Structure of DNA:
All DNA molecules are made up of:
1. a 5-sugar molecule (deoxyribose)
2. a phosphate group
3. a nitrogenous base (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine)
The sugar molecule of one DNA molecule covalently bonds to the phosphate group of another on
the 5’ carbon. Another phosphate is bonded to the succeeding sugars 3’ carbon. The phosphate
group and Sugar molecule forms the sugar-phosphate backbone (hydrophilic) which looks like the
staircase of the double helix. The nitrogenous bases face the insides of the double helix
(hydrophobic) and complementary nitrogenous bases form a hydrogen bond. This bond is called a
hydrogen bond. A nucleotide is a subunit of DNA strand that consists of == a sugar, a phosphate
group, a nitrogenous base ==.DNA strands are anti parallel because each has a 5’ end and a 3’ end.
The 5’end of one strand is opposite of the 5’ end of the opposing strand.
Nitrogenous base pairing happens in both DNA and RNA. Hydrogen bonds are formed between
Nitrogenous bases when they have found their complementary nitrogenous base.
IN DNA: But in RNA:
A <3 T A <3 U << Thymine doesn’t exist. It is replaced by uracil.
C <3 G C <3 G
1. Helicase (enzyme) separates DNA strand and SSB attaches to prevent DNA strands from
Reannelling.
2. The Y shaped region where complementary bases are paired is called the replication fork.
3. The double helix consists of two antiparallel DNA strands with complementary 5’ to 3’
strands running in opposite directions. Polymerase enzymes can synthesize nucleic acid
strands only in the 5’ to 3’ direction, hooking the 5’ phosphate group of an incoming
nucleotide onto the 3’ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing nucleic acid chain. Because
the chain grows by extension off the 3’ hydroxyl group, strand synthesis is said to proceed in
a 5’ to 3’ direction
4. DNA polymerase cannot simply begin copying the DNA < needs a place to start
5. RNA polymerase (primase) first copies a short stretch of the DNA strand
6. DNA polymerase starts at the 3’ end of the RNA primer,
7. DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to template (randomly floating).
8. Covalent bonds form between deoxyribose sugar + phosphate group so backbone grows
9. When DNA polymerase is done, it falls off.
10. Hydrogen bonds form between complementary bases.
11. Other polymerase can only copy a short stretch of DNA before it runs into the primer of the
previously sequenced fragment. It is forced to repeatedly release the DNA strand and slide
further upstream to begin extension from another RNA primer.
12. The sliding clamp helps hold this DNA polymerase onto the DNA as the DNA moves through
the replication machinery. The sliding clamp makes the polymerase secure on DNA.
13. The short stretches of DNA that make up the lagging strand are known as Okazaki fragments.
14. RNA primers must be removed and the Okazaki fragments must be joined together to create a
continuous DNA strand.
15. Removal of the RNA primer. RNAse H, which recognizes RNA-DNA hybrid helices,
degrades the RNA by hydrolyzing its phosphodiester bonds
16. sequence gap created by RNAse H is then filled in by DNA polymerase which extends the 3’
end of the neighboring Okazaki fragment
17. Okazaki fragments are joined together by DNA ligase that hooks together the 3’ end of one
fragment to the 5’ phosphate group of the neighboring fragment
Transcription (nucleus) – first step to protein synthesis where RNA copies DNA
**transcription only happens on a specific gene (part of DNA) genes are split into sections the
transcribed is called the exons, and the not used section is the intron.
RNA polymerase binds to a promoter (a sequence on DNA) and DNA unwinds. at the
promoter RNA polymerase finds complementary nitrogenous bases to the single stranded DNA
Thymine however, is replaced by Uracil on a mRna strand. Complementary bases are found
until they reach the termination signal (sequence of nucleotide that marks end of gene) RNA
polymerase releases DNA and new RNA strand mRNA strand moves to cytoplasm
Codons are 3 nitrogenous bases that code for a certain amino acid (20). The DNA is read from a 3’
to 5’ end while because of the anti parallel nature it is transcribed in the 5’ to 3’ end (same as DNA
replication) .
Ribosomes are attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum gives ribosome’s a great surface to
synthesize on a large scale.
Golgi Apparatus controls flow of substances cell. Carbohydrates are added to protein in the end.
Final product moves to cell membrane where it is excreted and can be used.
Role of DNA:
Protein synthesis – helicase unwinds and 1 strand is used as template. Semi-conservative
Cell reproduction – needs to have same genetic information. DNA contains information and
through semi-conservative replication, the same exact info is copied.
Genetics –
Evolution – DNA has genetic code for development of an organism. Mutations occur in genetic
coding making organism traits change. Environment allows organisms w/ good mutations to live.
Natural selection = these mutants live longer, reproduce, pass trait on, organisms evolve.