INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As the name of the project is antenna positioning control through C++,in order

to understand this project we must go through all these devices PCB,

transformer, stepper motor, optocoupler, power supply, antenna, infrared eye

and interfacing circuit.

In computer we make a C++ program by which we control the data on the

parallel ports and through this parallel port data will be given to interface circuit

which provides protection for the motherboard and for interfacing, we use

transistor circuit. An antenna is mounted on a stepper motor which provides the

rotation of 360 degree. Antenna is a infra red receiver which detects the infra red

signal and steps rotating at the position where the antenna gets the signal.

The project has various modules:

• Parallel port

• Opto coupler

• Stepper motor

• Radar

• Transformer

1
Various modules of the project are

1.2.1 PARALLEL PORT

Our circuit is connected to the parallel port of the PC. A parallel port contains a

set of signal lines that the CPU sends or receive data with other components. We

use ports to communicate via modem, printer, keyboard, mouse etc. In signaling,

open signal are 1 and close signal are 0 so it is like binary system. A parallel port

sends 8 bits and receives 5 bits at a time. The serial port RS 232 sends only 1 bit

at a time but it is multidirectional so it can be send 1 bit and receive 1 bit at a

time. In the MS DOS operative system three parallel ports. Called LPT1, LPT2

AND LPT3 are supported. So we can find three addresses dedicated to these

ports in the memory map of the PC. Lets study the addresses dedicated to LPT1

first. Each parallel ports uses three addresses of the I/O map. For LPT1 these

addresses are 378H, 379H, and 37AH.

1.2.1 STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses

into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor

rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied

to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships

to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly

related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts

2
rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of

rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

1.2.3 OPTOCOUPLER

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optical coupling

device, optocoupler, photo coupler, or photo MOS) is a device that uses a

short optical transmission path to transfer an electronic signal between elements

of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically

isolated—since the electrical signal is converted to a light beam, transferred, then

converted back to an electrical signal, there is no need for electrical connection

between the source and destination circuits.

The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared light-emitting

diode (LED) and a photo detector such as a photosensitive silicon diode,

transistor Darlington pair, or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). The wave-length

responses of the two devices are tailored to be as identical as possible to permit

the highest measure of coupling possible. Other circuitry—for example an output

amplifier—may be integrated into the package. An opto-isolator is usually thought

of as a single integrated package, but opto-isolation can also be achieved by

using separate devices.

1.2.4 RADAR

Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify

the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such

3
as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The

term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the U.S. Navy as an

acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. A radar system has a transmitter that

emits radio waves. When they come into contact with an object they

are scattered in all directions. The signal is thus partly reflected back and it has a

slight change of wavelength (and thus frequency) if the target is moving. The

receiver is usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter.

Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal can be amplified

through use of electronic techniques in the receiver and in the antenna

configuration. This enables radar to detect objects at ranges where other

emissions, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect. Radar

uses include meteorological detection of precipitation, measuring ocean surface

waves, air traffic control, police detection of speeding traffic, military applications,

or to simply determine the speed of a baseball.

1.2.5 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A

varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in

the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through

the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a

varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This

effect is called mutual induction.

4
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary

circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced

voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP),

and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the

number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows

an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NSgreater

than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP.

1.3 SIMPLE LED DRIVING CIRCUITS

You can make simple circuit for driving a small led through PC parallel port. The

only components needed are one LED and one 470 ohm resistors. You simply

connect the diode and resistor in series. The resistors is needed to limit the

current taken from parallel port to a value which light up acceptably normal LEDs

and is still safe value (not overloading the parallel port chip). In practical case the

output current will be few milliampres for the LED, which will cause a typical LED

to somewhat light up visibly, but not get the full brigtness.

5
 Fig 1.1

Then you connect the circuit to the parallel port so that one end of the circuit

goes to one data pin (that one you with to use for controlling that LED) and

another one goes to any of the ground pins. Be sure to fit the circuit so that the

LED positive lead (the longer one) goes to the data pin. If you put the led in the

wrong way, it will not light in any condition. You can connect one circuit to each

of the parallel port data pins. In this way you get eight software controllable

LEDs.

6
The software controlling is easy. When you send out 1 to the data pin, where the

LED is connected that LED will light. When you send 0 to that same pin, the LED

will no longer light.

7
1.4 CIRCUIT USED IN THE PROJECT

8
 IN 4 0 07

9
0
220 AC 7805 +5v
IN 4 0 07
100 ohm

1 0 0 0 M fd

1 0 0 0 M fd
9 +12V

-5 v
IN 4 0 0 7
+ 5V 3 100 E STEPPER M OT OR
N PN
10K
470 E P C 817 IC 4 0 4 9
P A R A LLE L
POR T
+12V
470 E
+ 5V 1
470 E
10K
P C 817
3 2
100 E
4 70 E

N PN
5 4
+ 5V
7 6 +12V
+5V
10K
P C 817
9 10
100 E 100 O HM
N PN

+ 5V 8
I.R .E Y E
10K +12V 33M FD
P C 817

+5
+5V 100 E
N PN
+5V
8
3 +5
470
1 0 0 K1
PC817
5 2
100K
4
7 6 100K
-5 -5
33MFD

Fig 1.2

CHAPTER 2

9
 PARALLEL PORT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Our circuit is connected to the parallel port of the PC. A parallel port contains a

set of signal lines that the CPU sends or receive data with other components. We

use ports to communicate via modem, printer, keyboard, mouse etc. In signaling,

open signal are 1 and close signal are 0 so it is like binary system. A parallel port

sends 8 bits and receives 5 bits at a time. The serial port RS 232 sends only 1

bit at a time but it is multidirectional so it can be send 1 bit and receive 1 bit at a

time. In the MS DOS operative system three parallel ports. Called LPT1, LPT2

AND LPT3 are supported. So we can find three addresses dedicated to these

ports in the memory map of the PC. Lets study the addresses dedicated to LPT1

first. Each parallel ports uses three addresses of the I/O map. For LPT1 these

addresses are 378H, 379H, and 37AH.

• P378H PORT

In this addresses the CPU writes the data to be sent to the printer. It is an

OUTPUT port. The eight data bits ( D0- D7) are latched to appear in the

output connector.

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 • 379h PORT

This is an input port. These signals are used by the CPU to know the state

of the printer. The location of the bits is listed in table.

• 37AH PORT

In this port the computer writes the signals that controls the printer

therefore, it is an output port see table.

2.2 PARALLEL PORT CONFIGURATION

SIGNAL BIT PIN DIRECTION

-STROBE C0 1 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT 0D0 2 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT1 D1 3 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT2 D2 4 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT3 D3 5 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT4 D4 6 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT5 D5 7 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT6 D6 8 OUTPUT

+DATA BIT7 D7 9 OUTPUT

-ACKNOWLE S6 10 INPUT

+BUSY -S7 11 INPUT

+PAPER END S5 12 INPUT

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+SELECT IN S4 13 INPUT

-AUTO FEED -C1 14 OUTPUT

-ERROR S3 15 INPUT

-INITIALIZE C2 16 OUTPUT

-SELECT -C3 17 OUTPUT

GROUND 18-25 GROUND.

Simple circuit and program to show how to use PC parallel port output

capabilities. PC parallel port can be very useful I/O channel for connecting

your own circuits to PC. The port is very easy to use when you first

understand some basic tricks. This document tries to show those tricks in

easy to understand way.

2.3 HOW TO CONNECT CIRCUITS TO PARALLEL PORT

PC parallel port is 25 pin D-shaped female connector in the back of the

computer. It is normally used for connecting computer to printer, but many other

types of hardware for that port is available today.

Not all 25 are needed always. Usually you can easily do with only 8 output pins

(data lines) and signal ground. I have presented those pins in the table below.

Those output pins are adequate for many purposes.

pin function

2 D0

3 D1

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4 D2

5 D3

6 D4

7 D5

8 D6

9 D7

Pins 18,19,20,21,22,23,24 and 25 are all ground pins.

Those data pins are TTL level output pins. This means that they put out ideally

0V when they are in low logic level (0) and +5V when they are in high logic level

(1). In real world the voltages can be something different from ideal when the

circuit is loaded. The output current capacity of the parallel port is limited to only

few mill amperes.

Dn Out ------+

|+

Sourcing Load (up to 2.6 mA @ 2.4 v)

2.4 CONTROL PROGRAM

The following program is an example how to control parallel port LPT1 data pins

from your software. This example directly controls the parallel port registers, so it

does not work under some multitasking operating system which does not allow

that. It works nicely under MSDOS. You can look the Borland Pascal 7.0 code

13
(should compile also with earlier versions also) and then download the compiled

program

Program lpt1_output;

Uses Dos;

Var

addr: word;

data: byte;

e:integer;

Begin

addr:= MemW[$0040:$0008];

Val(ParamStr(1),data,e);

Port[addr]:=data;

End.

HOW TO USE THE PROGRAM

LPTOUT.EXE is very easy to use program. The program takes one parameter,

which is the data value to send to the parallel port. That value must be integer in

decimal format (for example 255). Hexadecimal numbers can also be used, but

they must be preceded by $ mark (for example $FF). The program hoes not have

14
any type of error checking to keep it simple. If your number is not in correct

format, the program will send some strange value to the port.

EXAMPLE:

LPTOUT 0

Set all datapins to low level.

LPTOUT 255

Set all datapins to high level.

LPTOUT 1

Set datapin D0 to high level and all other datapins to low level.

HOW TO CALCULATE YOUR OWN VALUES TO SEND TO PROGRAM

You have to think the value you give to the program as a binary number. Every

bit of the binary number control one output bit. The following table describes the

relation of the bits, parallel port output pins and the value of those bits.

Pin 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Bit D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

Value 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

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For example if you want to set pins 2 and 3 to logic 1 (led on) then you have to

output value 1+2=3. If you want to set on pins 3,5 and 6 then you need to output

value 2+8+16=26. In this way you can calculate the value for any bit combination

you want to output.

MAKING CHANGES TO SOURCE CODE

You can easily change to parallel port number int. the source code by just

changing the memory address where the program read the parallel port address.

For more information, check the following table.

Format of BIOS Data Segment at segment 40h:

Offset Size Description

08h WORD Base I/O address of 1st parallel I/O port, zero if none

0Ah WORD Base I/O address of 2nd parallel I/O port, zero if none

0Ch WORD Base I/O address of 3rd parallel I/O port, zero if none

0Eh WORD [non-PS] Base I/O address of 4th parallel I/O port, zero if none

For example change the line addr: = MemW[$0040:$0008]; in the source code to

addr:=MemW[$0040:$000A]; if you want to output to LPT2.

2.5 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL PROGRAM: DOS DEBUG

DOS Debug is a byte editor that enables files to be viewed and modified at the

byte level. It is a standard feature of many modern DOS versions (for example

MD-DOS version 7). While MS-DOS is not used commonly today, it still can be

accessed from Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT by clicking Start / Run

16
and typing command or CMD in Windows NT / 2000. You can try Debug under

those (although the success rate may depend on the system you use).

You can start Debug from DOS command line (true DOS or MS-DOS window) by

writing DEBUG and pressing enter. Once Debug has been called, the somewhat

cryptic "Debug prompt", a hyphen (-), is displayed. Write the following command

to turn the parallel port output pins high:

o 0378 ff

And you can write the following command to turn all output pins low again.

o 0378 00

In the command line the first command "o" means port byte output. The next

number "0378" is the parallel port I/O address in hexadecimal format (change it if

your port is in another address). The last number ("ff" or "00") is the byte sent to

the parallel port data pins in hexadecimal format.

DOS debug can be used as a very basic tool to experiment with PC parallel port.

2.6 USING OTHER LANGUAGES

The following examples are short code examples how to write to I/O ports using

different languages. In the examples I have used I/O address 378h which is one

of the addresses where parallel port can be. The following examples are useful in

DOS.

