care.
 Establish team building activities, planning and orientation for the emergency response team.
 Integrate  psychosocial awareness into other disaster-related sectors (health, camp management,
shelter, WASH [water, sanitation and hygiene], education etc.).
 Carry out risk and hazard mapping on a community level, address mitigation and preparedness activities.
 Acute emergency phase of a disaster (phase one)
 Assure basic needs: food, WASH (water, sanitation & hygiene), non-food items and shelter.
 Prioritise psychological and medical needs.
 Keep families together and reunite families that have been separated.
  Maintain gender balance when identifying local staff, in order to recognise needs and strengths of target
groups.
 Take special care to assist higher risk and more vulnerable populations, including: the elderly, children,
the psychologically and medically vulnerable, and people with disabilities.
 See that there are ‘safe spaces’ for youth, children, women and other vulnerable populations to prevent
abuse.
 Treat every person with dignity; respect their human rights, and inform people of their rights.
 Practice conflict-prevention, peace-building and reconciliation through conflict-sensitive programming.
 Limit length of service to 3 months for staff working in harsh situations (hardship postings).  Enforce
compulsory short-term leaves (rest and recuperation).  Provide on-site support if possible.
 
Non-acute emergency phase (phase two)
 Prioritise the establishment of schools for children, or re-establish school routines, which may have been
disrupted.  This is an important psychosocial tool, as it creates a sense of routine and normalcy in their
lives, as well as aiding with their long-term development and growth.
 Provide venues for meeting in safe circumstances, where the sharing and processing of experiences can
take place.  This is of special importance for people whose voices are often not heard, such as women,
children, youth and the elderly.
 Undertake psychological first aid.
 Provide information about the overall situation (information is a powerful tool that reassures people,
provides them with a sense of control, as well as empowering them to make active decisions regarding
their situation).
 Provide information on the emotional and physical reactions that people may be experiencing.   Reassure
them that they may experience new and different emotions in response to an abnormal situation. 
 Create opportunities for recreation, playgrounds for children, organised sports for the youth and social
activities for the elderly.
 Include local participation in camp management, organisation and building (e.g.: shelter, latrines,
drainage ditches etc.).
 Participation is a form of empowerment.  Identify agents for peace and reconciliation (religious leaders,
community elders, displaced teachers etc.)
 Include capacity-building of informal community leaders, women leaders and local staff in the
programmes.
 Make it possible to practice spiritual life and worship.
 Help with legal issues such as rights of asylum seekers, right to return/ resettle, cases of rape and/ or
sexual abuse and land-tenure.
 Implement staff care. 
 Ensure that the re-building of infrastructure is in line with disaster risk reduction initiatives e.g., safer
schools for children in disaster prone areas, training for teachers in emergency preparedness,
earthquake resistant buildings and safe shelters for cyclone affected areas etc.
 
Recovery phase (phase three)
 Assess psychological needs.  Create and offer the possibility of participating in groups for sharing and
processing experiences and development of coping skills (this can often be done around an activity
e.g., sewing, weaving, card games, sports activities).  Debrief in groups and individually.  Special care
and attention is required for referrals for those individuals with pre-existing psychiatric/ psychological
conditions or those who have developed psychiatric symptoms.  Create networks for psychosocial
support.
 Build supporting systems in co-operation and participation with local people, using traditional and
culturally applicable methods of coping and dealing with trauma and distress.
 Encourage reconciliation work; identify agents for peace, create venues for opposing sides to meet,
always try to implement conflict-sensitive programming.
  Offer education and training programmes: livelihood regeneration programmes that teach practical skills
towards economic independence (data and IT, sewing, agriculture, language).  Cash for work
programmes are particularly useful in this context.
 Increase the awareness, through information campaigns, in different areas that are found to be a
problem, for example the spread of disease, mined areas, HIV and AIDS, and hygiene and sanitation
practices.
 Support community development; foster capacity-building towards self-governance and collective
decision making skills (the setting up of internal camp or community committees are a useful tool for
this).
 Ensure education and awareness of the international humanitarian law (IHL) and human rights law. 
Radio broadcasts, posters, postcards and storyboards are a useful method of imparting information on
the obligations of combatants and individuals’ rights within camp settings.  Postcards can be
distributed with ration packs, posters and storyboards can be placed near water and sanitation
facilities and safe spaces, and radio messages can reach many thousands of people fairly quickly.
 Invest in community-mapping and preparedness activities, such as earthquake, cyclone and flooding
drills. 
 Begin disaster risk reduction programmes through schools, focusing on preparedness and identifying
vulnerable groups.
 Document community-level early warning indicators for disaster prone areas to help them better
prepare and reduce their vulnerabilities to future emergencies.

Family and community preparedness 

Family
Areas that suffer from regular emergency scenarios (conflict induced or natural disasters) should be encouraged to
discuss how they can be prepared and what to do immediately after an emergency, especially if it occurs in the
daytime during a week-day when not all family members are in the same place.  The children may be at school, the
father at work, the mother at the market.  Having such discussions may enhance family unity,  reduce the risk of
family separation  and accelerate reunions.  
 
It may be a good idea for families living in emergency-prone areas to place a wristband on each of their children to
identify them, stating who their parents are and where they live, prior to the start of the emergency season.  This
is particularly pertinent for people living in areas prone to natural disasters, such as monsoon floods, hurricanes
and earthquakes.  It is far easier to ensure that families are not separated in the first place, than to try and reunify
them later.
 
Community
Communities, including key religious actors and local government workers, can prepare for likely emergencies with
preparedness planning combined with communication activities to raise awareness about the nature of the
emergency, what to prepare for beforehand, and what to do at the outset of such emergencies.   Various means of
communication, such as posters, mass media, meetings, theatre and plays could be utilised for this purpose. 
Community-preparedness enhances mutual support systems and increases individual and community-level
resilience to emergencies.