17
Assembler

MOV DX,0378H

MOV AL,n

OUT DX,AL

Where n is the data you want to output.

BASIC

OUT &H378, N

Where N is the number you want to output.

outp(0x378,n);

or

outportb(0x378,n);

Where N is the data you want to output. The actual I/O port controlling command

varies from compiler to compiler because it is not part of standardized C libraries.

Here is an example source code for Borland C++ 3.1 compiler:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <dos.h>

#include <conio.h>

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/********************************************/

/*This program set the parallel port outputs*/

/********************************************/

void main (void)

clrscr(); /* clear screen */

outportb(0x378,0xff); /* output the data to parallel port */

getch(); /* wait for key press before exiting */

PARALLEL PORT CONTROLLING IN WINDOWS PROGRAMS

Direct parallel port controlling in possible under Windows 3x and Windows 95

directly from 16 bit application programs and DLL libraries. So you can use the C

example above in Windows 3x and Windows 95 if you make your program 16 bit

application. If you want to control parallel port from Visual Basic or Delphi then

take a look at the libraries at Parallel Port Central at

http://www.lvr.com/parport.htm.

Direct port controlling from application is not possible under Windows NT and to

be ale to control the parallel port directly you will need to write some kind of

device driver to do this. You can find also this kind of drivers from Parallel Port

Central.

19
PARALLEL PORT CONTROLLING IN LINUX

Linux will allow access to any port using the ioperm syscall. Here is some code

parts for Linux to write 255 to printer port:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <asm/io.h>

#define base 0x378 /* printer port base address */

#define value 255 /* numeric value to send to printer port */

main(int argc, char **argv)

if (ioperm(base,1,1))

fprintf(stderr, "Couldn't get the port at %x\n", base), exit(1);

outb(value, base);

Save the source code to file lpt_test.c and compile it with command:

gcc -O lpt_test.c -o lpt_test.c

The user has to have the privileges to have access to the ports for the program

to run, so you have to be root to be able to run this kind of programs without

20
access problems. If you want to make a program which can be run by anybody

then you have to first set the owner of the program to be root (for example do

compilation when you are root), give the users rights to execute the program and

then set the program to be always executed with owner (root) rights instead of

the right of the user who runs it. You can set the program to be run on owner

rights by using following command:

chmod +s lpt_test.c

If you want a more useful program, then download my lptout.c parallel port

controlling program source code. That program works so that you can give the

data to send to parallel port as the command line argument (both decimal and

hexadecimal numbers supported) to that program and it will then output that

value to parallel port. You can compile the source code to lptout.c command

using the following line to do the compilation:

gcc -O lptout.c -o lptout

After you have compiled the program you can run it easily. For example

running ./lptout 0xFF will turn all data pins to 1 and running ./lptout 0x00 will turn

all data pins to 0.

BUILDING YOUR OWN RELAY CONTROLLING CIRCUIT

The following circuit is the simples interface you can use to control relay from

parallel port:

21
Parallel Port >ground

Ground

The circuit can handle relays which take currents up to 100 mA and operate at

24V or less. The circuit need external power supply which has the output voltage

which is right for controlling the relay (5..24V depending on relay). The transistor

does the switching of current and the diode prevent spikes from the relay coil

form damaging your computer (if you leave the diode out, then the transistor and

your computer can be damaged).

Since coils (solenoids and relay coils) have a large amount of inductance, when

they are released (when the current is cut off) they generate a very large voltage

spike. Most designs have a diode or crowbar circuit designed to block that

voltage spike from hitting the rest of the circuit. If that diode is bad, then the

voltage spike might be destroying your "sink" transistor or even your I/O card

over a period of time. The mode of failure for the sink transistor might be short

circuit, and consequently you would have the solenoid tap shorted to ground

indefinitely.

The circuit can be also used for controlling other small loads like powerful LEDS,

lamps and small DC motors. Keep in mind that those devices you plan to control

directly from the transistor must take less than 100 mA current.

WARNING: Check and double check the circuit before connecting it to your PC.

Using wrong type or damaged components can cause you parallel port get

damaged. Mistakes in making the circuit can result that you damage your parallel

22
port and need to buy a new multi-io card. The 1N4002 diode in parallel with the

relay is an essential protection component and it should not be left out in acu

case, or a damage of the parallel port can occur because of high voltage

inductive kickback from the relay coil (that diode stops that spike from occuring),

SAFER NEW DESIGN

The circuit example above works well and when transistor is of correct type and

working properly. If for some reason B and C should be shorted together and you

are suing more than +5V in the relay side, the circuit can push that higher voltage

to the parallel port to damage it. The following circuit uses two 1N4148 diodes to

protect parallel port against higher than +5V signals and also against wrong

polarity signals (power on the circuit is accidentally at wrong polarity.

Adding even more safety idea: Replace the 1N4148 diode connected to ground

with 5.1V zener diode. That diode will then protect against overvoltage spikes

and negative voltage at the same time.

2.7 READING THE INPUT PINS IN PARALLEL PORT

PC parallel port has 5 input pins. The input pins can be read from the I/O address

LPT port base address + 1.

The meaning of the buts in byte you read from that I/O port:

• D0: state not specified

• D1: state not specified

23
 • D2: state not specified

• D3: state of pin 15 (ERROR) inverted

• D4: state of pin 13 (SELECTED)

• D5: state of pin 12 (PAPER OUT)

• D6: state of pin 10 (ACK)

• D7: state of pin 11 (BUSY) inverted

Here are some code snippets to read LPT port:

ASSEMBLER

MOV DX,0379H

IN AL,DX

You get the result to read from AL register

BASIC

N = INP(&H379);

Where N is the numerical value you read.

in = inportb(0x379);

or

in = inp(0x379);

Where N is the data you want to output. The actual I/O port controlling command

varies from compiler to compiler because it is not part of standardized C libraries.

24
 CHAPTER 3

STEPPER MOTOR

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses

into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor

rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied

to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships

to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly

related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts

rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of

rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

ADVANTAGES

• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

• The motor has full torque at standstill(if the windings are energized)

• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good

• stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is

25
 • non cumulative from one step to the next.

• Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.

• Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore

the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

• The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control,

making the motor simpler and less costly to control.

• It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load

that is directly coupled to the shaft.

• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is

proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

DISADVANTAGES

• Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.

• Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

• Open Loop Operation- one of the most significant advantages of a stepper

motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop system.

Open loop control means no feedback information about position is

needed. This type of control eliminates the need for expensive sensing

and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Your position is known

simply by keeping track of the input step pulses.

3.2 STEPPER MOTOR TYPES

There are three basic stepper motor types. They are:

• Variable-reluctance

26
 • Permanent-magnet

• Hybrid

3.2.1 VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE (VR)

This type of stepper motor has been around for a long time. It is probably the

easiest to understand from a structural point of view. This type of motor consists

of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound stator. When the stator windings

are energized with DC current the poles become magnetized. Rotation occurs

when the rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles.

Unlike unipolar stepper motors, Bipolar units require more complex driver

circuitry. Bipolar motorsare known for their excellent size/torque ratio, and

provide more torque for their size than unipolar motors. Bipolar motors are

designed with separate coils that need to be driven in either direction (the polarity

needs to be reversed during operation) for proper stepping to occur. This

presents a driver challenge. Bipolar stepper motors use the same binary drive

pattern as a unipolar motor, only the '0' and '1' signals correspond to the polarity

of the voltage applied to the coils, not simply 'on-off' signals. Figure 5.1 shows a

basic 4-phase bipolar motor's coil setup and drive sequence.

27
 Fig 3.1 - Bipolar stepper motor coil setup (left) and drive pattern (right).

A circuit known as an "H-bridge" (shown below) is used to drive Bipolar

stepper motors. Each coil of the stepper motor needs its own H-bridge

driver circuit. Typical bipolar steppers have 4 leads, connected to two

isolated coils in the motor. ICs specifically designed to drive bipolar

steppers (or DC motors) are available (Popular are the L297/298 series

from ST Microelectronics, and the LMD18T245 from National

Semiconductor). Usually these IC modules only contain a single H-bridge

circuit inside of them, so two of them are required for driving a single

bipolar motor. One problem with the basic (transistor) H-bridge circuit is

that with a certain combination of input values (both '1's) the result is that

the power supply feeding the motor becomes shorted by the transistors.

This could cause a situation where the transistors and/or power supply

may be destroyed. A small XOR logic circuit was added in figure 6.1 to

keep both inputs from being seen as '1's by the transistors.

Another characteristic of H-bridge circuits is that they have electrical

"brakes" that can be applied to slow or even stop the motor from spinning

28
freely when not moving under control by the driver circuit. This is

accomplished by essentially shorting the coil(s) of the motor together,

causing any voltage produced in the coils by during rotation to "fold back"

on itself and make the shaft difficult to turn. The faster the shaft is made to

turn, the more the electrical "brakes" tighten.

3.2.2 PERMANENT MAGNET (PM)

Often referred to as a “tin can” or “can stock” motor the permanent magnet step

motor is a low cost and low resolution type motor with typical step angles of 7.5

29
degree to 15degree. (48 – 24steps/revolution) PM motors as the Industrial

Circuits Application.The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead

the rotor is magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a

straight line parallel to the rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles provide an

increased magnetic flux intensity and because of this the PM motor exhibits

improved torque characteristics when compared with the VR type.

Unipolar motors are relatively easy to control. A simple 1-of-'n' counter

circuit can generate the proper stepping sequence, and drivers as simple

as 1 transistor per winding are possible with unipolar motors. Unipolar

stepper motors are characterized by their center-tapped windings. A

common wiring scheme is to take all the taps of the center-tapped

windings and feed them +MV (Motor voltage). The driver circuit would then

ground each winding to energize it.

Fig 3.3 - A typical unipolar stepper motor driver circuit. Note the 4 back EMF protection
diodes.

30
Unipolar stepper motors are recognized by their center-tapped windings.

The number of phases is twice the number of coils, since each coil is

divided in two. So the diagram below (Figure 3.1), which has two center-

tapped coils, represents the connection of a 4-phase unipolar stepper

motor.

Fig 3.4 - Unipolar stepper motor coil setup (left) and 1-phase drive pattern (right).

In addition to the standard drive sequence, high-torque and half-step drive

sequences are also possible. In the high-torque sequence, two windings

are active at a time for each motor step. This two-winding combination

yields around 1.5 times more torque than the standard sequence, but it

draws twice the current. Half-stepping is achieved by combining the two

sequences. First, one of the windings is activated, then two, then one, etc.

This effectively doubles the number of steps the motor will advance for

each revolution of the shaft, and it cuts the number of degrees per step in

half.

31
 Fig 3.5 - Two-phase stepping sequence (left) and half-step sequence (right)

3.2.3 HYBRID (HB)

The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper motor but

provides better performance with respect to step resolution, torque and speed.

Typical step angles for the HB stepper motor ranges from 3.6 degree to

0.9degree (100 – 400 steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper motor combines

the best features of both the PM and VR type stepper motors. The rotor is multi-

toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially magnetized concentric magnet

around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor provide an even better path which helps

guide the magnetic flux to preferred locations in the airgap. This further increases

the detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics of the motor when

compared with both the VR and PM types. The two most commonly used types

of stepper motors are the permanent magnet and the hybrid types. If a designer

32
is not sure which type will best fit his applications requirements he should first

evaluate the PM type as it is normally several times less expensive. If not then

the hybrid motor may be the right choice. There also exist some special stepper

motor designs. One is the disc magnet motor. Here the rotor is designed sa a

disc with rare earth magnets. This motor type has some advantages such as very

low inertia and a optimized magnetic flow path with no coupling between the two

stator windings. These qualities are essential in some applications.

Sometimes referred to as Hybrid motors, variable reluctance stepper motors are

the simplest to control over other types of stepper motors. Their drive sequence

is simply to energize each of the windings in order, one after the other (see drive

pattern table below) This type of stepper motor will often have only one lead,

which is the common lead for all the other leads. This type of motor feels like a

DC motor when the shaft is spun by hand; it turns freely and you cannot feel the

steps. This type of stepper motor is not permanently magnetized like its unipolar

and bipolar counterparts.

Fig 3.6 - Variable reluctance stepper motor coil setup (left) and drive pattern (right).

EXAMPLE

33
Figure illustrates the simplest solution to generating a one-phase drive sequence.

For unipolar stepper motors, the circuit in Figure 2.1, or for bipolar stepper

motors, the circuit in Figure 6.1 can be connected to the 4 outputs of this circuit

to provide a complete translator + driver solution. This circuit is limited in that it

cannot reverse the direction of the motor. This circuit would be most useful in

applications where the motor does not need to change directions.

Fig 3.7 - A simple, single direction, single phase drive

translator.

I have seen this circuit many places, but I believe it originated from The Robot

Builders' Bonanza book, by Gordon McComb. I have used this circuit in the past

and seem to recall that it had a problem. This may not be the case but I think

when you reverse direction and continue stepping, the motor will advance 1 more

step in the previous direction it was going before responding. As always,

34
prototype this circuit to be sure it will work for your application before you build

anything with it.

Figure 3.8 - A simple, bidirectional, two-phase drive stepper motor translator circuit.

There are several standard stepper motor translation circuits which use discrete

logic ICs. Below you will find yet another one of these. The circuit in Figure 10.1

has not been tested but theoretically should work without problems.

35
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

3.3.1 SIZE AND POWER

In addition to being classified by their step angle stepper motors are also

classified according to frame sizes which correspond to the diameter of the body

of the motor. For instance a size 11 stepper motor has a body diameter of

approximately 1.1 inches. Likewise a size 23 stepper motor has a body diameter

of 2.3 inches (58 mm), etc. The body length may however, vary from motor to

motor within the same frame size classification. As a general rule the available

torque output from a motor of a particular frame size will increase with increased

36
body length.Power levels for IC-driven stepper motors typically range from below

a watt for very small motors up to 10 – 20 watts for larger motors. The maximum

power dissipation level or thermal limits of the motor are seldom clearly stated in

the motor manufacturer’s data.

To determine this we must apply the relationship

PÊ=V ÊI.

For example, a size 23 step motor may be rated at 6V and 1A per phase.

Therefore, with two phases energized the motor has a rated power dissipation of

12 watts. It is normal practice to rate a stepper motor at the power dissipation

level where the motor case rises 65degree C above the ambient in still air.

Therefore, if the motor can be mounted to a heatsink it is often possible to

increase the allowable power dissipation level. This is important as the motor is

designed to be and should be used at its maximum power dissipation, to be

efficient from a size/output power/cost point of view.

3.3.2 THE ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

When a phase winding of a stepper motor is energized with current a magnetic

flux is developed in the stator. The direction of this flux is determined by the

“Right Hand Rule” which states:

“If the coil is grasped in the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of

the current in the winding (the thumb is extended at a 90 degree angle to the

fingers), then the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field.”The rotor

then aligns itself so that the flux opposition is minimized. In this case the motor

would rotate clockwise so that its south pole aligns with the north pole of the

37
stator B at position 2 and its north pole aligns with the South Pole of stator B at

position 6. To get the motor to rotate we can now see that we must provide a

sequence of energizing the stator windings in such a fashion that provides a

rotating magnetic flux field which the rotor follows due to magnetic attraction.

3.3.3 TORQUE GENERATION

The torque produced by a stepper motor depends on several factors.

• The step rate

• The drive current in the windings

• The drive design or type

In a stepper motor a torque is developed when the magnetic fluxes of the rotor

and stator are displaced from each other. The stator is made up of a high

permeability magnetic material. The presence of this high permeability material

causes the magnetic flux to be confined for the most part to the paths defined by

the stator structure in the same fashion that currents are confined to the

conductors of an electronic circuit. This serves to concentrate the flux at the

stator poles. The torque output produced by the motor is proportional to the

intensity of the magnetic flux generated when the winding is energized.

The basic relationship which defines the intensity of the magnetic flux is defined

by:

H = (N  i )  l

Where:

N = the number of winding turns

i = current

38
 H = Magnetic field intensity

l = Magnetic flux path length

This relationship shows that the magnetic flux intensity and consequently the

torque is proportional to the number of winding turns and the current and

inversely proportional to the length of the magnetic flux path. From this basic

relationship one can see that the same frame size stepper motor could have very

different torque output capabilities simply by changing the winding parameters.

3.3.4 PHASES, POLES AND STEPPING ANGLES

Usually stepper motors have two phases, but three- and five-phase motors also

exist. A bipolar motor with two phases has one winding/phase and a unipolar

motor has one winding, with a center tap per phase. Sometimes the unipolar

Stepper motor is referred to as a “four phase motor”, even though it only has two

phases. Motors that have two separate windings per phase also exist—these can

be driven in either bipolar or unipolar mode. A pole can be defined as one of the

regions in a magnetized body where the magnetic flux density is concentrated.

Both the rotor and the stator of a step motor have poles.In reality several more

poles are added to both the rotor and stator structure in order to increase the

number of steps per revolution of the motor, or in other words to provide a

smaller basic (full step) stepping angle. The permanent magnet stepper motor

contains an equal number of rotor and stator pole pairs. Typically the PM motor

has 12 pole pairs. The stator has 12 pole pairs per phase. The hybrid type

39
stepper motor has a rotor with teeth. The rotor is split into two parts, separated

by a permanent magnet—making half of the teeth south poles and half north

poles. The number of pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of the

rotor halves. The stator of a hybrid motor also has teeth to build up a higher

number of equivalent poles (smaller pole pitch, number of equivalent poles =

360/teeth pitch) compared to the main poles, on which the winding coils are

wound. Usually 4 main poles are used for 3.6 hybrids and 8 for 1.8- and 0.9-

degree types. It is the relationship between the number of rotor poles and the

equivalent stator poles, and the number the number of phases that determines

the full-step angle of a stepper motor.

Step angle=360 (NPh Ph)=360/N

NPh = Number of equivalent poles per phase = number of

Rotor poles

Ph = Number of phases

N = Total number of poles for all phases together

If the rotor and stator tooth pitch is unequal, a more-complicated relationship

exists.

3.3.5 STEPPING MODES

The following are the most common drive modes.

• Wave Drive (1 phase on)

• Full Step Drive (2 phases on)

• Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)

40
• Microstepping (Continuously varying motor currents)

In Wave Drive only one winding is energized at any given time. The stator is

energized according to the sequence A  B  A  B and the rotor steps from

position 8 2 4 6

 . For unipolar and bipolar wound IB

Phase A

Phase B

Stator A

Stator B

Rotor motors with the same winding parameters this excitation mode would result

in the same mechanical position. The disadvantage of this drive mode is that in

the unipolar wound motor you are only using 25% and in the bipolar motor only

50% of the total motor winding at any given time. In Full Step Drive you are

energizing two phases at any given time. The stator is energized according to the

sequence AB AB AB  AB and the rotor steps from position 1 3 5 7
 .

Full step mode results in the same angular movement as 1 phase on drive but

the mechanical position is offset by one half of a full step. The torque output of

the unipolar wound motor is lower than the bipolar motor (for motors with the

same winding parameters) since the unipolar motor uses only 50% of the

available winding while the bipolar motor uses the entire winding.Half Step Drive

combines both wave and full step (1&2 phases on) drive modes. Every second

step only one phase is energized and during the other steps one phase on each

stator.The stator is energized according to the sequence AB B AB A AB

B AB A and the rotor steps from position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8.

41
This results in angular movements that are half of those in 1- or 2-phases-on

drive modes. Half stepping can reduce a phenomena referred to as resonance

which can be experienced in 1- or 2- phases-on drive modes.The displacement

angle is determined by the following relationship:

X = (Z  2 ) sin
 (Ta Th) , where:

Z = rotor tooth pitch

Ta = Load torque

Th = Motors rated holding torque

X = Displacement angle.

Increasing the holding torque for a constant load causes a shift in the lag angle

from Q2 to Q1.

STEP ANGLE ACCURACY

One reason why the stepper motor has achieved such popularity as a positioning

device is its accuracy and repeatability. Typically stepper motors will have a step

angle accuracy of 3 – 5% of one step. This error is also noncumulative from step

to step. The accuracy of the stepper motor is mainly a function of the mechanical

precision of its parts and assembly.

STEP POSITION ERROR

The maximum positive or negative position error caused when the motor has

rotated one step from the previous holding position.

Step position error = measured step angle - theoretical angle

42
3.3.6 TORQUE VS ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS

The torque vs angle characteristics of a stepper motor are the relationship

between the displacement of the rotor and the torque which applied to the rotor

shaft when the stepper motor is energized at its rated voltage. When you apply

an external force Ta to the motor shaft you in essence create an angular

displacement, a . This angular displacement, a , is referred to as a lead or lag

angle depending on weather the motor is actively accelerating or decelerating.

When the rotor stops with an applied load it will come to rest at the position

defined by this displacement angle. The motor develops a torque, Ta, in

opposition to the applied external force in order to balance the load. As the load

is increased the displacement angle also increases until it reaches the maximum

holding torque, Th, of the motor. Once Th is exceeded the motor enters an

unstable region. In this region a torque is the opposite direction is created and

the rotor jumps over the unstable point to the next stable point.

3.3.7 TORQUE VS SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

The torque vs. speed characteristics are the key to selecting the right motor and

drive method for a specific application. These characteristics are dependent upon

(change with) the motor, excitation mode and type of driver or drive method.

To get a better understanding of this curve it is useful to define the different

aspect of this curve.

43
3.4 MECHANICAL PARAMETERS-LOAD, FRICTION, INERTIA

The performance of a stepper motor system (driver and motor) is also highly

dependent on the mechanical parameters of the load. The load is defined as

what the motor drives. It is typically frictional, inertial or a combination of the

two.Friction is the resistance to motion due to the unevenness of surfaces which

rub together. Friction is constant with velocity. A minimum torque level is required

throughout the step in over to overcome this friction (at least equal to the friction).

Increasing a frictional load lowers the top speed, lowers the acceleration and

increases the positional error. The converse is true if the frictional load is

lowered.Inertia is the resistance to changes in speed. A high inertial load requires

a high inertial starting torque and the same would apply for braking. Increasing

an inertial load will increase speed stability, increase the amount of time it takes

to reach a desired speed and decrease the maximum self start pulse rate. The

converse is again true if the inertia is decreased.The rotor oscillations of a

stepper motor will vary with the amount of friction and inertia load. Because of

this relationship unwanted rotor oscillations can be reduced by mechanical

damping means however it is more often simpler to reduce these unwanted

oscillations by electrical damping methods such as switch from full step drive to

half step drive.

3.4.1 HOLDING TORQUE

The maximum torque produced by the motor at standstill.

Pull-In Curve

44
The pull-in curve defines an area referred to as the start stop region. This is the

maximum frequency at which the motor can start/stop instantaneously, with a

load applied, without loss of synchronism.

Maximum Start Rate

The maximum starting step frequency with no load applied.

Pull-Out Curve

The pull-out curve defines an area referred to as the slew region. It defines the

maximum frequency at which the motor can operate without losing synchronism.

Since this region is outside the pull-in area the motor must ramped (accelerated

or decelerated) into this region.

Maximum Slew Rate

The maximum operating frequency of the motor with no load applied. The pull-in

characteristics vary also depending on the load. The larger the load inertia, the

smaller the pull-in area. We can see from the shape of the curve that the step

rate affects the torque output capability of stepper motor. The decreasing torque

output as the speed increases is caused by the fact that at high speeds the

inductance of the motor is the dominant circuit element.

3.5 HOW STEPPER MOTORS WORK

Stepper motors consist of a permanent magnet rotating shaft, called the rotor,

and electromagnets on the stationary portion that surrounds the motor, called the

stator. Figure 1 illustrates one complete rotation of a stepper motor. At position 1,

45
we can see that the rotor is beginning at the upper electromagnet, which is

currently active (has voltage applied to it). To move the rotor clockwise (CW), the

upper electromagnet is deactivated and the right electromagnet is activated,

causing the rotor to move 90 degrees CW, aligning itself with the active magnet.

This process is repeated in the same manner at the south and west

electromagnets until we once again reach the starting position.

In the above example, we used a motor with a resolution of 90 degrees or

demonstration purposes. In reality, this would not be a very practical motor for

most applications. The average stepper motor's resolution -- the amount of

degrees rotated per pulse -- is much higher than this. For example, a motor with

a resolution of 5 degrees would move its rotor 5 degrees per step, thereby

requiring 72 pulses (steps) to complete a full 360 degree rotation.

You may double the resolution of some motors by a process known as "half-

stepping". Instead of switching the next electromagnet in the rotation on one at a

46
time, with half stepping you turn on both electromagnets, causing an equal

attraction between, thereby doubling the resolution. As you can see in Figure 2,

in the first position only the upper electromagnet is active, and the rotor is drawn

completely to it. In position 2, both the top and right electromagnets are active,

causing the rotor to position itself between the two active poles. Finally, in

position 3, the top magnet is deactivated and the rotor is drawn all the way right.

This process can then be repeated for the entire rotation.

There are several types of stepper motors. 4-wire stepper motors contain only

two electro magnets, however the operation is more complicated than those with

three or four magnets, because the driving circuit must be able to reverse the

current after each step. For our purposes, we will be using a 6-wire motor.

Unlike our example motors which rotated 90 degrees per step, real-world motors

employ a series of mini-poles on the stator and rotor to increase resolution.

Although this may seem to add more complexity to the process of driving the

motors, the operation is identical to the simple 90 degree motor we used in our

example.

47
An example of a multipole motor can be seen in Figure 3. In position 1, the north

pole of the rotor's permanent magnet is aligned with the south pole of the stator's

electromagnet. Note that multiple positions are aligned at once. In position 2, the

upper electromagnet is deactivated and the next one to its immediate left is

activated, causing the rotor to rotate a precise amount of degrees. In this

example, after eight steps the sequence repeats.

48
The specific stepper motor we are using for our experiments (ST-02: 5VDC, 5

degrees per step) has 6 wires coming out of the casing. If we follow Figure 5, the

electrical equivalent of the stepper motor, we can see that 3 wires go to each half

49
of the coils, and that the coil windings are connected in pairs.

However, if you do not have an equivalent diagram for the motor you want to

use, you can make a resistance chart to decipher the mystery connections.

There is a 13 ohm resistance between the centre-tap wire and each end lead,

and 26 ohms between the two end leads. Wires originating from separate coils

are not connected, and therefore would not read on the ohm meter.

FIRST STEPPER CIRCUIT

The PIC's output lines are first buffered by a 4050 hex buffer chip, and are then

connected to an NPN transistor. The transistor used, TIP120, is actually a NPN

50
Darlington (it is shown as a standard NPN). The TIP120's act like switches,

activating one stepper motor coil at a time.

Due to a inductive surge created when a coil is toggled, a standard 1N4001

diode is usually placed across each transistor as shown in the figure, providing a

safe way of dispersing the reverse current without damaging the transistor,

sometimes called a snubbing diode. The TIP120 transistors do not need an

external snubbing diode because they have a built in diode. So the diodes shown

in the drawing are the internal diodes in the TIP120 transistors.

The simplest way to operate a stepper motor with a PIC is with the full step

pattern shown in Table 1. Each part of the sequence turns on only one transistor

51
at a time, one after the other. After the sequence is completed, it repeats infinitly

until power is removed.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
+ - - -
- + - -
- - + -
- - - +

I purposely made this first program as small as possible; simply to demonstrate

how easy it is to control a stepper motor. Also note the use of high and low

commands to control the output lines, rather than peek and poke routines. For

our purposes, high and low are sufficient.

3.6 SOURCES

Stepper motors can be found in almost any piece of electro-mechanical

equipment. From my personal experiences, good sources for stepper motors

include:

SURPLUS DOT-MATRIX PRINTERS

If you find one of these at a swap meet, surplus store, or garage sale for a good

price, buy it! They usually contain at least 2 motors, sometimes with optical shaft

encoders attached to the motors! Also a good source for matching gears and

52
toothed belts. As a general rule, larger printers will have larger, more powerful

stepper motors in them.

OLD FLOPPY DISK DRIVES

These usually contain at least 1 stepper motor, and if you're fortunate, possibly a

driver IC that can be salvaged and re-used in your own projects. Along with the

motor you will get some optical interrupter units used by the drive to sense the

state of the write-protect tabs and to index the disk.

SURPLUS STORES

These places buy surplus from others and sell it to the public, often at great

prices. The average price for a small to medium stepper motor is usually around

$5.00.

Stepper motors are not just rated by voltage. The following elements characterize

a given stepper motor:

VOLTAGE

Stepper motors usually have a voltage rating. This is either printed directly

on the unit, or is specified in the motor's datasheet. Exceeding the rated

voltage is sometimes necessary to obtain the desired torque from a given

53
motor, but doing so may produce excessive heat and/or shorten the life of

the motor.

RESISTANCE

Resistance-per-winding is another characteristic of a stepper motor. This

resistance will determine current draw of the motor, as well as affect the

motor's torque curve and maximum operating speed.

DEGREES PER STEP

This is often the most important factor in choosing a stepper motor for a

given application. This factor specifies the number of degrees the shaft will

rotate for each full step. Half step operation of the motor will double the

number of steps/revolution, and cut the degrees-per-step in half. For

unmarked motors, it is often possible to carefully count, by hand, the

number of steps per revolution of the motor. The degrees per step can be

calculated by dividing 360 by the number of steps in 1 complete revolution

Common degree/step numbers include: 0.72, 1.8, 3.6, 7.5, 15, and even

90. Degrees per step is often referred to as the resolution of the motor. As

in the case of an unmarked motor, if a motor has only the number of

steps/revolution printed on it, dividing 360 by this number will yield the

degree/step value.

54
 CHAPTER 4

OPTO-ISOLATOR

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optical coupling

device, optocoupler, photo coupler, or photo MOS) is a device that uses a

short optical transmission path to transfer an electronic signal between elements

55
of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically

isolated—since the electrical signal is converted to a light beam, transferred, then

converted back to an electrical signal, there is no need for electrical connection

between the source and destination circuits.

The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared light-emitting

diode (LED) and a photo detector such as a photosensitive silicon diode,

transistor Darlington pair, or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). The wave-length

responses of the two devices are tailored to be as identical as possible to permit

the highest measure of coupling possible. Other circuitry—for example an output

amplifier—may be integrated into the package. An opto-isolator is usually thought

of as a single integrated package, but opto-isolation can also be achieved by

using separate devices.

Digital opto-isolators change the state of their output when the input state

changes; analog isolators produce an analog signal which reproduces the input.

Optical couplers, also referred to as optocouplers, are well known devices used to

direct light from one light source to a light receiving member. Optical couplers are the

heart of an optical communication network. Optical fiber technology is used in a

variety of applications such as telecommunication, computer, and medical

applications. In the past, optical fiber communication technology and optical fiber

communication elements mainly were used on backbone networks. These days they

are widely used in metropolitan optical communication networks. An important aspect

of optical fiber technology is the coupling of an optical fiber to an optoelectronic device

for transmitting information conducted by the optical fiber. Fiber optic systems have a

56
number of features that make them superior to systems that use traditional copper

cables. For example, fiber optic systems can have a much larger information-carrying

capacity and are not subject to electrical interference. Signals transmitted over long-

distance optic fibers need less amplification than do signals transmitted over copper

cables of equal length. Optical fibers have by far the greatest transmission bandwidth

of any conventional transmission medium, and therefore optical fibers provide an

excellent transmission medium. An optical fiber is a thin filament of drawn or extruded

glass or plastic having a central core and a surrounding cladding of lower index

material to promote internal reflection. Optical fibers are typically arranged in a bundle

and protected by a sheath. Such a bundle of optical fibers is often referred to as an

optical cable. The light receiving and emitting ends of the optical fibers are housed in

fiber ferrules. The fiber ferrule at the light receiving end of the bundle is coupled to a

light emitting device via an optical interface unit. Likewise, the fiber ferrule at the light

emitting end of the bundle is coupled to a light detecting device via an optical

interface.

An optical coupler is a passive device for branching or coupling an optical signal.

Generally, a coupler is centralized by joining the two fibers together so that the light

can pass from the sender unit to the two receivers, or else it can be made by

juxtaposing the two "receiver" fibers which will then be aligned and positioned so as to

be facing the "sender" fiber. The function of branching or coupling an optical signal in

optical communications can be simply performed by various photomechanical

connections, similar to branching or coupling in electric communications. However,

the optical signal cannot be simply realized because of the characteristics of the

57
optical fiber, so that a special optical coupler is employed as a light branching and

coupling device. Optocouplers are used to electrically isolate an input signal from a

corresponding output signal. Optocouplers, also referred to as optically coupled

isolator devices or optical coupler circuits; provide isolation between different circuit

portions which operate at vastly different voltages. The optocoupler offers an

advantage of providing electrical isolation between the two circuits, thus reducing

interface problems. Optocouplers have been used for electrical isolation in systems

such as computers, power supplies, telecommunications, and controllers. For

example, optocouplers are used in applications such as telecommunications

equipment, programmable controllers, direct current (DC) to DC converters,

alternating current (AC) to DC converters and battery chargers. Optocouplers are

commonly used in switched-mode power supplies and other analog circuits to provide

an analog feedback control signal across the isolation barrier. Optocouplers are also

commonly used in circuits as indicators, or as control devices, wherein the light-

responsive transistors are energized to control other circuits. Optocouplers usually

include a light-emitting diode (LED) and a light-responsive transistor (light sensor)

such as a phototransistor or a photodiode. Electrical isolation occurs because

information is transmitted using light emitted by the LED and received by the light-

responsive transistor. When the current driving the LED is changed, the amount of

light that is emits also changes proportionally and consequently also the electrical

resistance of the photoresistor.

Optical couplers are key components in optical networks. Optical couplers, optical

58
switches, and optical power splitters are needed in many optical applications. In fiber

optical transmission systems the light beams travelling in two or more fibers must

often be combined into a single fiber, a device which accomplishes this is called a

combiner or multiplexer. Similarly, in such systems one beam must frequently be split

into two or more beams, a device which accomplishes this is called a splitter or

divider. The optical fiber coupler, also called optical fiber splitter, is an essential

element to implement Fiber-To-The-Home (FTTH). Optical couplers are optical

transmission system components used to connect planar arrangements of

waveguides. Optical couplers are used for routing signals from one waveguide to

another and/or for splitting optical signals into two independent signals at a

predetermined power ratio to be transmitted over two different waveguides. Optical

couplers are typically utilized to separate or combine an optic signal, such as an optic

signal in a fiber optic cable. An optocoupler is generally used for causing outgoing

light from an end face of an optical fiber to fall on another optical fiber. It is important

for the optocoupler to be able to cause outgoing light from an optical fiber to fall on

another optical fiber without loss and generation of optical noises. Optical fiber

couplers have a coupling section which connects a plurality of optical fibers and, at

the coupling section, separate or combine the light within the optical fibers. Typical

optical couplers are comprised of a plurality of fiber optic cables. Where an optic

signal is to be combined, the number of inputting signals is greater than the number of

outputting signals. Where an optic signal is to be split, the number of cables inputting

a signal is less than the number of cables outputting a signal. The optical fiber coupler

usually is fabricated through a fused biconical tapered fiber coupling technique. The

59
optical fiber passive device thus made costs less and has excellent optical

characteristics.

4.2 CIRCUIT WITH OPTOISOLATION

If you want to have a very good protection of the parallel port you might consider

optoisolation using the following type of circuit:

V+ (12V)

External Circuit Ground

Typical optoisolator pin out (CNY 17 and 4N25):

The opto-isolator is there to protect the port. Note that there are no connections

between the port's electrical contacts. The circuit is powered from external power

supply which is not connected to PC if there is no need for that. This arrangement

prevents any currents on the external circuits from damaging the parallel port.

The opto-isolator's input is a light emitting diode.R1 is used to limit the current when

the output from the port is on. That 1kohm resistor limits the current to around 3 mA,

which is well sufficient for that output transistor driving.

The output side of the opto-isolator is just like a transistor, with the collector at the top

of the circuit and the emitter at the bottom. When the output is turned on (by the input

light from the internal LED in the opto-coupler), current flows through the resistor and

into the transistor, turning it on. This allows current to flow into the relay.

Turning the input on the parallel port off causes the output of the opto-isolator to turn

60
off, so no current flows through it into the transistor and the transistor turns off. When

transistor is off no current flows into the relay, so it switches off. The diode provides

an outlet for the energy stored in the coil, preventing the relay from back feeding the

circuit in an undesired manner.

The circuit can be used for controlling output loads to maximum of around 100 mA

(depends somewhat on components and operation voltage used). The external power

supply can be in 5V to 24V range.

4.2.1 OPTOISOLATED HIGHER POWER CIRCUIT

Here is a higher power version of the circuit described above:

External Circuit Ground

In this circuit Q1 is used for controlling the base current of Q2 which controls the

actual current. You can select almost any general purpose power transistor for this

circuit which matches your current and voltage controlling needs. Some example

alternatives are for example TIP41C (6A 100V) or 2N3055 (100V 15A). Depending

your amplification factor inherent to the transistor Q2 you might not Hough be able to

use the full current capability of the output device T2 before there will be excessive

losses (heating) in that transistor.

This circuit is basically very simple modification of the original optoisolator circuit with

one transistor. The difference in this circuit is that here T2 controls the load current

and Q1 acts as a current amplifier for T2 base control current. Optoisolator, R1, R2,

61
Q1, D1 work exactly in the same way as in one transistor circuit described earlier in

this documents. R3 acts like an extra resistor which guarantees that T2 does not

conduct when there is no signal fed to the optoisolator (small possible current leaking

on optoisolator output does not make T1 and T2 to conduct).

4.3 CONFIGURATIONS

Fig 4.1Schematic diagram of a very simple opto-isolator with an LED and

phototransistor. The dashed line represents the isolation barrier, over which there is no
electrical contact.

A common implementation is a LED and a phototransistor in a light-tight housing

to exclude ambient light and without common electrical connection, positioned so

that light from the LED will impinge on the photodetector. When an electrical

signal is applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights and illuminates the

photodetector, producing a corresponding electrical signal in the output circuit.

Unlike a transformer the opto-isolator allows DC coupling and can provide any

desired degree of electrical isolation and protection from serious over voltage

conditions in one circuit affecting the other. A higher transmission ratio can be

obtained by using a Darlington instead of a simple phototransistor, at the cost of

reduced noise immunity and higher delay.

62
With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the

intensity of incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in

a photovoltaic mode or a photoconductive mode. In photovoltaic mode, the diode

acts as a current source in parallel with a forward-biased diode. The output

current and voltage are dependent on the load impedance and light intensity. In

photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to a supply voltage, and the

magnitude of the current conducted is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

This optocoupler type is significantly faster than photo transistor type, but the

transmission ratio is very low; it is common to integrate an output amplifier circuit

into the same package.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. When high noise immunity

is required an optical conductive shield can be integrated into the optical path.

The transmitting and receiving elements of an optical isolator may be contained

within a single compact module, for mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in

this case, the module is often called an optoisolator or opto-isolator.This device

may in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

Analog optoisolators often have two independent, closely matched output

phototransistors, one of which is used to linearize the response using negative

feedback.

63
 CHAPTER 5

RADAR

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify

the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such

as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The

term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the U.S. Navy as an

acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. The term has since entered the

English language as a standard word, radar, losing the capitalization. Radar was

64
originally called RDF (Range and Direction Finding) in the United Kingdom, using

the same acronym as Radio Direction Finding to preserve the secrecy of its

ranging capability.

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves. When they come into

contact with an object they are scattered in all directions. The signal is thus partly

reflected back and it has a slight change of wavelength (and thus frequency) if

the target is moving. The receiver is usually, but not always, in the same location

as the transmitter. Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal

can be amplified through use of electronic techniques in the receiver and in the

antenna configuration. This enables radar to detect objects at ranges where

other emissions, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect.

Radar uses include meteorological detection of precipitation, measuring ocean

surface waves, air traffic control, police detection

of speeding traffic, military applications, or to simply determine the speed of a

baseball.

5.2 APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore

position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different

fields where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for

military purposes; to locate air, ground and sea targets. This has evolved in the

civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships and roads.

65
In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or

approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. They can land in fog

at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA)

systems, in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators

radio landing directions to the pilot.

Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent

collision with other ships, to navigate and to fix their position at sea when within

range of shore or other fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In

port or in harbour, Vessel traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and

regulate ship movements in busy waters. Police forces use radar guns to monitor

vehicle speeds on the roads.

Radar has invaded many other fields. Meteorologists use radar to

monitor precipitation. It has become the primary tool for short-term weather

forecasting and to watch for severe weather such

as thunderstorms, tornadoes, winter storms precipitation types,

etc... Geologists use specialised ground-penetrating radars to map the

composition of the Earth crust. The list is getting longer all the time.

PRINCIPLES

The radar dish, or antenna, transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which

bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's

energy to a dish or antenna which is usually located at the same site as the

transmitter. The time it takes for the reflected waves to return to the dish enables

66
a computer to calculate how far away the object is, its radial velocity and other

characteristics.

REFLECTION

Fig 5.1

Brightness can indicate reflectivity as in this 1960 weather radar image

(of Hurricane Abby). The radar's frequency, pulse form, polarization, signal

processing, and antenna determine what it can observe.

Electromagnetic waves reflect (scatter) from any large change in the dielectric

constant or diamagnetic constants. This means that a solid object in air or

a vacuum, or other significant change in atomic density between the object and

what is surrounding it, will usually scatter radar (radio) waves. This is particularly

true for electrically conductive materials, such as metal and carbon fiber, making

radar particularly well suited to the detection of aircraft and ships. Radar

absorbing material, containing resistive and sometimes magnetic substances, is

67
used on military vehicles to reduce radar reflection. This is the radio equivalent of

painting something a dark color so that it cannot be seen through normal means.

Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways depending on the size (wavelength) of

the radio wave and the shape of the target. If the wavelength is much shorter

than the target's size, the wave will bounce off in a way similar to the way light is

reflected by a mirror. If the wavelength is much longer than the size of the target,

the wave is polarized (positive and negative charges are separated), like a dipole

antenna. This is described by Rayleigh scattering, an effect that creates the

Earth's blue sky and red sunsets. When the two length scales are comparable,

there may be resonances. Early radars used very long wavelengths that were

larger than the targets and received a vague signal, whereas some modern

systems use shorter wavelengths (a few centimeters or shorter) that can image

objects as small as a loaf of bread.

Short radio waves reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a

rounded piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short wavelengths have

90° angles between the reflective surfaces. A structure consisting of three flat

surfaces meeting at a single corner, like the corner on a box, will always reflect

waves entering its opening directly back at the source. These so-called corner

reflectors are commonly used as radar reflectors to make otherwise difficult-to-

detect objects easier to detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve

their detection in a rescue situation and to reduce collisions.

For similar reasons, objects attempting to avoid detection will angle their surfaces

in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and edges perpendicular

68
to likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft. These

precautions do not completely eliminate reflection because of diffraction,

especially at longer wavelengths. Half wavelength long wires or strips of

conducting material, such as chaff, are very reflective but do not direct the

scattered energy back toward the source. The extent to which an object reflects

or scatters radio waves is called its radar cross section.

5.3 RADAR EQUATION

The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar

equation:

Where,

Pt = transmitter power

Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna

Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna

σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target

F = pattern propagation factor

Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target

Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same

location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt² Rr² can be replaced by R4, where R is the range,

69
This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range,

which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small.

The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference.

The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multi path and shadowing and

depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, path

loss effects should also be considered.

POLARIZATION

In the transmitted radar signal, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction

of propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of the

wave. Radars use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization to detect

different types of reflections. For example, circular polarization is used to

minimize the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually

indicate metal surfaces. Random polarization returns usually indicate

a fractal surface, such as rocks or soil, and are used by navigation radars.

INTERFERENCE

70
Radar systems must overcome unwanted signals in order to focus only on the

actual targets of interest. These unwanted signals may originate from internal

and external sources, both passive and active. The ability of the radar system to

overcome these unwanted signals defines its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is

defined as the ratio of a signal power to the noise power within the desired

signal.

In less technical terms, SNR compares the level of a desired signal (such as

targets) to the level of background noise. The higher a system's SNR, the better

it is in isolating actual targets from the surrounding noise signals.

NOISE

Signal noise is an internal source of random variations in the signal, which is

generated by all electronic components. Noise typically appears as random

variations superimposed on the desired echo signal received in the radar

receiver. The lower the power of the desired signal, the more difficult it is to

discern it from the noise (similar to trying to hear a whisper while standing near a

busy road). Noise figure is a measure of the noise produced by a receiver

compared to an ideal receiver, and this needs to be minimized.

Noise is also generated by external sources, most importantly the natural thermal

radiation of the background scene surrounding the target of interest. In modern

radar systems, due to the high performance of their receivers, the internal noise

is typically about equal to or lower than the external scene noise. An exception is

71
if the radar is aimed upwards at clear sky, where the scene is so "cold" that it

generates very little thermal noise.

There will be also flicker noise due to electrons transit, but depending on 1/f, will

be much lower than thermal noise when the frequency is high. Hence, in pulse

radar, the system will be always heterodyne. See intermediate frequency.

CLUTTER

Clutter refers to radio frequency (RF) echoes returned from targets which are

uninteresting to the radar operators. Such targets include natural objects such as

ground, sea, precipitation(such as rain, snow or hail), sand storms, animals

(especially birds), atmospheric turbulence, and other atmospheric effects, such

as ionosphere reflections, meteor trails, and three body scatter spike. Clutter may

also be returned from man-made objects such as buildings and, intentionally, by

radar countermeasures such as chaff.

Some clutter may also be caused by a long radar waveguide between the radar

transceiver and the antenna. In a typical plan position indicator (PPI) radar with a

rotating antenna, this will usually be seen as a "sun" or "sunburst" in the centre of

the display as the receiver responds to echoes from dust particles and misguided

RF in the waveguide. Adjusting the timing between when the transmitter sends a

pulse and when the receiver stage is enabled will generally reduce the sunburst

without affecting the accuracy of the range, since most sunburst is caused by a

diffused transmit pulse reflected before it leaves the antenna.

72
While some clutter sources may be undesirable for some radar applications

(such as storm clouds for air-defence radars), they may be desirable for others

(meteorological radars in this example). Clutter is considered a passive

interference source, since it only appears in response to radar signals sent by the

radar.

There are several methods of detecting and neutralizing clutter. Many of these

methods rely on the fact that clutter tends to appear static between radar scans.

Therefore, when comparing subsequent scans echoes, desirable targets will

appear to move and all stationary echoes can be eliminated. Sea clutter can be

reduced by using horizontal polarization, while rain is reduced with circular

polarization (note that meteorological radars wish for the opposite effect,

therefore using linear polarization the better to detect precipitation). Other

methods attempt to increase the signal-to-clutter ratio.

Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR, a form of Automatic Gain Control, or AGC) s

a method relying on the fact that clutter returns far outnumber echoes from

targets of interest. The receiver's gain is automatically adjusted to maintain a

constant level of overall visible clutter. While this does not help detect targets

masked by stronger surrounding clutter, it does help to distinguish strong target

sources. In the past, radar AGC was electronically controlled and affected the

gain of the entire radar receiver. As radars evolved, AGC became computer-

software controlled, and affected the gain with greater granularity, in specific

detection cells.

73
 Radar multipath echoes from a target cause ghosts to appear.

Clutter may also originate from multipath echoes from valid targets due to ground

reflection, atmospheric ducting or ionospheric reflection/refraction. This clutter

type is especially bothersome, since it appears to move and behave like other

normal (point) targets of interest, thereby creating a ghost. In a typical scenario,

an aircraft echo is multipath-reflected from the ground below, appearing to the

receiver as an identical target below the correct one. The radar may try to unify

the targets, reporting the target at an incorrect height, or - worse - eliminating it

on the basis of jitter or a physical impossibility. These problems can be overcome

by incorporating a ground map of the radar's surroundings and eliminating all

echoes which appear to originate below ground or above a certain height. In

newer Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar equipment, algorithms are used to identify

the false targets by comparing the current pulse returns, to those adjacent, as

well as calculating return improbabilities due to calculated height, distance, and

radar timing.

JAMMING

74
Radar jamming refers to radio frequency signals originating from sources outside

the radar, transmitting in the radar's frequency and thereby masking targets of

interest. Jamming may be intentional, as with an electronic warfare (EW) tactic,

or unintentional, as with friendly forces operating equipment that transmits using

the same frequency range. Jamming is considered an active interference source,

since it is initiated by elements outside the radar and in general unrelated to the

radar signals.

Jamming is problematic to radar since the jamming signal only needs to travel

one-way (from the jammer to the radar receiver) whereas the radar echoes travel

two-ways (radar-target-radar) and are therefore significantly reduced in power by

the time they return to the radar receiver. Jammers therefore can be much less

powerful than their jammed radars and still effectively mask targets along the line

of sight from the jammer to the radar (Mainlobe Jamming). Jammers have an

added effect of affecting radars along other lines of sight, due to the radar

receiver's sidelobes (Sidelobe Jamming).

Mainlobe jamming can generally only be reduced by narrowing the

mainlobe solid angle, and can never fully be eliminated when directly facing a

jammer which uses the same frequency and polarization as the radar. Sidelobe

jamming can be overcome by reducing receiving sidelobes in the radar antenna

design and by using an omnidirectional antenna to detect and disregard non-

mainlobe signals. Other anti-jamming techniques are frequency

hopping and polarization. Interference has recently become a problem for C-

75
band (5.66 GHz) meteorological radars with the proliferation of 5.4 GHz

band WiFi equipment.

Pulse radar system

Fig 5.2

SONAR RADAR

One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio

signal (electromagnetic radiation), and measure the time it takes for the reflection

to return. The distance is one-half the product of the round trip time (because the

signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and the speed of

the signal. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per

second or 300,000,000 meters per second), accurate distance measurement

requires high-performance electronics.

In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being

transmitted. Through the use of a device called a duplexer, the radar switches

between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate. The minimum range

is calculated by measuring the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light,

divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse

length.

76
A similar effect imposes a maximum range as well. If the return from the target

comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot

tell the difference. In order to maximize range, longer times between pulses

should be used, referred to as a pulse repetition time (PRT), or it’s reciprocal,

pulse repetition frequency (PRF).

These two effects tend to be at odds with each other, and it is not easy to

combine both good short range and good long range in a single radar. This is

because the short pulses needed for a good minimum range broadcast have less

total energy, making the returns much smaller and the target harder to detect.

This could be offset by using more pulses, but this would shorten the maximum

range again. So each radar uses a particular type of signal. Long-range radars

tend to use long pulses with long delays between them, and short range radars

use smaller pulses with less time between them. This pattern of pulses and

pauses is known as the pulse repetition frequency (or PRF), and is one of the

main ways to characterize a radar. As electronics have improved many types of

radar now can change their PRF thereby changing their range. The newest

radars fire 2 pulses during one cell, one for short range 10 km / 6 miles and a

separate signal for longer ranges 100 km /60 miles.

The distance resolution and the characteristics of the received signal as

compared to noise depend heavily on the shape of the pulse. The pulse is

often modulated to achieve better performance using a technique known

as pulse compression.

77
Distance may also be measured as a function of time. The radar mile is the

amount of time it takes for a radar pulse to travel one nautical mile, reflect off a

target, and return to the radar antenna. Since a nautical mile is defined

as exactly 1,852 meters, then dividing this distance by the speed of light

(exactly 299,792,458 meters per second), and then multiplying the result by 2

(round trip = twice the distance), yields a result of approximately 12.36

microseconds in duration.

5.4 FREQUENCY MODULATION

Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation.

Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even

with older electronics, than timing the signal. By changing the frequency of the

returned signal and comparing that with the original, the difference can be easily

measured.

This technique can be used in continuous wave radar, and is often found in

aircraft radar altimeters. In these systems a "carrier" radar signal is frequency

modulated in a predictable way, typically varying up and down with a sine

wave or sawtooth pattern at audio frequencies. The signal is then sent out from

one antenna and received on another, typically located on the bottom of the

aircraft, and the signal can be continuously compared using a simple beat

frequency modulator that produces an audio frequency tone from the returned

signal and a portion of the transmitted signal.

78
Since the signal frequency is changing, by the time the signal returns to the

aircraft the broadcast has shifted to some other frequency. The amount of that

shift is greater over longer times, so greater frequency differences mean a longer

distance, the exact amount being the "ramp speed" selected by the electronics.

The amount of shift is therefore directly related to the distance travelled, and can

be displayed on an instrument. This signal processing is similar to that used in

speed detecting Doppler radar. Example systems using this approach are

AZUSA, MISTRAM, and UDOP.

A further advantage is that the radar can operate effectively at relatively low

frequencies, comparable to that used by UHF television. This was important in

the early development of this type when high frequency signal generation was

difficult or expensive.

New terrestrial radar uses low-power FM signals that cover a larger frequency

range. The multiple reflections are analyzed mathematically for pattern changes

with multiple passes creating a computerized synthetic image. Doppler effects

are not utilized which allows slow moving objects to be detected as well as

largely eliminating "noise" from the surfaces of bodies of water. Used primarily for

detection of intruders approaching in small boats or intruders crawling on the

ground toward an objective.

5.5 SPEED MEASUREMENT

Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the

existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to see

79
where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. At one time the memory

consisted of a user making grease-pencil marks on the radar screen, and then

calculating the speed using a slide rule. Modern radar systems perform the

equivalent operation faster and more accurately using computers.

However, if the transmitter's output is coherent (phase synchronized), there is

another effect that can be used to make almost instant speed measurements (no

memory is required), known as the Doppler Effect. Most modern radar systems

use this principle in the pulse-Doppler radar system. Return signals from targets

are shifted away from this base frequency via the Doppler Effect enabling the

calculation of the speed of the object relative to the radar. The Doppler Effect is

only able to determine the relative speed of the target along the line of sight from

the radar to the target. Any component of target velocity perpendicular to the line

of sight cannot be determined by using the Doppler Effect alone, but it can be

determined by tracking the target's azimuth over time. Additional information of

the nature of the Doppler returns may be found in the radar signal

characteristics article.

It is also possible to make a radar without any pulsing, known as a continuous-

wave radar (CW radar), by sending out a very pure signal of a known frequency.

CW radar is ideal for determining the radial component of a target's velocity, but

it cannot determine the target's range. CW radar is typically used by traffic

enforcement to measure vehicle speed quickly and accurately where range is not

important.

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Other mathematical developments in radar signal processing include time-

frequency analysis (Weyl Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the chirplet

transform which makes use of the fact that radar returns from moving targets

typically "chirp" (change their frequency as a function of time, as does the sound

of a bird or bat).

REDUCTION OF INTERFERENCE EFFECTS

Signal processing is employed in radar systems to reduce the radar interference

effects. Signal processing techniques include moving target

indication (MTI), pulse doppler, moving target detection (MTD) processors,

correlation with secondary surveillance radar (SSR) targets, space-time adaptive

processing (STAP), and track-before-detect (TBD). Constant false alarm rate

(CFAR) and digital terrain model (DTM) processing are also used in clutter

environments.

PLOT AND TRACK EXTRACTION

Radar video returns on aircraft can be subjected to a plot extraction process

whereby spurious and interfering signals are discarded. A sequence of target

returns can be monitored through a device known as a plot extractor. The non

relevant real time returns can be removed from the displayed information and a

single plot displayed. In some radar systems, or alternatively in the command

and control system to which the radar is connected, a radar tracker is used to

81
associate the sequence of plots belonging to individual targets and estimate the

targets' headings and speeds.

5.6 RADAR COMPONENTS

Fig 5.3

A radar’s component are: A transmitter that generates the radio signal with an

oscillator such as a klystron or a magnetron and controls its duration by

a modulator. A waveguide that links the transmitter and the antenna.

82
A duplexer that serves as a switch between the antenna and the transmitter or

the receiver for the signal when the antenna is used in both situations.Knowing

the shape of the desired received signal (a pulse), an optimal receiver can be

designed using a matched filter.An electronic section that controls all those

devices and the antenna to perform the radar scan ordered by a software.A link

to end users.

5.6.1 ANTENNA DESIGN

Radio signals broadcast from a single antenna will spread out in all directions,

and likewise a single antenna will receive signals equally from all directions. This

leaves the radar with the problem of deciding where the target object is located.

Early systems tended to use omni-directional broadcast antennas, with

directional receiver antennas which were pointed in various directions. For

instance the first system to be deployed, Chain Home, used two straight

antennas at right angles for reception, each on a different display. The maximum

return would be detected with an antenna at right angles to the target, and a

minimum with the antenna pointed directly at it (end on). The operator could

determine the direction to a target by rotating the antenna so one display showed

a maximum while the other shows a minimum.

One serious limitation with this type of solution is that the broadcast is sent out in

all directions, so the amount of energy in the direction being examined is a small

part of that transmitted. To get a reasonable amount of power on the "target", the

transmitting aerial should also be directional.

83
5.6.2 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR

More modern systems use a steerable parabolic "dish" to create a tight

broadcast beam, typically using the same dish as the receiver. Such systems

often combine two radar frequencies in the same antenna in order to allow

automatic steering, or radar lock.

Parabolic reflectors can be either symmetric parabolas or spoiled parabolas:

Symmetric parabolic antennas produce a narrow "pencil" beam in both the X and

Y dimensions and consequently have a higher gain. The NEXRAD Pulse-

Doppler weather radar uses a symmetric antenna to perform detailed volumetric

scans of the atmosphere.

Fig 5.4 Pulse radar system

Spoiled parabolic antennas produce a narrow beam in one dimension and a

relatively wide beam in the other. This feature is useful if target detection over a

wide range of angles is more important than target location in three dimensions.

Most 2D surveillance radars use a spoiled parabolic antenna with a narrow

azimuthal beamwidth and wide vertical beamwidth. This beam configuration

allows the radar operator to detect an aircraft at a specific azimuth but at an

84
indeterminate height. Conversely, so-called "nodder" height finding radars use a

dish with a narrow vertical beamwidth and wide azimuthal beamwidth to detect

an aircraft at a specific height but with low azimuthal precision.

TYPES OF SCAN

Primary Scan: A scanning technique where the main antenna aerial is moved to

produce a scanning beam, examples include circular scan, sector scan etc

Secondary Scan: A scanning technique where the antenna feed is moved to

produce a scanning beam, examples include conical scan, unidirectional sector

scan, lobe switching etc.

Palmer Scan: A scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving

the main antenna and its feed. A Palmer Scan is a combination of a Primary

Scan and a Secondary Scan.

5.7 FREQUENCY BANDS

The traditional band names originated as code-names during World War II and

are still in military and aviation use throughout the world in the 21st century. They

have been adopted in the United States by the IEEE, and internationally by

the ITU. Most countries have additional regulations to control which parts of each

band are available for civilian or military use.

Other users of the radio spectrum, such as the broadcasting and electronic

countermeasures (ECM) industries, have replaced the traditional military

designations with their own systems.

85
RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS
Band Frequency Wavelength
Notes
name range range
coastal radar systems, over-the-horizon
HF 3–30 MHz 10–100 m
radar (OTH) radars; 'high frequency'
'P' for 'previous', applied retrospectively to
P < 300 MHz 1 m+
early radar systems
30–330 M Very long range, ground penetrating; 'very
VHF 0.9–6 m
Hz high frequency'
Very long range (e.g. ballistic missile
300–1000
UHF 0.3–1 m early warning), ground penetrating,
MHz
foliage penetrating; 'ultra high frequency'
Long range air traffic
L 1–2 GHz 15–30 cm
control and surveillance; 'L' for 'long'
Terminal air traffic control, long-range
S 2–4 GHz 7.5–15 cm
weather, marine radar; 'S' for 'short'
Satellite transponders; a compromise
C 4–8 GHz 3.75–7.5 cm (hence 'C') between X and S bands;
weather
Missile guidance, marine radar, weather,
medium-resolution mapping and ground
surveillance; in the USA the narrow range
X 8–12 GHz 2.5–3.75 cm
10.525 GHz ±25 MHz is used
for airport radar. Named X band because
the frequency was a secret during WW2.
Ku 12–18 GHz 1.67–2.5 cm high-resolution
from German kurz, meaning 'short';
limited use due to absorption by water
vapour, so Ku and Ka were used instead
1.11–1.67 c for surveillance. K-band is used for
K 18–24 GHz
m detecting clouds by meteorologists, and by
police for detecting speeding motorists. K-
band radar guns operate at 24.150 ±
0.100 GHz.
mapping, short range, airport surveillance;
frequency just above K band (hence 'a')
0.75–1.11 c Photo radar, used to trigger cameras which
Ka 24–40 GHz
m take pictures of license plates of cars
running red lights, operates at 34.300 ±
0.100 GHz.

86
 millimetre band, subdivided as below.
The frequency ranges depend on
waveguide size. Multiple letters are
40–300 GH 7.5 mm –
mm assigned to these bands by different
z 1 mm
groups. These are from
Baytron, a now defunct company that
made test equipment.
7.5 mm –
Q 40–60 GHz Used for Military communication.
5 mm
Very strongly absorbed by atmospheric
V 50–75 GHz 6.0–4 mm
oxygen, which resonates at 60 GHz.
6.0–3.33 m
E 60–90 GHz
m
used as a visual sensor for experimental
75–110 GH 2.7 –
W autonomous vehicles, high-resolution
z 4.0 mm
meteorological observation, and imaging.
1.6–10.5 G 18.75 cm – used for through-the-wall radar and
UWB
Hz 2.8 cm imaging systems.

Table 5.1

RADAR MODULATORS

Modulators act to provide the short pulses of power to the magnetron, a special

type of vacuum tube that converts DC (usually pulsed) into microwaves. This

technology is known as Pulsed power. In this way, the transmitted pulse of RF

radiation is kept to a defined, and usually, very short duration. Modulators consist

of a high voltage pulse generator formed from an HV supply, a pulse forming

network, and a high voltage switch such as a thyratron.

A klystron tube may also be used as a modulator because it is an amplifier, so it

can be modulated by its low power input signal.

5.8 HOW RADAR WORKS

When people use radar, they are usually trying to accomplish one of three things:
87
 • Detect the presence of an object at a distance - Usually the "something" is

moving, like an airplane, but radar can also be used to detect stationary

objects buried underground. In some cases, radar can identify an object

as well; for example, it can identify the type of aircraft it has detected.

• Detect the speed of an object - This is the reason why police use radar.

• Map something - The space shuttle and orbiting satellites use something

called Synthetic Aperture Radar to create detailed topographic maps of

the surface of planets and moons.

All three of these activities can be accomplished using two things you may be

familiar with from everyday life: echo and Doppler shift. These two concepts are

easy to understand in the realm of sound because your ears hear echo and

Doppler shift every day. Radar makes use of the same techniques using radio

waves.

ECHO AND DOPPLER SHIFT

88
Echo is something you experience all the time. If

you shout into a well or a canyon, the echo comes

back a moment later. The echo occurs because

some of the sound waves in your shout reflect off of

a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well

or the canyon wall on the far side) and travel back

to your ears. The length of time between the

moment you shout and the moment that you hear

Fig 5.5When you shout into a
well, the sound of your shout
the echo is determined by the distance between travels down the well and is
reflected (echoes) off the surface
you and the surface that creates the echo. of the water at the bottom of the
well. If you measure the time it
takes for the echo to return and if
Doppler shift is also common. You probably you know the speed of sound,
you can calculate the depth of
experience it daily (often without realizing it). the well fairly accurately.

Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving

object. Doppler shift in the extreme creates sonic booms. Here's how to

understand Doppler shift (you may also want to try this experiment in an empty

parking lot). Let's say there is a car coming toward you at 60 miles per hour

(mph) and its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn playing one "note" as the car

approaches, but when the car passes you the sound of the horn will suddenly

shift to a lower note. It's the same horn making the same sound the whole time.

The change you hear is caused by Doppler shift.

Here's what happens. The speed of sound through the air in the parking lot is

fixed. For simplicity of calculation, let's say it's 600 mph (the exact speed is

determined by the air's pressure, temperature and humidity). Imagine that the car

89
is standing still, it is exactly 1 mile away from you and it toots its horn for exactly

one minute. The sound waves from the horn will propagate from the car toward

you at a rate of 600 mph. What you will hear is a six-second delay (while the

sound travels 1 mile at 600 mph) followed by exactly one minute's worth of

sound.

Fig 5.6Doppler shift: The person behind the car hears a lower tone
than the driver because the car is moving away. The person in front
of the car hears a higher tone than the driver because the car is
approaching.

Now let's say that the car is moving toward you at 60 mph. It starts from a mile

away and toots its horn for exactly one minute. You will still hear the six-second

delay. However, the sound will only play for 54 seconds. That's because the car

will be right next to you after one minute, and the sound at the end of the minute

gets to you instantaneously. The car (from the driver's perspective) is still blaring

its horn for one minute. Because the car is moving, however, the minute's worth

of sound gets packed into 54 seconds from your perspective. The same numbers

90
of sound waves are packed into a smaller amount of time. Therefore, their

frequency is increased, and the horn's tone sounds higher to you. As the car

passes you and moves away, the process is reversed and the sound expands to

fill more time. Therefore, the tone is lower.

You can combine echo and doppler shift in the following way. Say you send out a

loud sound toward a car moving toward you. Some of the sound waves will

bounce off the car (an echo). Because the car is moving toward you, however,

the sound waves will be compressed. Therefore, the sound of the echo will have

a higher pitch than the original sound you sent. If you measure the pitch of the

echo, you can determine how fast the car is going.

CHAPTER 6

TRANSFORMER

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6.1 INTRODUCTION

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A

varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in

the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through

the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a

varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This

effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary

circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced

voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP),

and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the

number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows

an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NSgreater

than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around

a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden

inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to

92
interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles,

although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated

the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found

in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.

Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes

long distance transmission economically practical.

6.2 INDUCTION COILS

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by

Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the

first researchers to realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in

relation to the primary winding, the larger is the increase in EMF. Induction coils

evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from

batteries. Since batteries produce direct current (DC) rather than alternating

current (AC), induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly

interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for

induction. Between the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction

coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of

transformers.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based

on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a

source of alternating current and the secondary windings could be connected to

93
several "electric candles" (arc lamps) of his own design.[5][6] The coils Yablochkov

employed functioned essentially as transformers.[5]

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient for transfer of power

to loads. Until about 1880 the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high

voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers

with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of

a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The

inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp affected the

voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer

designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the

series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or

bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil.[7]

In 1878, the Ganz Company in Hungary began manufacturing equipment for

electric lighting, and by 1883 had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary.

Their systems used alternating current exclusively, and included those

comprising both arc and incandescent lamps, along with generators and other

equipment.

Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron

core called a "secondary generator" in London in 1882, then sold the idea to

the Westinghouse company in the United States.[9] They also exhibited the

invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting

system. However, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar apparatus remained

low.

94
Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within

a decade the transformer would be instrumental in the "War of Currents", and in

seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in

which they have remained dominant ever since.

CLOSED-CORE LIGHTING TRANSFORMERS

Fig 6.1 Drawing of Ganz Company's 1885 prototype

Fig 6.2 Prototypes of the world's first high-efficiency transformers, the so-
called Ganz"ZBD" (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest)

Between 1884 and 1885, Ganz Company engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó

Bláthy and Miksa Déri had determined that open-core devices were

impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. In their joint

patent application for the "Z.B.D." transformers, they described the design of two

95
with no poles: the "closed-core" and the "shell-core" transformers. In the closed-

core type, the primary and secondary windings were wound around a closed iron

ring; in the shell type, the windings were passed through the iron core. In both

designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings travelled

almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path through air. When

employed in electric distribution systems, this revolutionary design concept would

finally make it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for

lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use

of closed-cores, Zipernowsky the use of shunt connections, and Déri had

performed the experiments. Bláthy also discovered the transformer formula,

Vs/Vp = Ns/Np, and electrical and electronic systems the world over continue to

rely on the principles of the original Z.B.D. transformers. The inventors also

popularized the word "transformer" to describe a device for altering the EMF of

an electric current, although the term had already been in use by 1882. In 1886,

the Ganz Company installed the world's first power station that used

AC generators to power a parallel-connected common electrical network, the

steam-powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.

96
 Fig 6.3 Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap open-core induction coils

George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents in 1885, and had

purchased an option on the Z.B.D. design. He entrusted engineer William

Stanley with the building of a device for commercial use. Stanley's first patented

design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to

regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding. (See drawing at left.) This

design was first used commercially in 1886.

6.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can

produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing

magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil

(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the

magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in

the secondary coil.

97
Fig 6.5 An ideal transformer

INDUCTION LAW

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's

law of induction, which states that:

98
Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the

secondary coil and Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the

turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is

the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts.

The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer

core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of

the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and

secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the

primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for

stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation

Fig 6.6 The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical

power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the

transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the
99
primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition

is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power.

Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable

approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The

impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.[26] For

example, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary

coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of . This

relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears

to the secondary to be .

6.4 DETAILED OPERATION

The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular

the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the

contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit.

100
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of

negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is

applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around

the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed

the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-

zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to

create the magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each

winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated

voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the

transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it

does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back

EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would

always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic

field.

6.4.1 LEAKAGE FLUX

Fig 6.7 Leakage flux of a transformer

101
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary

winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux

traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[31] Such flux is termed leakage

flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled

transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and

discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not

directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the

secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly

under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very

low leakage inductance.

However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long

magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately

introduced to a transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will

supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative

resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapour lamps, and neon signs; or for

safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc

welders. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially

audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through

the windings.

Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It

can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a

typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA

units in parallel with 1000 kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current).

102
6.4.2 EFFECT OF FREQUENCY

The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is

the integral with respect to time of the applied voltage. Hypothetically an ideal

transformer would work with direct-current excitation, with the core flux

increasing linearly with time. In practice, the flux would rise to the point

where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase in the

magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers

must therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.

6.5 TRANSFORMER UNIVERSAL EMF EQUATION

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding

between its rms voltage Erms of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number

of turns N, core cross-sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given

by the universal EMF equation:

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used

for half-cycle average voltage Eavg of any wave shape:

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency. By

operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact

103
because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation,

and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However properties

such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency.

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than

intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current; at lower frequency, the

magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a transformer at other than its

design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to

establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be

equipped with "volts per hertz" over-excitation relays to protect the transformer

from over voltage at higher than rated frequency.

Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of importance for the

determination of the transient response of the windings to impulse and switching

surge voltages.

6.6 LOSSES

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient.

In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and

surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and

those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.

Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies

of 99.85%. While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to large heavily

loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant.

A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall wart" power adapter commonly used

for low-power consumer electronics devices, may be as low as 20% efficient,

104
with considerable energy loss even when not supplying any power to the device.

Though individual losses may be only a few watts, it has been estimated that the

cumulative loss from such transformers in the United States alone exceeded 32

billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) in 2002.

The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-

load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses,

whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-

load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle

transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages

development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer).

Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss,

and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss.

Losses in the transformer arise from:

WINDING RESISTANCE

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors.

At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding

resistance and losses.

HYSTERESIS LOSSES

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due

to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to

the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

105
EDDY CURRENTS

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from

such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire

length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the

flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy

current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse

square of the material thickness.

MAGNETOSTRICTION

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to

physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an

effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly

associated with transformers, and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating

in susceptible cores.

MECHANICAL LOSSES

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating

electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These

incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and

consuming a small amount of power.

STRAY LOSSES

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its

magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any

leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the

106
transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to

heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but

these are usually small.

6.7 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as

an equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless

transformer. Power loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented

as in-series resistances RP and RS. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the

applied voltage dropped without contributing to the mutual coupling, and thus can

be modelled as reactances of each leakage inductance XP and XS in series with

the perfectly coupled region.

Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core,

and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given

frequency. Since the core flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss

can be represented by a resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer.

A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain the

mutual flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux;

saturation effects cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for

simplicity this effect tends to be ignored in most circuit equivalents. With

a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced EMF by 90° and this effect can

be modelled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an effective

inductance) XM in parallel with the core loss component. RC and XM are

107
sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch of the model. If the

secondary winding is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing

branch represents the transformer's no-load current.

The secondary impedance RS and XS is frequently moved (or "referred") to the

primary side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor

(NP/NS)2.

Fig 6.8 Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the
primary side

The resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact equivalent circuit", though it

retains a number of approximations, such as an assumption of linearity. Analysis

may be simplified by moving the magnetizing branch to the left of the primary

impedance, an implicit assumption that the magnetizing current is low, and then

summing primary and referred secondary impedances, resulting in so-called

equivalent impedance.

The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the

results of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

108
6.8 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

A wide variety of transformer designs are used for different applications, though

they share several common features. Important common transformer types

include:

6.8.1 AUTOTRANSFORMER

Fig 6.9 An autotransformer with a sliding brush contact

An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third

at an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the

terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third

terminal. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of

windings turns in common.[44] Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both

windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. An

adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and

making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns

ratio. Such a device is often referred to as a variac.

109
6.8.2 POLYPHASE TRANSFORMERS

Fig 6.10 Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility poles
For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers

can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase

transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core

thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations

are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular

polyphase configuration is the zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the

suppression of harmonic currents.

6.8.3 LEAKAGE TRANSFORMERS

Fig 6.11 Leakage transformer

110
A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly

higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a

magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is

sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an

inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the

secondary windings. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent

thermal overload under all load conditions—even if the secondary is shorted.

Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps

(neon lamp sand cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up

to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic

ballast.

Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys

or doorbell installations.

6.8.4 RESONANT TRANSFORMERS

A resonant transformer is a kind of leakage transformer. It uses the leakage

inductance of its secondary windings in combination with external capacitors, to

create one or more resonant circuits. Resonant transformers such as the Tesla

coil can generate very high voltages, and are able to provide much higher current

than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such as the Van de Graff

generator. One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL

inverter. Another application of the resonant transformer is to couple between

111
stages of a superheterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is

provided by tuned transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers.

6.8.5 AUDIO TRANSFORMERS

Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits. They

can be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an

audio signal, to split or combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching

between high and low impedance circuits, such as between a high

impedance tube (valve) amplifier output and a low impedance loudspeaker, or

between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of

a mixing console.

Such transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone

systems to one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated,

and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or

system components.

Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic

fields such as those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a

term commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "mains"

power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio transformers used for low-level

signals, such as those from microphones, often include shielding to protect

against extraneous magnetically coupled signals.

112
6.8.6 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical

power systems, and for power system protection and control. where a voltage or

current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled

down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate

measurement, protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages

present on the circuits being measured or controlled.

Fig 6.12 Current transformers, designed for placing around conductors

A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its

secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.[51]

Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs),

are designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude

and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer

is intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low

secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments

to be operated at lower voltages.

Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have

predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current

113
protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable

transformation ratio even during a short-circuit.

CLASSIFICATION

Transformers can be classified in different ways:

By power capacity: from a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand

MVA;

By frequency range: power-, audio-, or radio frequency;

By voltage class: from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts;

By cooling type: air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, or water cooled;

By application: such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and

current stabilizer, or circuit isolation;

By end purpose: distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output;

By winding turns ratio: step-up, step-down, isolating (equal or near-equal

ratio), variable.

6.9 CONSTRUCTION

114
6.9.1 CORES

Fig 6.13 Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

6.9.1.1 LAMINATED STEEL CORES

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of

high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that

of free space, and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing

current, and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early

transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron

resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect

with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs

constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that

has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbours by a thin

non-conducting layer of insulation. The universal transformer equation indicates

a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that

enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce

losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are

generally used on high frequency transformers, with some types of very thin steel

laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

115
 Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-

shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of "E-I

transformer". Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical

to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip

around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in

two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves

together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always

oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when

power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a

high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually

after a few cycles of the applied alternating current. Overcurrent

protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush

to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,

induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can

cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.

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Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made

with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal

alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the

transformer by its lower losses at light load.

6.9.1.2 SOLID CORES

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies)

that operate above main frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These

materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity.

For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-

conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.[55] Some

radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs')

which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned

radio-frequency circuits.

6.9.1.3 TOROIDAL CORES

Fig 6.14 Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on

operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel alloy wound into a

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coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip construction ensures that the grain

boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by

reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps

inherent in the construction of an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually

square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are

also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to

cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed,

and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from

generating electromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for

a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller

size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them

superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low

off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt

mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost

and limited power capacity (see "Classification" above). Because of the lack of a

residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit

higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens

of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight

of switch-mode power supplies. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction

is the higher labour cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the

entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is

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added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above

ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the

benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a

bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

6.9.1.4 AIR CORES

A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be

produced simply by placing the windings in close proximity to each other, an

arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. The air which comprises the

magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates

loss due to hysteresis in the core material. The leakage inductance is inevitably

high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use

in power distribution. They have however very high bandwidth, and are frequently

employed in radio-frequency applications, for which a satisfactory coupling

coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary

windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where

they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.

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6.9.2 WINDINGS

Fig 6.15 Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

Fig 6.18 Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain
oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red:
Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core would be
similar. The black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all
ends of both windings. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also
need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding
needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction ofleakage
inductance would lead to increase of capacitance.

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but

in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to

ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small power and signal

transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between

adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire,

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such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may

be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated

paper and blocks of pressboard.

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often

have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity

effect losses. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as

well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current

would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is individually

insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or

throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in

the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each

strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself.

The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar

size, aiding manufacture.

For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimize

leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response.

This can be done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections

placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a

stacked type or interleaved winding.

Both the primary and secondary windings on power transformers may have

external connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the winding to allow

selection of the voltage ratio. The taps may be connected to an automatic on-

load tap changer for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency

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transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers,

have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped

transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in

apush-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

Certain transformers have the windings protected by epoxy resin.

By impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a vacuum, one can replace air

spaces within the windings with epoxy, thus sealing the windings and helping to

prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or water. This

produces transformers more suited to damp or dirty environments, but at

increased manufacturing cost.

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Future prospect:

APPLICATIONS OF PC RADAR

PC Radar is a Windows-based application which emulates a generic ARPA radar

display on a PC monitor. It is a powerful training tool used to familiarize a student

with the use of radar for ship navigation. The radar image incorporates realistic

simulation of landmass, moving targets, precipitation, sea clutter and other video

effects seen on a real radar; while the radar operational features include radar

video controls, dual EBL and VRM, multiple presentation modes, graphics

capabilities and range scaling. For ARPA support, PC Radar provides target

acquisition and tracking, leading vectors and history trails, trial maneuvers and

navigation points. Target track data is also output via the serial port or through a

network connection using NMEA-0183 format. This allows for integration with an

ECS or ECDIS system.

The PCRadar user interface models the SPS-73 Radar Display, and was

designed specifically for use by the US Navy and US Coast Guard in shipboard

and shore based training applications. PC Radar was developed using BCG's

industry standard radar simulation engine, is compatible with BCG's enhanced

Graphical User Interface (GUI) and may be used in conjunction with our PCS-

100/200 radar simulators. PC Radar is available in a software only package

ready for installation on a customer's PC, or BCG also offers "turn key" systems

packaged in multiple configurations including a shock mounted chassis for

shipboard use, or a desktop / laptop PC for classroom use. BCG has added an

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AIS capability as an option to PC Radar. Another new feature is a Virtual

Ownship Steering Control allowing a student to navigate his/her Ownship with

controls located on the same screen as the radar presentation.

Triggers alarm in computer when walking is recognized. Motion detection through

most doors, walls and foliage. If it moves, RADAR PC can detect, display, trigger

alarms, and record its velocity data. Since all movement by living creatures is

behavior, that movement can be detected, displayed, characterized, recognized,

and trigger alarms both auditory and visual, and may be optionally recorded. It is

like extra sensory perception. It is used in military applications to detect

incoming fighter planes.It can also detect and display coordinates of lost planes.

7.2 PRECAUTIONS

When making connections to either a PC parallel port, or I/O pins of a

microcontroller, be sure to isolate the motor well. High voltage spikes of several

hundred volts are possible as back EMF from stepper motor coils. Always use

clamping diodes to short these spikes back to the motor's power bus. The use of

optical isolation devices (optoisolators) will add yet another layer or protection

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between the delicate control logic and the high-voltage potentials which may be

present in the power output stage. Whenever possible, use separate power

supplies for the motor and the translator / microcontroller. This further reduces

the chance of destructive voltages reaching the controller, and reduces or

eliminates power supply noise that may be introduced by the motor.

If you're using a computer that has a parallel port as part of its onboard I/O, you

may want to consider purchasing a parallel port card to use instead. I've seen

them for as little as $9.99 at Fry's Electronics and other computer stores. Not

only does this reduce the risk of permanently damaging or destroying your

motherboard (it happened to a friend of mine!), but it will also allow you to

experiment without the need for swapping cables or flipping a switchbox when

you want to use your parallel printer, since your experiments won't be sharing its

port. It is much cheaper to throw out a $10.00 parallel port card than it is to

replace your motherboard.

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